--- title: "Vol 1 0" book: "PG MPUB 102 (1st Sem) Administrative Thinkers" category: "PG MPUB" publisher: "Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd." type: "Educational Material" ---  According to Latest Syllabus Read For Sure Success In University Examination RATAN TEXT BOOK ADMINISTRATIVE THINKERS Vol-1 M.A.Pub.Ad. (Sem-I) Dr. Ravi Shankar Agrawal Published by Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd. 2nd Floor, Centre Plaza, Parinay Kunj, Lajpat Kunj Marg, Agra-282002 Copyright Authors & Publishers Published by Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd. 2nd Floor, Centre Plaza, Parinay Kunj, Lajpat Kunj Marg, Agra-282002 ISBN :978-81-69604-62-8 Price 265.00 only Printed at : KIDS INTERNATIONAL PVT. LTD. C-60, 61, 62, 63, EPIP, Shastripuram, Agra - 282007 Ph. : +91 9719004921 UNIT-1KAUTILYA Structure 1.1    Introduction 1.2    Learning Objectives 1.3    Arthashastra (Age and Authenticity) Self-check Exercise-1 1.4    Public Administration is Arthashastra Self-check Exercise-2 1.5    Duties of King Self-check Exercise-3 1.6    The Central Executive Machinery Self-check Exercise-4 1.7    The Mantri-Parishad (The Consultative Body) Self-check Exercise-5 1.8    Revenues Administration Self-check Exercise-6 1.9    Police Administration-Law and Order Self-check Exercise-7 1.10    Municipal Administration 1.10.1    Nagarika 1.10.2    Sthanika and Gopa 1.10.3    Power of Nagarika Self-check Exercise-8 1.11    RuralAdministration Self-check Exercise-9 1.12    Summary 1.13    Glossary 1.14    Answer to Self Check Exercise 1.15    References/Suggested Readings 1.16    Terminal Question 1.1    Introduction: Kautilya, also known as Chanakya, was a renowned ancient Indian philosopher and political strategist. He is most famous for authoring the Arthashastra, a treatise on statecraft, economic policy, and military strategy. Kautilya's real name was Vishnu Gupta, but he is often referred to as "Kautilya" because he belonged to the Kautala clan, or "gotra." The name "Chanakya" is believed to have originated either from his place of birth, the town of Canaka, or because he was the son of a man named Chanak, though the true origin of the name is debated. There is little reliable historical information about Kautilya, and much of what is known about him is shrouded in legend. The Greek ambassador Megasthenes, who visited India around the 4th century BCE, noted Kautilya's reputation for unmatched statecraft, but his records only survive in fragmented forms. Ancient Indian texts describe Kautilya as a native of Takshashila (modern-day Peshawar, Pakistan), who traveled to Pataliputra (modern-day Patna) in search of recognition and to offer his political wisdom to the Nanda dynasty. Scholars like John Garrett suggest that Kautilya was a Brahmin from Takshashila, living around 330 BCE, and Radha Krishna Chaudhary emphasized his pivotal role in Indian political thought. Kautilya’s contribution to knowledge and political philosophy is unparalleled, with his insights into governance, strategy, and ethics still widely studied today. He is regarded as a brilliant intellectual and political thinker, whose foresight and wisdom left a lasting mark on history. Due to his influence, Kautilya’s life and legacy have been surrounded by mystery and reverence. Some texts, like the Vishnu Purana and Bhagavata Purana, predict that a Brahmin would overthrow the Nanda dynasty and establish Chandragupta Maurya as king. These prophecies, along with references in the Arthashastra, suggest that Kautilya played a crucial role in the downfall of the Nandas and the rise of the Maurya Empire, often described in works like the drama Mudrarakshasa. In the Arthashastra, Kautilya himself mentions his role in freeing India from the Nanda rulers, further cementing his legacy as a key figure in the establishment of the Maurya dynasty. The two major sources of the evidence showing that Kautilya was the auother of Arthasastra are 1.    The Nitisara of Kamandaka and 2.    The Dasakumara Charia of Dandi both of which accept the genuineness of theArthasastra as theproduction ofChankya. 1.2    Learning Objectives After studying this lesson, the learner will be able -    To know about the Kautilya and their famous Arthashastra. -    To analyze the duties of king recommended by Kautilya. -    To understand important administrative bodies as suggested and practiced by Kautilya. -  Toelucidate Revenue Administration, police Administration and municipal administration on thebasis of Kautilya Arthashastra. 1.3    Arthashastra (Age and Authenticity) The Arthasastra is a unique record of the secular and particular activities and achievements of the Hindugenius as distinguished from the intellectual and spiritual Arthasastra of Kautilya is the work of Chanakaya.The Minister of Chandra Gupta and therefore belongs to the fourth century B.C. Kamandaka at the beginning of his Nitisara says. “Salutation unto the learned Vishnu Gupta who raised the ambrosia of political science out of the vastocean of the Arthasastra.” Kamandaka in his book Nitisara had abridge all but the second, third, fourth and fourteenth books (entire portions) of the Arthasastru. Thus the work of Kamandaka supplies very good evidence to showthat the work of Kautilya was a reality. In Dasakumara Charita of Dandi (in somadatta-upattikatha). there is reference to both Kautilya and Kanutndaka as authorities on Nitisara. In eight UNIT of Part II occurs the following remarkable reference to Kautilya. “The science of Dandaniti (politics has been of late abridged into 6000 slokaks by AcharyaVishnu Gupta for the benefit of the Maurayas.” The borrowings of Dandi from the Arthasastra are a further proof that the work had an actual Existenceand that it was the production of Chankya. Among other Sanskrit Works which also allude to the Kautilya Arthasastra may be mentioned the Nandisutra of the Jainas, the Panchatantra and the Nitivakyarnriia ofSomdeva. Professor Radha Kumud Mookeiji continues to say that Arthasastra was the product of an individual rather than a school. In a quite convincing manner the learned German Orientalist Professor Jacobi had successfully contradicted Hillebrandt’s iew that Kautilya was not himself the sole author of Arthasastra Hillebrandt bases his argument on the inference that the expressions. Its Kautilyah” and “Neti Kauiilayah”occurring on less than seventy- two times in the text show that it is not the work on an individual namedKautilya but ofa school. The fact, says Jacobi is that the book began the school and not the school the book. Similarly a careful consideration of the style of the would also indicate its individual author ship. Again, there is striking correspondence between parts and passages of, the arthasastra and the dcounts ofIndia traced to Magasthenes relating to the period of Chandra Gupta A close study of both will show that the Book of Atthasastra entitled. “Adhyaksa Prachar” gives a full view of Indian administration of which only partial view can be obtained from the observations of Megasibnes (Fig xxxiv). Professor Radha Kumud Mookerji, thus refuted all the flimsy doubts raised by II lilkhrandi with regard to authorship of Artliasasira. Self-check Exercise-1 Q.1 Write a short note on Arthashastra. 1.4    Public Administration in Arthashastra: Kautilya, in his writings, places the king at the core of the state’s structure, emphasizing his central role in governance. According to Kautilya, the king is not just a ruler, but a public figure whose life is dedicated entirely to the service of the state. He believed that monarchy was an essential component for the formation of a stable state and that the king must always put the well-being of the state above personal desires. A key aspect of Kautilya’s philosophy was the importance of self-discipline. He argued that a king should live a life of self-restraint, avoiding indulgence in pleasures that could harm the moral foundation of the state, which is guided by Dharma (moral law) and Artha (prosperity). For Kautilya, a king must be vigilant and energetic, for any stagnation in his leadership could corrupt the entire system, making it ineffective and harmful. He emphasized that the king should always be aligned with Dharma, as it ensures the stability and proper functioning of society. The king’s duty was not only to maintain order but also to exercise his power justly and wisely, ensuring fairness and equity for his people. Kautilya was a firm believer in the strong royal authority. He introduced a benevolent, paternalistic despotism—where the king’s role is to care for and protect his subjects while maintaining control over the state. This idea represented a higher form of idealism in political philosophy, though it also signaled a departure from popular sovereignty, concentrating power in the hands of the monarch. In Kautilya's vision, the king was the central figure in the administration, holding all the power and delegating responsibilities to trusted agents who carried out the day-to-day affairs of governance. Kautilya wrote, “The religious vow of a king is readiness to act; the satisfactory discharge of his duties is his sacrifice; equal attention to all is his offering, and his efforts should always aim at the conservation of the state.” This reflects the king’s responsibility to be both a guardian and a protector, ensuring the prosperity and stability of the state through his actions and decisions. Self-Check Exercise-2 Q.1 What is Kautilya’s view on Public Administration? 1.5    Duties of King : The following duties were enumerated by Kautilya of a king: 1.    Executive duties. 2.    Judicial and Legislative Duties. 3.    Administrative Duties. 4.    Revenue Duties. 5.    Military Duties. Kautilya regarded king as the servant of the people. Kautilya did not mention “right of the people againsttheking”. Kautilya stood for moderation rather than asceticism Kautilya calls king the creation of epochs”. ‘ The king of Kautilya was not an absolute monarch. There were restraints on royal authority. These restraintswere moral rather than constitutional and political. “The subservience of king to Dharma and customarypractice and usages. The scheme of administration as envisaged by Kautilya, is wide and extensive. In his scheme, king is thecentral figure. We was the source of all authority and everything was conducted in his name. Since the personal administration of a vast empire was beyond the capacity of one men, Kautilya prescribed a well- regulated machinery and a vast organized bureaucracy based on a hierarchy of agents of different grades.Kautilya suggested the lines on which a system with increasing requirements was to be built up. The importantadministrative bodies as suggested and practised by Kautilya were as follows; 1.    The Central Executive Machinery 2.    The Consultative Body the Mantri-Parishad and the Secretariat 3.    The Bureaucracy and the Departments of Central Government. 4.    Provincial and the Local Government, Self-Check Exercise-3 Q. 1 What are the duties of a king according to Kautilya? 1.6    The Central Executive Machinery It consisted of the king, his trusted advisers and the departmental heads having their offices in the capital. The recognition of the eighteen Tirthas exhaust roughly the whose sphere of work of a 9 state. The chiefofficials included one or more mantrins, the Purohitas, the Senapati or the Commanderin-chief, Yuvajara orHeirApparent the Dauvarika, the Antaravanisika the’ Prassasti, the Samaharta the Sannidhata, the Pradesta, the Nayaka, the Paura, the Vlyavaharika, the Karrnantika^ Mantri-Parishadhyksha other Mhyakshas theDandapalas, the Sutapalas nd Atavikas. Self-Check Exercise-4 Q.1 Write a short note on central executive machinery. 1.7    The Mantri-Parishad (The Consultative Body): It is physically impossible even for a highly accomplished sovereign to assume all the duties of the government and hence, he must, therefore rely on his ministers. It is human by impossible for a single individual, however strong and intelligent, to regulate and guide the entire social organisation on proper lines and hence the necessity and desirability of having coixisellors or Mantrins to sub sense royalty. Appointment of Ministers: The appointment of Mantrins is king’s voluntary business and thus a matter of pure discretion and expediency. The king by doing so i.e. by appointing ministers, does not delegate authority, he rather divides work i.e. it is the application the of famous principle of ‘Division of Work’of Public Administration. Self-Check Exercise-5 Q.1 Write a short note on Mantri Parishad given by Kautilya. 1.8    Revenue Administration: Revenue administration the administration concerning land, land measure me and land produce in India is as old as Vedas. In Vedic India king need to be assisted in administration work by Sabha and Samiti. The king used to derive his revenue from contributions of his. subjects known as Bali, at first voluntary but afterwards developed Into a compulsory payment. Another source of revenue for a king was “tribute” from the conqueredcommunities. When the kings revenue came to be derived from the agricultural produce, the s rate was one- sixteenth and a contribution in cattle from, the villages. Revenue administration developed with developmentof theory of taxation. “The origin of land system is as old as the origin of state in ancient India. One of the fundamental conceptions is that taxes are kin’s dues for the service of protection.” The general features of the revenue system as envisaged by Kautilya, and the sources of finance were asmanyas could be devised by human ingenuity. From cooked rice to dried fish all things taken into city weretaxed and stamped at city gates. The Arthasastra differentiates between forms of revenue, not according to their incidence but accordingto their source. Revenue is either derived from the land Aparthiva or derived from the sources other than land(Aparthiva). The government was to tax the people even to maintain their religion and this appears to be aninnovation ofKautilya. The tax rate on land fluctuated between one-twelfth and one-third, especially during times of crisis. The exact amount of land tax depended on factors such as soil fertility and the labor required for cultivation, sometimes amounting to one-twelfth of the total produce. The Department of Revenue played a crucial role in governance. Recognizing that financial stability was the foundation of all state activities, Chandragupta Maurya and Kautilya meticulously developed the revenue administration. Kautilya, in particular, identified multiple sources of revenue and established systematic mechanisms for their efficient collection and utilization. The machinery of Revenue Administration of Kautilya could be easily traced to the Vedic Samhitas andthe Brahmans. The Panchavimsa Brahamana mentions same grahitr and Bhagadugha Sayana explains Bhagadugha inthe sense of one who collects that king’s share from the people and make it over to the king. Kautilya believed that State Revenues depended upon the production of wealth Kautilya mentions two high official Samaharta and Sannidhata who are pracdcally vested with the immediate control of the whole of financial acministration. In his financial capacity, the Samaharta’s functions practically extended over the whole range of state income and expenditure. The task of collecting revenues was intimated to Samahart and his officlas. The Samaharta was assisted by the Sthanikas and under them were Gopas, each of way whom was in charge of five or ‘ten villages. The Samaharta should prepare a great revenue roll of the kingdom and under his direction Gopa is to prepare various registers and census list of villages. In localareas, the Gopas were the agents of local government. They made collections and maintained registers of income and expenditure. A sthanika was to superintend a fourth part of the kingdom in the same manner as the Gopa. Sannidnatamay be termed as Minister of store and revenue while Samaharta was Minister in charge of collection. Self-Check Exercise-6 Q.1 What are the main points of revenue administration according to Arthashastra? 1.9    Police Administration-Law of Order The stability of human society relies on the harmonious interrelationship of its members, with each contributing to the collective good. The law is shaped by the social and economic conditions of a particular country, evolving as society’s intellectual and moral capacity grows. The development of justice is closely tied to these social and political conditions, ensuring that laws adapt to meet the needs of the people. In his Arthashastra, Kautilya outlines legal measures designed to protect citizens’ rights, including safeguarding their lives, property, and personal liberty. The text provides protection against defamation, assault, attempts on one’s life, and abuse by government officials. It is clear that Kautilya viewed the rule of law as essential for maintaining order and fairness within the state. Greek historian Megasthenes, who visited India during Chandragupta Maurya's reign, provided insights into the legal and social conditions of the time. He noted the rarity of lawsuits in India, which he interpreted as a sign of the straightforward and honest dealings among the people. He even remarked that “an Indian has never been convicted of lying.” In his observations, he pointed out that Indians did not engage in frequent litigation, and that trust played a significant role in their society—people often made deposits without the need for formal seals, and houses were typically left unguarded. Megasthenes also observed that thefts were rare, and when they did occur, the total value of stolen goods rarely exceeded 200 drachmas (around 100 rupees). The Arthashastra also discusses various forms of punishment, including torture and mutilation of limbs. However, Kautilya proposes a more humane approach by substituting these physical penalties with fines, making the practice of mutilation largely a theoretical provision rather than a widely implemented one. This reflects Kautilya’s progressive approach to justice, balancing deterrence with fairness. Self-Check Exercise-7 Q.1 What was the scenario of law and order during the period of Kautilya? 1.10    Municipal Administration Kautilya had thought of administering urban areas through a highly planned manner Arthasastra (II.3)containsKautilyanscheme of administration of the cities and town. 1.10.1    Nagarika : The city chief was called Naganka known as Mayor of today or perfect of French ‘cities. The Mayor or Prefect of the city which was normally the Sthaniya or town proper is called the Naganka. He is also called Puramukhaya (11.16). It will be recalled that as an officers he Nagarika was subordinate to the Samaharta as the Minister whose portfolio included Municipal Administration as a subjectalong with several other subjects mentioned above. 1.10.2    Sthanitka‘and Gopa : The Nagarika held a position in the city similar to that of the Samaharta in the province. Just as provinces were systematically organized, towns were also divided into four sections or wards. Each ward was overseen by an official known as the Sthanika, who, in turn, managed a group of subordinate officers called Gopas. These Gopas were responsible for supervising twenty to forty households. In Kautilya’s administrative framework, the duties performed by the Sthanika and Gopas in a town closely resembled those carried out by Committee No. 3, as described by Megasthenes, although our understanding of the latter remains incomplete. 1.10.3    Powers of Nagarika : Naganka enjoyed powers and performed functions as given below: 1.    to maintain peace in the city, 2.    to keep watch over the whereabouts and conduct of the new-corners, 3.    to take charge of foreigners and to keep an eye on brothel keepers, 4.    to keep census of the inhabitants with their income and expenditure, 5.    to ensure good sanitary condition-violator of municipal rules’ were to be severely punished, 6.    to protect people from the ravages of fire and other epidemics, 7.    to gaurd the city, 8.    to keep drains and water in the proper order 9.    to help foreigners In distress, 10.    to take charge of lost articles. The Nagarika oversaw a well-structured administrative system, supported by a team of officials responsible for various functions. The town also served as a center for judicial administration. Municipal governance was carried out efficiently, with the city being developed according to a well-planned layout. Each department was managed by capable officers, ensuring smooth functioning. The Nagarika operated under the authority of the Samaharta. Kautilya envisioned a highly organized civic administration, where detailed records of every area under its jurisdiction were maintained. The town was divided into four wards, each supervised by a Sthanik or Gopa, who functioned as census officers. Megasthenes also provides insights into the town’s administration, mentioning an official called the Astynomoi, who performed similar duties to those outlined by Kautilya. One of the key responsibilities of this official, as noted by Megasthenes, was the supervision of factories. Additionally, he refers to a group of officials responsible for managing inns, attending to travelers, and ensuring their medical care. Another set of bureaucrats handled the registration of births and deaths, maintaining systematic records of the population. According to Strabo, the above mentioned duties including control of markets, inspection of weights and measures, inspecting manufactured goods and collection of taxes, were discharged by Six Boards (consistingof thirty members) the effective functioning of the municipal administration depended upon two main factors: (a)    an elaborate and widespread, organization (b)    civic sense of the people. Self-Check Exercise-8 Q.1 Write a brief note on municipal administration during the period of Arthashastra. 1.11 Rural Administration A village was established for a minimum size of 100 families and a maximum of 500 families. The villages were separated by well defined boundaries such as river -hill, forest shrubs, valley, embankments and trees. Rural life was structured in a way that encouraged collective living and efficient administration. To achieve this, every two villages were grouped under a common administrative unit known as Sangrahana. As the scale expanded, 200 villages were brought under Kharvatika, while 400 villages formed a larger unit called Dhronamukha. This hierarchical structure culminated in a grand union of 800 villages, referred to as Mahagran. At the heart of this system was the Stheniya, which served as the administrative hub. More than just a governing center, it was a vibrant place where culture, trade, and commerce flourished. It provided essential means of livelihood and became a gathering place for villagers from the surrounding areas. Here, they not only conducted business but also fostered a sense of community, strengthening the bonds of collective rural life. Rural Development: The state had taken to Itself the charge rural development as below: (1)    mining and metallurgical works (2)    plantations forests (3)    plantations of forests for elephant (4)    grazing grounds of cattles.road for traffic (5)    water-ways and land routes and (6)    markets for commodities. The state used to make provision for rural water supply by construction of reservoirs. The villages were semi-autonomous, enjoying a good deal of freedom in ordering their affairs they regulated land and water-rights, cultivation and payment of revenue’ through the gamins; an official of thecentral government. The check and control of bureaucracy was provided not only by official openly charged with such duties of inspection, audit and report like paradeshris but by the regular employment of spies and agents provocateurs constant use of secret means in administration, diplomacy and war was everywhere taken for granted and few modern governments could be said yet. To have out grown the practice. Self-Check Exercise-9 Q.1 What are the main points of rural administration during the period of Kautilya? 1.12Summary: Kautilya’s administrative thought. 1.    Kautilya overwhelmingly favored rule by one hereditary person anti-democrat. 2.    Kautilyan administrative system was highly organized. 3.    The administrative machinery at the top was headed by king assisted by a number of ministers and acouncil. 4.    The detailed work of administration was carried on by an efficient and highly organized bureaucracy. 5.    Megasthenes had recorded that the king of Kautilyan days was the Supreme Head of all branches of administrative machinery. 6.    The Mantri-parishad formed a part of the administrative machinery. 7.    Administrative Divisions - Mauryan empire was structured into a number of Viceroyalties and Provincescomprising of a Governor at the top, a council of Ministers (Mantri Parishad), Heads of Departments (Adhyakshas), the civil service represented by a hierarchy of officers in different grades of jurisdiction, andself governing communities at the foundation or the structure. 8.    Viceroyalties: There were four viceroalities at that time. (a) Taxila, (b) Ujjain, (c) Tosali, (d) Suvarnagir, Taxila was the Capital of North Western Frontier Provine.Ujjain of Central Provinces (Avanti rashtra) Tosali was the capital of Kalinga and Suvamagiri, was the capitalof southernprovince. 9.    Kautilya : “Administration can ‘not be the work of one man, just as one wheel cannot drive a car”. 10.    The normal administrative machinery prescribed for the government was made up of the followingelements: (a) The sovereign, (b) the Viceroys and Governors (c) the ministers, (d) the heads of deptts. (e) thesubordinate of service, (f) officers in charge of rural administration in the villages. 11.    Mantri Parishad: The policy and plan of administration is first task of kind and his Ministers. 12.    Administrative work is preceded by the determination of policy,” – Kautily. 13.    The administrative aspects relate to the following. a.    ProvincialAdministration b.    DistrictAdministration c.    MunicipalAdministration d.    RuralAdministration 1.13    Glossary Arthashastra- An Indian treatise on state craft, economic policy and military strategy. Mantri Parishad- A Councial of Minister. Administration- The Process or activity of running a business, organization etc. The Management ofPublic affairs. 1.14    Answer to Self-Check Exercises Self-check Exercise-1 Ans 1. Refer to section 1.3 Self-check Exercise-2 Ans 1. Refer to section 1.4 Self-Check Exercise-3 Ans 1. Refer to section 1.5 Self-Check Exercise-4 Ans 1. Refer to section 1.6 Self-Check Exercise-5 Ans 1. Refer to section 1.7 Self-Check Exercise-6 Ans 1. Refer to section 1.8 Self-Check Exercise-7 Ans 1. Refer to section 1.9 Self-Check Exercise-8 Ans 1. Refer to section 1.10 Self-Check Exercise-9 Ans 1. Refer to section 1.11 1.15    References/Suggested Readings 2    Prasad, D. Ravindra, Prasad, V.S. and Satyanaryana, P. ‘Administrative Thinkers’, Sterling PublishingHouse, New Delhi, 2009. 3    Laxmikant, M. ‘PublicAdministration’Fifth Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited,New Delhi,2016. 4    Avasthi, Dr. A., And S. R. Maheshwari, ‘Public Administration’ 30th Edition, Laxmi Narayan Agarwal, Agra, 2009. 5    Arora, K. Ramesh and Batra, K. Satish., ‘Governance and Development, Aalekh Publications, Jaipur,2011. 6    Bhattacharya., M. ‘New Horizons of Public Administration’, 7th Edition, Jawahar Publishers and Distribution, New Delhi, 2008. 7    Fadia., Prof. B.L. & Fadia., Dr. K. ‘Public Administration: theories and concepts’ Sahitya BhavanPublications,Agra, 2009. 8    Sharma, M.P. ‘Public Administration Theory and Practice’ Kitab Mahal, Allahabad, 1960. 8.1    Terminal Questions a.    Discuss about Revenue Administration according to Kautilys’a Arthashastra. b.    Write a note on Rural Administation on the behalf of Kautily’s Arthashastra. UNIT-2M.K. GANDHI Structure 2.1    Introduction 2.2    Learning Objectives 2.3    Gandhi’s Idea about Administration Self-check Exercise-1 2.4    Village Panchayats and Administration Self-check Exercise-2 2.5    Democracy and Administration Self-check Exercise-3 2.6    Theory of Trusteeship and Cooperation Self-check Exercise-4 2.7    Gandhi and other Theorists: A Comparison Self-check Exercise-5 2.8    A Critical Evaluation Self-check Exercise-6 2.9    Summary 2.10    Glossary 2.11    Answer to Self-Check Exercises 2.12    References/Suggested Readings 2.13    Terminal Question 2.1    Introduction Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) was one of the most influential figures of the twentieth century, leaving a profound impact on India’s socio-economic and political landscape. He is widely regarded as the greatest peaceful revolutionary of modern India. While not a systematic philosopher in the traditional academic sense, Gandhi developed fundamental principles aimed at the moral and social regeneration of individuals and the reconstruction of society and politics. His contributions place him among the foremost thinkers in social, political, and administrative thought. Though he may not be considered a rational dialectician like Shankara or Kant, he is often seen as a prophet, teacher, and leader who guided India’s freedom struggle with his unique philosophy. Gandhi wrote extensively on a range of subjects, including religion, philosophy, ethics, economics, politics, and administration, leading many to describe him as an "extraordinary paradox." Gandhi’s ideas were shaped by a blend of influences from both Western and Eastern traditions. He drew inspiration from thinkers such as Plato, Aristotle, John Ruskin, and Leo Tolstoy, as well as from spiritual figures like Buddha, Ramakrishna Paramhansa, and Swami Vivekananda. Additionally, the teachings of the Vedas, Bhagavad Gita, Upanishads, and Ramayana played a crucial role in shaping his worldview. As a result, his philosophy seamlessly integrated elements of both Western and Eastern thought, tradition and modernity, as well as individualism and collectivism. Gandhi’s Major Works 1.    Hind Swaraj of Indian Home Rule: 2.    An Autobioigraphy or the Story of Mv Experiments with Truth: 3.    Constructive Programme : Its Meaning and Place 2.2    Learning Objectives After Studying this lesson, the learner will be able: -  To Know about Mahatma Gandhi and their contribution. -    To tell about Gandhi’s ideas about administration. -    To understand the theory of trusteeship and cooperation. -    To discuss village panchayat and administration as per the Gandhian view points. 2.3    Gandhi’s idea about Administration An understanding of Gandhi’s Ideas about administration requires some knowledge of his principles and ideals which he cherished. Gandhi’s ideas are based on religious, psychological ethical, economicandphilosophicalfoundations. 2.3.1    Religious Foundations Gandhi was deeply influenced by the traditional socio-religious culture of India, and the Gita and the 21 Bibleloomed large in his life. He believed in the philosophy of Vedanta contained in Upanishads. He was a firmbeliever in Bhagavadgita. Hence his thoughts are based on religious scriptures He equated God with Truth believing that there was “no pious scriptures. He equated. God with Truth believing that there was “no religion higher than truth”. Besides truth and non-violence as two important pillars, he regarded Karmayoga and morality as guiding principles. He says “Action is my domain what I understood according to my lights, to be my duty and what comes my way I do”. Gandhi’s concept of religion is somewhat akin to Mathew Arnold’s view of religion as morality suffered with emotion. He was deeply devote to the sense of self- realization through a moral life and service of the people. 2.3.2    Psychologial Foundations For Gandhi, the real individual Atma, is an immortal spiritual entity. Hence man can be said to be a divine spark and not a mere mechanical at organic aggregation of physical and chemical forces. The Individual, conceived in moral and spiritual terms is of supreme importance in Gandhian thought. 2.3.3    Ethical Foundations Ethical’s influence also shaped Ghandi’s administrative thinking. Gandhian thought may be regarded asEthicalAbsolutism or Ethical instituffonalism. He believed that human life is guided, by a set of principles. He believed that moral considerations are superior to material advantages. He thought that through a life of ‘Karmayoga’, freedom could be won. He believed in the Idea of moralization of social and political action be incorporating into society and politics thevalue of love and justice in place of the desire for power and glory. 2.3.4    Economic Foundations As a national leader, he could not help in noticing the terrible poverty which was the lot of the overwhelming majority of Indian masses. For Gandhi, the malady of modem civilization is fundamentally psychological because there is an ever-expanding quest for commodities, and the greed for accumulation of wealth and power. He regarded economics as a moral science Instead of a mere positive and analytical science. Hebelieved in principle of “plain living and high thinking”. He condemned monster god of materialism which ismore or less the foundation of most of social sciences. He criticized the pervasive economic exploitation, engineered b capitalism, but unlike the nomic exploitation engineered by capitalism, but unlike the positivistschool economics, he stressed upon psychological uproot of exploitation. Ruskin s Unto This last had a greatimpact on Gandhi for which he found an Indian term Sarvodaya, meaning the rise of all. 2.3.5    Ideal State Gandhi is opposed to the nation for its being organ of the centralized power structure. He says “Centralization as a system is inconsistent with non-violent structure of society”. He is critical of the nation state in communistsociety as well as capitalist society. He applauded its ideal of socialization of property but was critical of violence. He even predicted the end of the Soviet regime as early as 1928. The modern state has given rise to bureaucracy which is the instrument though which the state exercise power. Gandhi says: “I took upon anincrease of the power of the State with the greatest feat, because although, while apparently doing good byminimizing exploitation, it does the greatest harm of mankind by destroying individuality, which ties at the root of all progress.” He believed that the state represented violence in a concentrated and organized form. Gandhi envisioned an India based on the principles of Ram Rajya, a society rooted in justice, equality, and moral governance. He expressed his aspirations for a constitution that would free India from all forms of bondage and external influence, even granting its people the right to make their own choices, including mistakes. His dream was of an India where the poorest citizens would feel a sense of belonging and have a meaningful role in shaping the nation. He sought a society free from class distinctions, where all communities coexisted in perfect harmony. This, he believed, was the true essence of his ideal India. He says “That state is perfect and non-violentwhere the people are governed the least.” It is evident that this Ram Rajya will be more a society than a stateand its social bonds will be more cohesive that the formal bonds of legal organization. The theory of Ram Rajya amounts to the synthesis of the St. Augustinian conception of the “divine city” and the Reousseauic conception of “general will”. He also regarded it as the manifestation of decentralized political and economic power based on pure model authority. “The Ram Rajya of my dream ensures the rights alike of prince and pauper. You may be sure that I shall throw the whole weight of my influence in preventing a class war.” Self-check Exercise-1 Q.1 Write a brief note on Gandhiji’s idea on Administration. 2.4    Village panchayats and Administration When discussing the ideal form of administration, Mahatma Gandhi emphasized the need for governance to start at the grassroots level. He envisioned each village as an independent republic, governed by a Panchayat with full authority over local matters. According to him, every village should be self-sufficient and capable of defending itself against external threats. While self-reliance was a key principle, he also acknowledged the importance of mutual cooperation and voluntary support from neighboring communities and the broader world. Gandhi firmly believed that decentralization was essential for societal progress through non-violent means. By empowering villages and individuals, he aimed to create a system where governance was driven by local participation, ensuring sustainable and harmonious development. His vision was not about complete isolation but rather about fostering a balance between self-sufficiency and interdependence, allowing communities to thrive through collaboration and shared responsibility. Gandhi’s idea of decentralization is not his own. The anarchists and earl socialists had regarded it as axiomatic. Rousseau was one of the most modern political thinkers who asserted decentralization of power.Yet Gandhi special characteristics about this concept in comparison to other contemporaries are two. (i) He regards decentralization of power as an essential corollary to Non-violence. (ii) Gandhi insists that suchcentralization would be possible only in a predominant ‘not industrial society in the self-sufficient village. Gandhi conviction is that it would be possible to preserve the freedom of a society, both internal and external, through the non-violent method only when the social organization is non-industrial and highlydecentralized. A “Gandhian Constitution of Free India” was also prepared B. Shriman Narayan, the then Principal, Sakseria College of Commerce, Wardha which was published before the time when the Constitution of India. This publication any be Constituent Assembly was deliberating u taken as “His Last Will and Testament.” The only way, according to Gandhi, to emancipate the nation from its age-long bondage was to make the villages of India self-sufficient and self-reliant though the decentralized structure of village republics. Gandhi felt that a perfect administration could be founded only on the foundation of Panchayat. So he stood forvillages. Gandhi laid a good deal of emphasis on cottage industry. Revival of weaving and spinning industry (Khaddar) which British had destroyed, avoid the evils of industrialization, and at the same time help the village to be self-sufficient economic unit which, to him, was also the ideal political unit at the lower level namely the Panchayat Raj, the reign of the village councilors.” Thus, the administrative structure of free India was not to be in the shape of a pyramid. It was to be based on the spirit of mutual interdependence and harmonious operation. The self-reliant village were to manage their own affairs. They were not to dependant the help of a central arm for defense. They should as a principle, develop themselves to the extent even of having the strength of perished in the attempt of self- defence. The village panchayat is to conduct the administration in the village. Every of five adult men and womenbeing villagers or village minded shall for a unit. Decisions were to be taken by consensus. It should be dealwith all cases. The panchayat was to be the legislature, executive and judiciary aom med into one. The panchayats could only function through their own laws. Public opinion would be a critical force in thePanchayati Raj. Gandhi acknowledged the necessity of a police force to maintain law and order, but his vision for it was quite different from conventional policing. He believed that the police should be composed of individuals committed to non-violence, serving as protectors rather than enforcers. Instead of instilling fear, they would earn the people's trust through mutual cooperation. While they might carry weapons, their use would be extremely rare, if at all. More than law enforcers, these officers would act as reformers, focusing primarily on addressing crimes like theft and fraud. Similarly, Gandhi envisioned prisons not as places of punishment but as institutions of rehabilitation, functioning like hospitals. He believed that criminals should be treated as patients in need of care and reform. Prison staff, in his view, should adopt the mindset of doctors and nurses, offering guidance and support rather than mere discipline. He hoped that inmates would see prison officials not as adversaries but as allies in their journey toward transformation. Self-check Exercise-2 Q.1 Write a brief note on Gandhiji’s idea on Village Panchayats? 2.5    Democracy and Administration Gandhi was against capitalization- and westernization. He believed that their democracy had in it three contradictions: imperialism, racialism and capitalism. He said “The European democracies are to my minda negation of democracy.” He believed in a democratic government where individual and freedom of opinion and action would beprotected, and even the minority would not be coerced but only persuaded, respected and thesis to Rousseau’s theory of “General will”. Gandhi describes the concept of “Real Democracy at a Press Conference onSeptember 28,1944; “The way of approaching a question is not to examine the numerical strength of those behind the opinion, but to examination the soundness of the opinion on merits, or else were will never reach a solution,and it we reach one, it will be blind solution simply because itis the wise of the largest body. If the largest body does wrong, it is up to me to say you are wrong. The rule of majority does not mean that it should suppress the opinion of even an individual. If it is sound an individual’s opinion should have greater weightthat the opinion of many if that opinion is sound o merits. That is my view real democracy.” According to Gandhi a true democratic government derives its justification from its readiness to respondto public opinion because supreme political power sets in the people. Public opinion is the basis of democraticgovernance. He recognized that “legislation on advance of public opinion has often been demonstrated to thefutile.” Like Plato. Gandhi wanted that the members of the governing group should lead a simple life. The governorsand administrators must be content with being the servants of the nation and their status and prestige should be based not upon the acquisition of power and wealth but upon devotion to a noble abuse. He wanted evclmanners of the top administrative cadre to lead a simple and serviceable life. Gandhi lays emphasis on sell-rule or Swaraj. He uses this term in a broad sense to include the true development of individual and his society. It means cll for the Individual and freedom from foreign domination for the country. Although, in the Hind Swaraj, Gandhi was opposed to the patters of functioning of the British Parliament he suggested for India a parliamentary government based on universal suffrage. His conception of Swaraj meant a based on the consent of the people. This consent of the people was tobe determined bythe largest number of adult population. Gandhi firmly believed that relying on military force was fundamentally opposed to the principles of true democracy. To him, a nation that depends on military strength for its survival cannot foster genuine democratic values or the growth of the human spirit. He saw an inherent 26 contradiction between democracy and the reliance on armed forces, including the police and the military. In his vision, a truly democratic society should be built on the foundation of non-violence, selfgovernance, and moral strength rather than coercion and force. For democracy to thrive, it must move away from dependence on military power and instead cultivate a system based on mutual trust, justice, and peaceful coexistence. He wanted to present the model of real .village government to depict his ideal of a perfect democracybased upon individual freedom and at the same time upon collective and cooperative action. Decentralizing Planning Gandhi also believed in planning as an element of administration. Gandhi maintained that in order to put Independent India or the right path of strive for his ideal state were all were cared for and maximum happinessprevailed for the society as a whole the country need political, economic and moral independence, economic reorganization and social reformation. He emphasized the importance of planning at eh village level and evenwent to the extent of declaring that ‘if villag4es nerish. India will perish too. He believed in decentralizedplanning. Whereas the modem concept of planning refers to economic planning, his planning was concert with the overall balanced development of society. He believed decentralization and operation of cottage industries, thus opposing the idea of increasing centralization and mass production. He planned a Constructive Programme in eighteen measures so as to constitute a Greater Republic of India through seven lakh villages. For the implementation of these plans and programmes. He proposed the disbanding of congress organization and its reconstruction into a Lok Seva Sangh. It was his deep belief that an efficient administration can be securedthrough the proper planning and development of villages. Self-check Exercise-3 Q.1 What is democracy according to Gandhiji?. 2.6    Theory of Trusteeship and Cooperation Gandhi was aware of the western dilemma between capitalism and communism. If modem means of production remains in private hands, these lead to concern of wealth and power in a few hands. On the other hand if these means pass primarily into the hands of the state, the demon of dictatorship raised its head. Gandhi, therefore, visualized a decentralized and broadly autonomous economic order with the smaller units in the private hands and the larger ones owned a managed by cooperative communities. Thus he offers histheory of trusteeship as an alternative to both capitalism and communism. Gandhi’s trusteeship does not recognize hereditary inheritance of property. The visualizes a transition or transformation from individual ownership to community. For Gandhi, trusteeship involves the building ofconsensus of a society for imolem it for social goods. Through Trusteeship, Gandhi wanted to establish an equitable economic order though a proper scheme of distribution of the accumulated wealth to all member of the society. In Gandhi,’ the institution of trusteeship was primarily to provide an opportunity to capitalists and landlords in whose hands a huge quantum of wealthof the society accumulated, to voluntarily transfer their wealth to the society. The capitalists were expected to act as trustees along with other representatives of the society. Thus a Gandhi, the economy in the ideal society would function through the mechanism of cooperation. However, this cooperation is based on the principle of non-violence. Gandhi also says: “Voluntary cooperationwill produce real freedom and a new order, vastly superior to the new order in Soviet Russia.” He also believed in cooperative farming He says, “I firmly believe too that we shall not derive the full benefits oragriculture until we take to co-operative farming. Does it not stand to reason that it is better for a hundred families in a village to cultivate their lands collectively and divide the income therefore than to divide the landanyhow into a hundred potions”. He says that “man is a social being. With interrelation with society he cannot realize his oneness with the universe or suppress his egotism”. Self-check Exercise-4 Q.1 What is theory of trusteeship and cooperation? 2.7    Gandhi and other theorists A Comparison Gandhi may not be regarded as a system-builder in the academic sense of the term. But certainty his ideas are of great value to both academics and practitioners. His concepts and views are stillrelevant to modern India. However, it is essential to make a comparative study of his ideas. Gandhi like Machiavell Marx or others did not separate religion from poetics but attempted to provide a synthesis of the two. Machiavell regarded human nature as egoistic and distinguished mortality from politks. In the same way, Marx being influenced by Darwin’s ideas of biological evolution of human life took the mechanistic view of human life. But Gandhi’s conviction is that politics devoid of religion is a death trapbecause it kills the soul. Further the idealistic character of both Gandhism and Marxism is pertinent in their anarchist philosophy. Of course, it is very true that distinguished from Max Stirner and Michael Bakunin’s conceptions of anarchism, Mandsm does not propagate the deliberate destruction of the state machine but only advocates its withering away. Although in British Godwin in the American Tucker and in the German Striner we find much of anarchist ideas, still anarhism is a characteristically Russian phenomenon. The anarchist elements in Gandhi’stheory represent the influence of the religious and moral anarchism of Tolstoy. Marx revolted against capitalism and propounded a Four-fold alienation owing to the same. Gandhi also advocated his conception of the loss of morality, humanity, creativity and freedom due to capitalist encroachment. Both however differ on certain grounds like their techniques of action. While Gandhi emphasized. Marx, on the other hand, stressed class- solidarity, and the propaganda of communist ideology. Hence we find that a man laces their idea and theoriesjoin hands. Both Plato and Gandhi have a integral comprehensive approach to the problems of man and society. Plato in the Republic and the Laws discussed political, economic, moral and administrative problems. Gandhi is also concerned with all dimensions-of human problems. Plato theme the theory of philosopher-rule may. To someextent, be computed to the Gandhian notion of “Ram Rajya.’’There is he doubt that the rule of philosophers would demand the necessary existence of a reformed political system. But Gandhi’s Ram Raiya may also be interpreted as signifying a state of enlightened anaichy that would be characterized by the absence of government coercion. If this interpretation is emphasized the Ram Rajya’ and philosophar-rule tend to-be two different things. Though both are critics of democratic excesses, yet Gandhi had far mote to eh democratic spirit of identification with the masses than the Athenian Aristocrat. At the operative and institutional levels Plato was an elitist. He favoured the rule of a selected few, of course the selection being made on the basis of virtue, Gandhi, on the other hand, was a mass leader and he wanted the creation of a political system on the basis of widest possible participation of citizens. Gandhi is also totally opposed to the Hegelian and Austin concepts of law and sovereignty. Positive law and the sovereign political structure, owing to their emphasis on violence, authoritarian dictates and compulsive commands, do not help the genuine realization of the individual rights. Gandhi’s conscience revolted against the absolute and illegitimate power of the state as he felt that they attached the moral fiber of civilization. Against the absolutist doctrines and concepts of Hobbes. Austin and Hegel, Gandhi appeared as the spokesman‘of the moral sovereignty of the people. Gandhi’s concepts and ideas could also be compared with those of Lenin, Both Gandhi and Lenin wee strictly against bureaucratization which was spreading in all organisations. Marxism had its influence of both of them and ‘alienation theory’ was favoured by them also. Gandhi like Lenin’ believed that whole of thepopulation was to learn the art of administration and participate in it. Both, for, the sake of bringing aboutrevolution worked through organizations, but Lenin unlike ‘Gandhi had a soft corner for violence. Whereas Gandhi propounded the set-up favoured political decentralization. Lenin was in the favour of management ofindustry by a vast administration set up. Of course, both join hands as, far as ad set-up on socialist ideas andequality areconcerned. There is also a good deal of similarity between some administrative ideals of Gandhi and Simon, Simon’sconcept of rationality in organizational set to seems to match Gandhi’s ideal set up. Both do not come out with principles for organizational functioning but strive for perfection. Gandhi goes for equality and for fulfillinghuman needs and Simon proposes a satisfying model for administrative man. However Simon like Weberisa staunch follower of bureaucratic formalism and consequently favours capitalism which is just contrary toGandhi’s conceptualization. Thus, Gandhi’s concept and views in a stable state though not completely systematically presented and marred with inconsistencies at places may, be compared with man political and administration thinkers of theWest. Self-check Exercise-5 Q.1Write a short note on the thoughts of thinkers other than Gandhi . 2.8    A Critical Evaluation Like other administrative thinker, Gandhi has been criticized for his ideas. He has presented a picture of an ideal society which is impracticable. In seems that Gandhi has not taken the trouble to develop the idea of the decentralized, non-industrial, non-violent and self-sufficient free society into a political tenable hierarchicalsystem. He has never entered into a discussion regarding the problems of relationship between one villageand another and the problems of political and economic adjustment and coordination from lowest unit of organization to the highest centre of political authority wherein sovereignty resides. He is merely presentinga picture of village administration in which there is perfect 30 democracy based on individual freedom and non-violence. Gandhi advocates the establishment: of a republic of every village in India. But how are ‘these seven lakh village republics to be organized. The problems of communication, coordination, settlement of grievances andso on in each republic pose many other problems. In fairness to Gandhi, it may be said, however, that as a prophet he was concerned with stressing some profound insights. Gandhi has argued that individual is always free to resist the tyranny of society through ‘Satyagraha’. This is certainly a very good idea provided it could be shown that Satyagraha is in fact, such a universal panacesas it is claimed to be But it has a nether of limitations and can, by no means, be regarded as a universalremedy against injustice under all circumstances. The Gandhian concept of satyagraha would thereforeseem to be Predicted on facts, no in evidence. In Gandhi’s village society and administration, there would be very little scope for the expression of exploratory on even intellectual genius of man. Such village administration may be consistent with Gandhi’s own conception of freedom but in reality there cannot be the suppression of the creative urge of the man which is obviously an Indispensable element of human freedom. Rabindra Nath Tagore also says “Acivilization which comprises mainly village life cannot advance very far. There the individual is unimportant the communitypredominant. Gandhi strongly opposed the concentration of power in the hands of the state and instead advocated for decentralization. However, he did not present a concrete or fully developed plan for how such a decentralized system should be organized and administered. His follower, Jayaprakash Narayan, made efforts to address the challenge of power distribution, but his proposals also lacked a comprehensive framework, particularly in terms of financial authority, administrative control, and economic development. Similarly, Gandhi’s theory of trusteeship, which sought to encourage the wealthy to act as guardians of the people’s welfare, failed to gain widespread acceptance. Throughout his life, he urged industrialists and capitalists to embrace social responsibility and serve the public good. However, as time passed, he became disillusioned, realizing that many of his capitalist supporters primarily sought personal gains rather than genuinely working for the well-being of the people. Critics argue that Gandhi’s trusteeship model ultimately hindered radical economic transformation. They believe that by relying on the goodwill of capitalists rather than pushing for structural changes, his approach slowed down the momentum for revolutionary economic reforms. Self-check Exercise-6 Q.1 Critically evaluate the views of Gandhiji on Administration? 2.9    Summary As a system of administrative thought, it may be summarized that Gandhism represent various intellectual thinking in process of synthesis. He was deeply influenced by idea contained in the New Roussea and Dayanda, Gandhi revolts against the evils of present civilization. Like Cicero and Aquinas, Gandhi upholds the cause of moral authority in politics. Like Marx and Lenin Gandhi is strikingly opposed to social and economicexploitation of the door. Like Spencer and other individualists. Gandhi does not trust the action of the governmentand like Thoreau and Laski. The vindicates the right of resistance against unjustified state authority. He preaches the realization of the common good of all as advocated by Green and Welfare. Similarly his philosophy of Saryodaya is partly based on Ruskin’s Unto This Last. Hence it can be said that Gandhi’s fusion of the teachings of the Bhagavadgita and Buddism combined with the teachings of the Bible, Tolstoy and Ruskin represents a cultural synthesis of the East as well as the West. When the whole is caught up in the arms race and a heading towards nuclear disaster, it is necessary onthe India’s part of practice Gandhian philosophy, promote peace in the vicinity and other regions by adopting Gandhi peaceful and non-violent methods, and create international brotherhood through Gandhi’s dream ofthe Ram Rajya. 2.10    Glossary Truth- The Quality or state of being true. Trustee-An individual person or member of a board given control or powers of administrations of properlyin trust with a legal obligation to administer. Cooperation- The action or process of working together to the same end. 2.11    Answer to Self-Check Exercises Self-check Exercise-1 Ans 1. Refer to section 2.3 Self-check Exercise-2 Ans 1. Refer to section 2.4 Self-Check Exercise-3 Ans 1. Refer to section 2.5 Self-Check Exercise-4 Ans 1. Refer to section 2.6 Self-Check Exercise-5 Ans 1. Refer to section 2.7 Self-Check Exercise-6 Ans 1. Refer to section 2.8 2.12    References/Suggested Readings •    Prasad, D. Ravindra, Prasad, V.S. and Satyanaryana, P. ‘Administrative Thinkers’, Sterling PublishingHouse, New Delhi, 2009. •    Laxmikant, M. ‘Public Administration’Fifth Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited,New Delhi,2016. •    Avasthi, Dr. A., And S. R. Maheshwari, ‘Public Administration’ 30th Edition, Laxmi Narayan Agarwal, Agra, 2009. •    Arora, K. Ramesh and Batra, K. Satish., ‘Governance and Development, Aalekh Publications, Jaipur,2011. •    Bhattacharya., M. ‘New Horizons of Public Administration’, 7th Edition, Jawahar Publishers and Distribution, New Delhi, 2008. •    Fadia., Prof. B.L. & Fadia., Dr. K. ‘Public Administration: theories and concepts’ Sahitya BhavanPublications,Agra, 2009. •    Sharma, M.P. ‘Public Administration Theory and Practice’ Kitab Mahal, Allahabad, 1960. 2.13    Terminal Questions a.    Examine Gandhi’s idea about administration. b.    Write a note on Democracy and Administration. c.    Critically examine Gandhian and Marxian Theory of Philosophy. ***** UNIT-3 J. L. Nehru Structure 3.1    Introduction 3.2    Learning Objectives 3.3    Nehru's Scientific Temper Self-check Exercise-1 3.4    Science and Religion Self-check Exercise-2 3.5    Scientific Humanism Self-check Exercise-3 3.6    Nehru’s Theory of Culture Self-check Exercise-4 3.7    Political Ideas of Nehru on Democracy Self-check Exercise-5 3.8    Nehru On Socialism Self-check Exercise-6 3.9    Summary 3.10    Glossary 3.11    Answers to Self-check Exercises 3.12    References/Suggested Readings 3.13    Terminal Questions 3.1    Introduction: Jawaharlal Nehru is widely regarded as the architect of modern India. He had immense faith in the Indian people and envisioned a nation that was democratic, economically progressive, and influential on the global stage. A visionary thinker and pragmatic leader, Nehru was deeply influenced by Western democratic ideals and socialist thought. However, as time passed, he developed a deeper appreciation for India’s rich history and philosophical traditions. As political biographer Michael Brecher observed, Nehru’s evolving understanding of India’s heritage shaped his leadership and policies. While he was keenly aware of international developments, he remained firmly rooted in the realities of Indian society. Despite being born into privilege, Nehru maintained a strong connection with the masses. Born in 1889, he received his early education at home in Allahabad before pursuing studies at Harrow and later at Cambridge in England. His seven years in Britain exposed him to liberal humanist traditions, drawing inspiration from thinkers like John Stuart Mill, William Gladstone, and John Morley. He was also influenced by intellectuals such as George Bernard Shaw and Bertrand Russell. While Nehru was not a political philosopher in the traditional sense, he was a man of ideas who seamlessly blended thought with action. A tireless freedom fighter, Nehru played a pivotal role in India’s struggle for independence. Under Mahatma Gandhi’s leadership, he actively participated in the Congress movement alongside leaders like Vallabhbhai Patel, Subhash Chandra Bose, Jayaprakash Narayan, and Rajendra Prasad. He led the interim government in 1946 and became independent India’s first Prime Minister, a position he held until his passing in 1964. Throughout the national movement, Nehru endured multiple imprisonments and served as Congress President on several occasions. One of his most significant contributions came in 1929 when, under his leadership, the Congress adopted the historic resolution of Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence), marking a defining moment in India’s freedom struggle. 3.2    Learning Objectives After Studying this lesson, the learner will be able: -    To Know about Jawahar Lal Nehru and his contribution. -    To tell about Nehru’s ideas about scientific temper and administration. -    To understand the ideas of Nehru on Democracy and Nationalism. - To discuss the ideas of Nehru on Socialism. 3.3    NEHRU'S SCIENTIFIC TEMPER Jawaharlal Nehru approached life with a scientific mindset, making him one of the first nationalist leaders to recognize the crucial role of science and technology in India's modernization. For many modern, educated Indians, he embodied the aspiration to adopt a rational and scientific outlook. He firmly believed that science was the very foundation of progress, without which the modern world would struggle to survive. Nehru saw science as a guiding force for shaping both the social system and economic structure of a nation. He emphasized that the greatest achievement of science was not just technological advancements but the development of a scientific temperament—a mindset that encouraged logical thinking, curiosity, and skepticism. He argued that only a rational and scientific approach could bring hope for a better life and put an end to suffering in the world. Like his father, Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru was agnostic. He never fully embraced the deep religious devotion of his mother, nor was he influenced by Mahatma Gandhi’s spiritual philosophy despite their long association. Although Nehru was not a militant atheist, he did not subscribe to religious mysticism. He acknowledged the mysteries of the universe, writing: "Often, as I look at this world, I feel a sense of wonder, of unknown depths." This reflects his curiosity about life’s mysteries while maintaining a rational, evidencebased worldview. Self-check Exercise-1 Q. Write a short note on scientific temperament of Nehru? 3.4    Science and Religion Jawaharlal Nehru’s scientific temperament shaped his worldview, making him resistant to dogma and superstition. He did not feel drawn to any particular religion, as he viewed religious beliefs as largely rooted in unscientific approaches. However, he acknowledged that religion fulfills a deep emotional need for many people and provides a moral and ethical framework for life. While he was not religious himself, he accepted religion only in this limited sense. Nehru did not engage in ritualistic worship or religious practices, believing instead that science offered a more rational and reliable foundation for understanding life. His commitment to rationalism naturally aligned him with secularism. V.P. Varma, in Modern Indian Political Thought, observed that for someone like Nehru—who was an agnostic and materialist—adopting a secularist stance came naturally. Nehru was not emotionally invested in religious debates but firmly believed in separating religion from politics. Nehru’s concept of secularism was not about opposing religion but ensuring equal respect and opportunities for all faiths. He clarified this idea, stating: "Some people think that secularism means opposition to religion. That is incorrect. It means that the state will honor all religions equally and provide them with equal opportunities, without aligning itself with any particular faith." According to Nehru, religion is a personal matter, and everyone should have the freedom to practice—or not practice—any faith without state interference. While he respected Gandhi’s belief that religion could instill morality in politics, Nehru strongly opposed the idea of political parties being formed along religious lines. He believed that linking religion with politics fueled hatred, division, and violence. At the same time, Nehru supported religious equality as a means to achieve peaceful coexistence and social harmony. He understood that social progress is impossible without social peace. However, while he acknowledged that religious conversions could sometimes disrupt harmony, he did not politically endorse restrictions on religious freedom. As a firm secularist, Nehru rejected both Hindu and Muslim communalism, striving to protect India’s religious minorities. His rationalist approach and belief in scientific methodology played a significant role in shaping his nationalist political ideology, ensuring that India remained a diverse, inclusive, and secular democracy. Self-check Exercise-2 Q. What were Nehru’s views on science and religion? 3.5    Scientific Humanism Nehru cannot be easily classified as irreligious, nor was he opposed to religion. He acknowledged that religion fulfills a deep human need, serving as a source of faith and providing people with a sense of purpose. In An Autobiography, Nehru observed that religion offers individuals a belief in progress, ideals, human goodness, and destiny. While he viewed faith as essential to human nature, he also believed that science and reason should guide one’s understanding of the world. For Nehru, science explained the "how" of existence, but it could not answer the "why"—a question that required intuition and deeper contemplation. He maintained that science sharpens the senses, while intuition helps grasp the spiritual aspects of life. In The Discovery of India, he argued that the most balanced approach to life was one that combined scientific reasoning with philosophical depth, ensuring harmony between the external and internal self. Nehru’s intellectual stance reflected a synthesis of ideas. While he admired Marx’s scientific approach, he distanced himself from Marxist ideology due to its disregard for the human spirit. At the same time, he resonated with Gandhi’s emphasis on moral values, even though he did not fully embrace Gandhi’s spiritual outlook. This blend of scientific rationalism and humanistic values became the foundation of Nehru’s scientific humanism—a perspective that sought to balance scientific progress with ethical and humanitarian concerns. Unlike Gandhi’s singular focus on spirituality, Nehru adopted a multidimensional approach, believing that human relationships could be improved through better social conditions rather than mere moral preaching. He held that people would naturally develop faith in humanity when their circumstances improved and their basic needs were met. For Nehru, the true path to social progress lay in embracing both reason and humanism. He saw no contradiction between scientific thinking and humanitarian values, asserting that the modern mind should be practical, ethical, and socially responsible. He believed that humanity itself should be the guiding principle, and social service should be seen as a form of devotion. With his scientific and rational outlook, Nehru viewed science as a powerful tool for human liberation, capable of eliminating ignorance, poverty, and social injustice. His vision was not limited to technological advancements; he wanted science to be accompanied by compassion, ethics, and a commitment to the greater good. Self-check Exercise-3 Q. What is scientific humanism as per Nehru? 3.6    Nehru’s Theory of Culture As both a politician and a writer, Nehru viewed culture with a blend of sociological realism and political practicality. He did not subscribe to the idea of culture as a fixed, timeless entity bound by an ancient, unchanging system. Instead of seeing India’s cultural continuity as a product of divine or mystical revelation, he recognized it as an evolving process shaped by historical transformations. From the ancient Harappan civilization to modern times, Nehru acknowledged that India's cultural identity had been continually shaped by its diverse influences and changing social dynamics. Nehru’s perspective was grounded in naturalism and determinism, favoring scientific data from fields like geology, chemistry, and anthropology, while rejecting any spiritual force that might guide the cosmic process. For him, there was no providential plan or deep emotional connection to a specific cultural or religious tradition. Despite being born into a Brahmin family, Nehru did not hold much significance in traditional rituals or religious practices. While he appreciated the ethical teachings of the Bhagavad Gita, particularly its message of selfless action, he was more influenced 39 by thinkers like Russell and Lenin than by the pursuit of spiritual enlightenment like Nirvana. Nehru found the material achievements of the Western and Soviet worlds more compelling than the spiritual cosmology of the oriental traditions. That said, Nehru was not strictly Marxist-Leninist either. While he recognized the strengths of Marxism, particularly in its analysis of class struggle and material conditions, he was aware of its limitations in addressing humanism, human values, and the positive aspects of capitalism. Nehru’s outlook was a blend of these extremes: he sought civilizational progress alongside a strong commitment to human values across all spheres of life. Professor Vartila further elaborates that cultural comprehensiveness requires an emancipated mind, free from dogmatic theology and unjust social demands. It also calls for the rejection of attempts to impose one’s narrow ethics, justice, and social norms on others with differing beliefs. Nehru’s understanding of culture, in this sense, was about creating a society that was inclusive, tolerant, and deeply committed to democratic liberalism and cultural pluralism. His commitment to secularism was not only a political stance but also a deeply held cultural value that reflected his belief in a cosmopolitan and human-centered vision for India. Self-check Exercise-4 Q. What is Nehru’s theory of culture? 3.7    POLITICAL IDEAS OF NEHRU ON DEMOCRACY Democracy Nehru was a lifelong champion of democracy, firmly believing in its principles and aspiring for independent India to embody a truly democratic system. His commitment to freedom was unwavering, shaped by his exposure to Western democratic traditions. From an early age, he engaged with the works of philosophers like Rousseau, Montesquieu, and Mill, often drawing on their ideas in his own writings. Reflecting on his intellectual influences in his Autobiography, Nehru acknowledged, “My roots are still perhaps partly in the 19th century, and I have been too much influenced by the humanist liberal tradition to completely break free from it.” For Nehru, democracy was not just a form of governance but a way of thinking and living. He believed that freedom was fundamental to human existence, but he also recognized that it needed a strong foundation. In his view, qualities like self-discipline, tolerance, and a commitment to peace were essential for a truly free and harmonious society. While he valued individual liberty, he also understood the necessity of balancing personal freedoms with collective responsibility. As political thinker M.N. Jha pointed out, Nehru saw the state as a means to safeguard freedom, ensuring that individual self-interest did not undermine the larger social good. His democratic vision was deeply rooted in his moral and philosophical beliefs. He saw democracy not just as a political system but as a force that could elevate society by guaranteeing and actively upholding individual rights. To Nehru, democracy carried both political and social significance. In the early years of India's independence movement, he viewed it as the ideal of self-rule and responsible government. However, as his perspective evolved, influenced by socialist thought, he came to believe that true democracy required not only political freedom but also economic and social equality. He envisioned a nation where every individual had the opportunity to grow, prosper, and reach their full potential, making democracy a living reality rather than just a constitutional ideal. On Nationalism Nehru was a passionate nationalist, although he did not have a rigid theory of nationalism. He strongly believed in the fundamental unity of India, which he felt was rooted in its cultural foundations, though not in a narrow or religious sense. Nehru acknowledged the country’s diversities, but what truly inspired him was the unity that ran deep through India’s history. He was particularly drawn to the idea of cultural pluralism and synthesis, seeing nationalism as a noble expression of self-identity and collective pride. In his words, “Nationalism is essentially a group memory of past achievements, traditions, and experiences,” and he observed that nationalism was stronger than ever, especially when societies faced challenges. People, he believed, often turned to their history and traditions for strength and comfort in times of crisis. However, Nehru also saw nationalism as having social, political, and economic dimensions. He was, by nature, a nationalist and a strong opponent of authoritarianism. Nehru didn’t favor politics that were too reliant on authority or formalities, and for this reason, he found himself aligned with figures like Bal Gangadhar Tilak. In his own words, Nehru said, “So far as political matters were concerned, I was, if I may say so, an Indian nationalist desiring India’s freedom, and rather inclined, in the context of Indian politics, to the more extreme wing of it, as represented then by Mr. Tilak.” Despite his admiration for Tilak’s nationalist stance, Nehru didn’t share Tilak’s deeply religious motivations. His vision of nationalism was inclusive and dynamic, a living force that could connect and energize people across the world. For Nehru, the type of socialism that could fuel freedom also had the power to unite and give strength to people. However, he strongly opposed the narrow, fanatical forms of nationalism that promoted superiority or aggressive expansionism. As R.C. Pillai notes, Nehru warned against nationalism that made people overly conscious of their own superiority, stressing that such nationalism was harmful. Nehru himself described Indian nationalism as liberal and tolerant. He believed that nationalism, when rooted in hatred and anger against others, could become dangerous and destructive. He saw his own brand of nationalism as being centered on patriotism and the independence of India. This commitment was evident in his unwavering stand for complete independence, which he emphasized as essential for India’s ability to contribute meaningfully to the world. In 1928, Nehru famously declared, “If India has a message to give to the world, it is clear that we can do so more effectively as an independent country than as a member of the British group.” That same year, as president of the Lahore Congress, he played a pivotal role in passing the Purna Swaraj resolution, which called for India’s full independence from British rule. Individual Freedom and Equality Nehru was a democrat by nature, temperament, and conviction. He strongly believed that individual freedom and equality were essential pillars of any democratic system. According to him, human creativity could only thrive in an environment of freedom. Both society and individuals, he argued, must enjoy liberty for the true values of human life to flourish. He saw democracy as a means to create conditions that nurtured creative development and personal growth. Nehru believed that India needed to embrace democracy not just for material progress but for the enrichment of human life. He emphasized that while a high standard of living was important, it should not come at the cost of human creativity, the spirit of adventure, and the finer aspects of life that had uplifted humanity throughout history. In his view, democracy was not just about holding 42 elections; it was about fostering an environment where individuals could think freely, express themselves openly, and contribute meaningfully to society. At the core of Nehru’s ideology was his belief in the primacy and autonomy of the individual. He firmly held that the state had no right to suppress personal freedoms, as true progress could never be achieved if human creativity was stifled. His vision of individual liberty extended beyond political rights to include freedom of speech, expression, association, and various other aspects of human activity. For Nehru, the overall well-being of a society was closely linked to the extent of freedom its people enjoyed. On Parliamentary Democracy Nehru’s support for parliamentary democracy over the presidential system of the United States was deeply influenced by India's cultural traditions and historical experiences, particularly under British colonial rule. He believed that parliamentary democracy offered greater flexibility to accommodate India’s diverse social groups. Unlike the more rigid structure of a presidential system, a parliamentary system is able to integrate various social groups and allow them to voice their grievances within the democratic process. Even if Nehru personally disagreed with certain demands, he was willing to accept them within a democratic framework, understanding that such concessions were crucial for the functioning of a healthy system. A notable example of this is the States Reorganization based on language. For years, there were protests from the Telugu-speaking people advocating for the separation of Andhra from the Madras Presidency. Nehru, rather than dismissing their demands outright, took a pragmatic approach by setting up a Committee for the Reorganization of States on the basis of language. By doing this, he accommodated their wishes within the democratic process, which ultimately quelled the agitation. This approach reflects the spirit of a true democratic leader, who may not always agree with every demand, but is willing to make compromises for the greater good of the nation. Once the states were reorganized, India began functioning more as a federation, despite the Constitution formally referring to it as a union of states. This federal structure allowed for the nurturing of linguistic and cultural identities within the framework of the nation. The Indian Constitution’s distribution of powers between the center and the states laid the foundation for a functioning democracy. While legal and institutional arrangements are key to the democratic process, the incorporation of linguistic federalism gives it the necessary substance. Over the past fifty years, this system has generally functioned smoothly, despite occasional challenges from peripheral states. Nehru’s commitment to parliamentary democracy also meant supporting the cabinet system of government, which allowed for representation of various states and communities in the executive. Unlike the presidential system, where the president holds significant power over the formation of the executive, the parliamentary system fosters inclusivity by making the Prime Minister part of a Council of Ministers. This dynamic ensures that all viewpoints, including those of state leaders, are taken into account. Nehru maintained regular communication with the Chief Ministers of states, even when they disagreed with his policies. For instance, during the discussions surrounding the Hindu Code Bill, Nehru had significant differences with President Rajendra Prasad, but he still attempted to accommodate Prasad's concerns in shaping the bill, despite considering it a conservative piece of legislation. Nehru's opposition to the President’s intervention in the legislative process was rooted in his belief that the President, as the nominal head of state, should not overstep his constitutional role. As Prime Minister, Nehru respected the President’s position, but he envisioned the President’s role as more of a guide and friend to the government, rather than a master dictating policy. This reflects Nehru's deep commitment to democratic principles and his understanding that true leadership in a democracy requires listening to diverse perspectives and fostering cooperation. Self-check Exercise-5 Q.1 According to Nehru, what is democracy? 3.8    NEHRU ON SOClALlSM Nehru’s interest in socialism dates back to his time at Cambridge, where he was drawn to the ideas of George Bernard Shaw and the Webbs, as well as the lectures of John Maynard Keynes and Bertrand Russell. These intellectual influences, combined with the rapid political, social, and economic changes happening worldwide, deepened his socialist leanings. The poverty and suffering of millions in India further solidified Nehru's belief that socialism was essential for the country’s progress, even as Marxist ideas from figures like Marx and Lenin also had a significant impact on his thinking. For Nehru, socialism was more than just an economic theory—it was a way of life, a deeply held belief that shaped his vision for India. At the 1936 Congress session, he passionately affirmed his commitment to socialism, stating that he embraced it with both his "head and heart." He was convinced that without adopting socialist principles, India could not overcome its widespread poverty and suffering. In his view, democracy and socialism were inseparable, as no democracy could truly succeed without ensuring social and economic justice for all. Nehru defined socialism as a system where the state played a central role in controlling the means of production to prevent the exploitation of the poor by the wealthy. To him, socialism was not just about economic planning—it was about uplifting society by addressing poverty, unemployment, and social inequality. While he distanced himself from both Gandhi’s interpretation of socialism and the Marxist concept of a proletarian dictatorship, he advocated for a socialist framework tailored to India's unique needs. However, Nehru’s socialism did not call for the complete abolition of private property. Instead, he sought to replace the profit-driven economic model with one based on cooperative service and social responsibility. He believed that production should be managed collectively for the welfare of all, rather than being controlled solely by the state or private interests. For Nehru, socialism and democracy were not opposing forces but complementary ideals, both essential for shaping a just and equitable India. Nehru’s vision of socialism was centered on progressive industrialization, which he saw as the key to solving India’s economic challenges, including poverty, backwardness, and low productivity. He firmly believed that industrialization could only be achieved by harnessing modern science and technology, which would not only drive industry forward but also foster agricultural development. Nehru dismissed the capitalist model and instead advocated for a socialist approach, which included the nationalization of key industries and a cooperative model for agriculture, while still allowing the private sector to participate in both areas. This approach to socialism was reflected in India’s economic planning, the mixed economy, and the Five-Year Plans. Although Nehru acknowledged that this system was not “pure socialism,” he believed it would lead the country in the right direction. Nehru’s concept of socialism was deeply tied to his vision for a modern, progressive India. He saw the need for a scientific foundation to build the country’s industries, reform the outdated feudal land system, and bring agriculture in line with modern methods. Nehru also emphasized the importance of developing social services, which he saw as severely lacking in the country. He argued that to modernize, India had to “lessen her religiosity” and embrace science, shedding the exclusive and outdated social habits that held her back. For Nehru, this transformation was crucial for India's growth and for overcoming the societal limitations that stunted the nation's potential. Self-check Exercise-6 Q.1 Write a short note on ideas of Nehru on Socialism? 3.9    Summary Nehru’s vision of socialism was deeply intertwined with his desire to modernize India and prepare it for the future. He believed that India needed to be built on a scientific foundation, one that would foster industrial development, transform the outdated feudal land system, and modernize agriculture using contemporary methods. In addition, he recognized the urgent need to develop social services, which were severely lacking at the time. For India to truly modernize, Nehru argued, it had to move away from excessive religiosity and embrace science. He believed that the country needed to shed the exclusivity in thought and social habits that had become entrenched over centuries. These limitations, according to Nehru, acted like a prison, restricting India’s spirit and hindering its growth. He was convinced that only by freeing itself from these old constraints could India truly unlock its potential and progress. (From Ignou) 3.10    Glossary Democracy: democracy is an intellectual condition and primarily a way of life. Scientific Humanism: According to Nehru, it was from 'faith' that 'the inner imaginative urges' which distinguished man from other begins, flowed, and it was to these urges that theends of a life bore reference. 3.11    Answers to Self-check Exercises Self-check Exercise-1 Ans 1. Refer to section 3.3 Self-check Exercise-2 Ans 1. Refer to section 3.4 Self-Check Exercise-3 Ans 1. Refer to section 3.5 Self-Check Exercise-4 Ans 1. Refer to section 3.6 Self-Check Exercise-5 Ans 1. Refer to section 3.7 Self-Check Exercise-6 Ans 1. Refer to section 3.8 3.12    References/Suggested Readings ■    Prasad, D. Ravindra, Prasad, V.S. and Satyanaryana, P .‘Administrative Thinkers’, Sterling PublishingHouse, New Delhi, 2009. ■    Laxmikant,M. ‘PublicAdministration’FifthEdition,TataMcGraw-HiUPublishing Company Limited,New Delhi,2016. ■    Avasthi, Dr.A.,And S. R. Maheshwari, ‘PublicAdministration’30th Edition, Laxmi NarayanAgarwal, Agra, 2009. ■    Arora,K. Ramesh and Batra,K. Satish., ‘GovernanceandDevelopment,Aalekh Publications, Jaipur,2011. ■    Bhattacharya., M. ‘New Horizons of Public Administration’, 7th Edition, Jawahar Publishers and Distribution, New Delhi, 2008. ■    Fadia., Prof. B.L. & Fadia., Dr. K. ‘PublicAdministration: theories and concepts’ Sahitya BhavanPublications,Agra, 2009. ■    Sharma, M.P. ‘PublicAdministration Theory and Practice’ Kitab Mahal,Allahabad, 1960. 3.13    Terminal Questions a.    Describe the Model of ScientificHumanism given byNehru. b.    What is the barrier of Parliamentary Democracy? UNIT 4 Woodrow Wilson Structure 4.1    Introduction 4.1    Learning Objectives 4.2    The Study – Three Drafts Self-check Exercise-1 4.3    Administration and Government Self-check Exercise-2 4.4    Administrative Science Self-check Exercise-3 4.5    Politics and Administration Self-check Exercise-4 4.6    Comparative Method Self-check Exercise-5 4.7    The Government – New Meaning Self-check Exercise-6 4.8    An Evaluation Self-check Exercise-7 4.9    Glossary 4.10    Answers to Self-check Exercises 4.11    References/Suggested Readings 4.12    Terminal Question 4.1    Introduction The intellectual foundations of Public Administration as a discipline can be traced back to the groundbreaking work of Woodrow Wilson in the 1880s. His influential essay, The Study of Administration, played a pivotal role in encouraging the need for a more scientific approach to the study of administration. Wilson’s work marked a turning point by highlighting the conduct of government as an area worthy of analytical inquiry and generalization, effectively laying the groundwork for public administration as a field of study. Although Wilson himself described his essay as a "semi-popular introduction to administrative studies," it is often seen as the inception of public administration as a distinct academic discipline. What makes his contribution even more remarkable is that Wilson wrote this essay without direct personal experience in American administration, which only added to the significance of his pioneering effort. Despite his early success in this area, Wilson did not continue with formal teaching or research in public administration, though elements of his administrative thought would surface in his later works. 4.2    Learning Objectives After Studying this lesson, the learner will be able: -    To Know about Woodrow Wilson and his contribution. -   To tell about Wilson’s ideas about science of administration. -    To understand the ideas of Woodrow Wilson on Politics and Administration 4.2    The Study – Three Drafts Wilson began his serious work on comparative systems of administration shortly after starting his teaching career at Bryn Mawr in 1885. Prior to the publication of his groundbreaking essay in the Political Science Quarterly in 1887, he had prepared three drafts on the same topic. The first draft, titled "Notes on Administration," evolved into "The Art of Government" before finally becoming "The Study of Administration." Examining these drafts reveals a clear evolution in Wilson’s ideas, with significant changes from one version to the next. Before it was published, Wilson presented the paper at a meeting of the Historical and Political Science Association in Ithaca, New York, at the invitation of Charles K. Adams, President of Cornell University and Wilson’s former teacher. Although Wilson initially dismissed the paper, considering it unworthy of publication, it was regarded by many as one of his finest works. According to some experts, the essay quickly gained fame among scholars of administration and has since remained a valuable source of insight. In his article, Wilson traced the history of the study of administration, explaining its relatively recent emergence within political science. He also clearly articulated the importance and value of this field and outlined the methods that should guide its study. Self-check Exercise-1 Q.1 Write a short note on initial works of Woodrow Wilson? 4.3    Administration and Government Wilson begins his essay by introducing the concept of administration and its growing importance. He argues that the study of administration arose from the increasing complexity of society, the expanding functions of the state, and the shift towards democratic governance. As governments took on more responsibilities, the question naturally emerged: "How should these functions be carried out, and in what directions should they be directed?" Wilson believed that government reform was essential, particularly in the administrative realm. He saw the primary goal of administrative study as determining what the government could effectively and properly do, and how it could do so with maximum efficiency while minimizing both costs and energy. Another key aim, he argued, was to move away from haphazard methods and to base administrative practices on solid, reliable principles. To Wilson, administration was the most visible and dynamic aspect of government—it represented the government in action. However, he observed that this active side of government had largely been neglected in academic discussions about political science. Prior to the 19th century, political theorists focused primarily on abstract questions related to constitutions, the nature of the state, the location of sovereignty, and the purposes of government. They were concerned with questions such as "Who should make the laws?" and the substance of those laws, but the practical details of how those laws were implemented were often overlooked, relegated to clerks rather than considered part of serious political study. Wilson explored the reasons behind this neglect of administrative study. He explained that, before the 19th century, small populations meant that the functions of government were simple and manageable. However, as trade, commerce, and industry grew, and as large corporations emerged, the complexity of governmental functions increased dramatically. These new challenges made the once straightforward tasks of government far more intricate, difficult, and numerous. As a result, the very concept of the state and its duties had evolved, and the central question became: "How should the state perform its expanding functions?" Self-check Exercise-2 Q.1 What are the views of W. Wilson on Government and Administration? 4.4    Administrative Science Wilson firmly believed that administration is fundamentally a science, a view he emphasized by stating that the science of administration is the latest development in the broader study of political science. He argued that the field of administration, which was still in its early stages, represented a significant academic breakthrough. Despite this, Wilson was critical of American administrative practices, noting that they lacked a clear scientific approach. He pointed out that there was little consistency or clarity about what constitutes effective administration in the United States at the time. Wilson explained that the foundations of administrative science were first laid in Europe, particularly by French and German scholars. European administrative systems, which were developed to suit centralized, compact states, differed significantly from those in the United States. Wilson identified two main reasons for the growth of administrative science in Europe: first, European governments often operated independently of popular consent, which led to more extensive administrative systems; and second, centralized governments aimed to maintain control, prompting them to find the most efficient means of governance. Wilson argued that, in order to apply European administrative principles to other countries, particularly the United States, significant adjustments would be necessary. One of the primary challenges in the U.S. was the principle of popular sovereignty. Wilson believed that organizing administration in a democracy was more difficult than in a monarchy because administration had to be constantly responsive to the "multitudinous monarch called public opinion." In democracies, public opinion often shaped government decisions, making administrative reforms slower and more compromised. Wilson also argued that constitutional changes hindered the progress of administration. He believed that frequent changes to the constitution made it difficult for governments to focus on administrative efficiency. He was of the view that no constitution could last more than ten years without needing amendments, which diverted attention from the crucial task of improving administration. Therefore, Wilson advocated for setting aside debates on constitutional principles in favor of focusing on the practical aspects of administration. Wilson's concern was with the implementation of governance, not just the theoretical principles outlined in constitutions. He believed it was far more challenging to run a constitution effectively than to create one. In his analysis, Wilson distinguished between the broad plans of government, which he saw as separate from administration, and the detailed execution of those plans, which constituted the essence of public administration. According to him, the study of administration is closely linked to understanding the proper distribution of constitutional authority, as administration deals with the practical application of laws. Self-check Exercise-3 Q. What do you understand by science of administration? 4.5    Politics and Administration Wilson explored the relationship between administration and politics, but his views on the subject were somewhat contradictory. At times, he emphasized the close interconnection between the two, acknowledging that it was difficult to draw clear lines separating administrative from nonadministrative functions. He wrote that attempting to demarcate these boundaries would be like navigating a complex maze of distinctions and legalities, often becoming unclear and difficult to distinguish. Wilson also noted that "no topic in the study of government can stand by itself—least of all administration," highlighting that administration is deeply intertwined with political principles. He believed that administration should reflect the principles of government in action and cannot be understood apart from its relationship to politics. However, at other times, Wilson took a different stance, arguing that administration and politics should be seen as separate spheres. He felt that administrative matters were distinct from political ones and that politics was the domain of statesmen, while administration was the responsibility of technical officials. He also argued that bureaucracy could only function effectively when it was removed from political influence, with its policies and standards focused on efficiency and technical competence, rather than political considerations. This ambivalence in Wilson's writings led to different interpretations by later scholars. Some, like Mosher, highlighted Wilson's strong position on the politics-administration dichotomy, suggesting that he believed the two should be distinct. Others, like Riggs, argued that for Wilson, administration and politics were inseparable, with administrative actions being closely tied to the implementation of policies developed through political processes. Wilson, it seems, understood that the development of administration could not happen in a political vacuum, and he sought a balance between the two realms. Wilson’s overall goal was to enhance government efficiency by creating an administrative system that was free from political interference, while also recognizing that the two domains must work together for the proper functioning of government. Self-check Exercise-4 Q.1 Write a short note on politics and administration? 4.6    Comparative Method In the final section of his article, Wilson turned his attention to the methods most appropriate for studying administration. He rejected the philosophical approach and instead emphasized the value of historical and comparative methods. He argued that, within the realm of politics, these methods could be most effectively applied to the study of administration. Wilson believed that without comparative studies, we would be left with misconceptions about how administration functions differently in democratic versus non-democratic states. He stressed that the only way to understand the strengths, weaknesses, and unique features of a system is to compare it with others. Wilson also addressed concerns that the comparative method might lead to blindly adopting foreign systems. He argued that it was possible to learn from others without copying their undesirable traits. For instance, he suggested that one could adopt the efficient administrative practices of European autocracies without embracing their autocratic principles. In fact, he believed that democratic governments needed to do so to better meet internal and external challenges. There has been some debate about Wilson’s views on the export of administrative practices from one country to another. Riggs, for instance, argued that Wilson was deeply committed to democratic government and would have opposed the export of administrative methods to non-democratic countries. Riggs believed that Wilson would have recommended focusing first on political development and democratic reforms before reorganizing administration. In contrast, Heady interpreted Wilson's position differently. He noted that Wilson’s essay seemed to assume there were no restrictions on the availability of administrative techniques for export, and that his focus was entirely on the conditions under which these techniques could be imported into other systems. Self-check Exercise-5 Q.1 Write a short note on comparative methods used by Woodrow Wilson? 4.7    The Government – New Meaning As we’ve noted earlier, Wilson did not continue his academic work on public administration after publishing The Study. However, a quarter-century later, in 1912, he published an article titled The New Meaning of Government, which appeared in a women’s magazine in the same month he was elected President of the United States. This article can be seen as a significant reflection of his thoughts on governance and administration, revisiting some of the ideas from The Study while expanding on them. In this short piece, Wilson shifts focus, particularly on the practical aspects of administration. While in The Study he discusses the concept of ‘consent of the governed’, in The New Meaning of Government he takes this further, emphasizing the need for widespread participation in government from all classes and interests. He advocates for the government to be free from the grip of vested interests and to be responsive to the genuine will of the public. This government, he argues, should have a broader vision for the nation. Wilson also reiterates his earlier argument that the government should operate with the same efficiency as a successful business organization. He emphasizes that laws should be clear, well-founded, and unambiguous, with penalties that are equally clear. If laws are found to be ineffective or unjust, they should be changed. He stresses the need for laws to be implemented intelligently, fearlessly, and without favoritism toward any financial or political interests. Moreover, Wilson argues that the government must act as a good trustee of resources, using its powers for the social betterment of all. He identifies key areas for government attention, such as food security, conservation of natural resources like rivers and forests, public health and sanitation, agricultural development, industry, education, and the empowerment of women and cities. This, he concludes, constitutes what he calls "the new meaning of government." Self-check Exercise-6 Q.1 What is the new meaning to the government? 4.8    An Evaluation Woodrow Wilson's famous essay is often regarded as the moment public administration began to emerge as a distinct academic field. In this essay, Wilson aimed to lay the foundation for public administration as a recognized area of study, clearly articulating many of the doctrines that the field would later accept as valid. However, after reading The Study of Administration, the reader may still be left uncertain about its true content and implications. Wilson draws parallels between administration and business practices, discussing topics like civil service reform, accountability to the public, and the distribution of constitutional authority. These concepts, though important, are somewhat vague and can be frustrating to a careful reader. In the opening paragraph of the essay, Wilson states that the aim of administrative study is to determine what government can effectively and appropriately do. Yet, much of the essay focuses on the separability of politics and administration, a point that, according to scholar Waldo, creates a serious inconsistency in Wilson's argument. This inconsistency led later scholars to interpret Wilson's ideas in various ways. As Wilson himself acknowledged, his essay was broad, general, and at times, unclear. He raised more questions than he provided answers, failing to offer a concrete explanation of what the study of administration should involve. He didn't clarify the proper relationship between administration and politics, nor did he resolve whether public administration could ever be considered a science in the same vein as the natural sciences. As a result, some have questioned whether Wilson himself had a clear understanding of what public administration truly is. There are even scholars, like Van Riper, who argue that the foundational ideas of American administrative study should be credited to the Founding Fathers rather than Wilson and his essay. Self-check Exercise-7 Q.1 Critically evaluate the contribution of Woodrow Wilson to the administration. 4.9    Glossary Administrative Science: Wilson strongly believed that administration is eminently a science. This is clear when he said that the science of administration is the latest fruit of the study of the science of politics. Woodrow Wilson said, “It is harder to run a constitution than to frame one.” 4.10    Answers to Self-check Exercises Self-check Exercise-1 Ans 1. Refer to section 4.3 Self-check Exercise-2 Ans 1. Refer to section 4.4 Self-Check Exercise-3 Ans 1. Refer to section 4.5 Self-Check Exercise-4 Ans 1. Refer to section 4.6 Self-Check Exercise-5 Ans 1. Refer to section 4.7 Self-Check Exercise-6 Ans 1. Refer to section 4.8 Self-Check Exercise-6 Ans 1. Refer to section 4.9 4.11 References/Suggested Readings •    Prasad, D. Ravindra, Prasad, V.S. and Satyanaryana, P. ‘Administrative Thinkers’, Sterling PublishingHouse, New Delhi, 2009. •    Laxmikant, M. ‘Public Administration’Fifth Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited,New Delhi,2016. •    Avasthi, Dr. A., And S. R. Maheshwari, ‘PublicAdministration’30th Edition, Laxmi Narayan Agarwal, Agra, 2009. •    Arora, K. Ramesh and Batra, K. Satish., ‘Governance and Development, Aalekh Publications, Jaipur,2011. 4.12    Terminal Questions •    Describe the Politics-Administration Dichotomy givenbyWoodrowWilson. •    What is the Administrative Science? UNIT-5 HENRY FAYOL Structure 5.1    Introduction 5.2    Learning Objectives 5.3    Fayol’s Contributions to Management Thought Self-check Exercise-1 5.4    Fayol’s Principles of Management Self-check Exercise-2 5.5    The need ofAdministrative Training Self-check Exercise-3 5.6    Fayol’s General Principles of Management Self-check Exercise-4 5.7   Criticism of Fayol’s Ideas Self-check Exercise-5 5.8    Taylor Vs Fayol Self-check Exercise-6 5.9    Summary 5.10    Glossary 5.11    Answer to Self-Check Exercises 5.12    References/Suggested Readings 5.13    Terminal Questions 5.1    Introduction Henri Fayol, often regarded as the father of the Principles of Management, was born in 1841 into a middle-class French family. After completing his education in mining engineering, he started his career in 1860 as an engineer at a mining company. Through years of hard work and expertise, he steadily climbed the ranks, eventually becoming the Managing Director in 1888. Fayol dedicated three decades to leading the company before retiring from the role in 1918, though he remained on the board as a Director until his passing in December 1925 at the age of 84. 5.2    Learning Objectives After studying this lesson, the learner will be able to: -  To know about Fayol’s life style and their contribution to management thought. -  To understand basic ideas of Fayol and need of Administrative Training. -  To comprehend about Fayol’s General Principles of Management. -    To analyze elements of Management. 5.3    Fayol’s Contribution to management Thought The credit of highlighting the importance of management activities from the top management point ofview goes to Fayol. Fayol worked primarily on the operative level from the bottom level to the industrialhierarchy upward. Fayol however, concentrated on top management and worked down wards. Thus, Fayol was largely concerned with the general management rather than subversion. He was more consumed with overall control rather than details of operation. Basic ideas of Fayol In English-speaking countries, there was a common tendency to distinguish between management, which was seen as a function focused on industrial or commercial enterprises, and public administration, which was viewed as the art of managing government activities. However, Fayol disagreed with this distinction, believing it to be both misleading and incorrect. He argued that the traditional understanding of "administration" should be broadened to include not only public services but also enterprises of all kinds and sizes. According to Fayol, all types of organizations— whether public or private—require planning, organization, coordination, and control to function effectively. In his view, all undertakings, regardless of their purpose, must adhere to the same fundamental principles. Fayol believed that there should be no separate administrative sciences based on the nature of the activity. He argued that management, whether in industrial, commercial, political, or religious fields, is an essential element of governance and applies universally across various sectors. Self-check Exercise-1 Q.1 Write a short note on basic ideas of Fayol? 5.4    Fayol’s Principles of management Fayols principles of management have been regarded as akin to the characteristics of the formal organisationof Bureaucracy laid down by Max Weber although it is believed that. Webers work was not known to him. Division of activities: Fayol divided all activities of industrial undertaking into six groups. (1)    Technical activities: Production Manufacture adaption. (2)    Commercial activities : buying, selling exchange. (c)    Financial activities : search for an optimum use of capital. (d)    Security activities : production of property and persons. (e)    Accounting activities : stock taking balance sheets costs and statistics. (f)    Management activities : planning organization command coordination and control. Managerial Qualities Fayol summarised the qualifies required by manager in various undertaking as under; (1)    Physical: health, vigour, address (2)    Mental: ability to understand and lesson, judgment vigour and adaptability. (3)    Moral: energy, firmness, willingness to accept responsibility initiative loyalty tact and dignity. (4)    General Education: general acquaintance with matters not belonging exclusively to the functionperformed. (5)    Special knowledge: that peculiar to the function, be it technical, commercial, financial, managerialetc (6)    Experience: knowledge arising from proper work. Self-check Exercise-2 Q.1 What are the six principles of management given by Fayol? 5.5    The need of AdministrativeTraining Fayol strongly believed in the value of systematic training for effective administration. He criticized French civil engineering schools for neglecting to include administration in their programs, arguing that such training was essential for good management. Fayol felt that administrative skills should be taught more broadly and integrated into educational curricula, as they play a crucial role in the success of both public and private organizations. He also emphasized that training should be a continuous process, beginning in school and extending into on-the-job learning. According to Fayol, every supervisor in an organization should see themselves as a teacher, helping to develop the skills of their immediate subordinates. This approach, he believed, would foster a more capable and efficient workforce. Self-check Exercise-3 Q.1 Why we need administrative training? 5.6    Fayols General Principles of Management Fayol pointed out some basic principles of administration. These principles of Fayol are flexible andcapable of adaption to every need. The most well know principles are following: 1.    Division ofwork 2.    Authority &Responsibility 3.    Discipline 4.    Unity ofcommand 5.    Unity ofdirection 6.    Subordination of individual interest to general interest 7.    Remuneration 8.    Centralisation 9.    Scalar Chain(Hierarchy) 10.    Orde r 11. Equit y 12.    Stability 13.    Initiative 14.    Sprit-de-crops 1.    Division of work : According to Fayol specialization belongs to natural order the division of work between the worker and manager increase their output. He emphasised that divisor of work principle shouldbe applied both in the case of technical and non-technical organisation. 2.    Authority & Responsibility: Fayol defines authority “as the right to give orders and power to exactresidence. By this Fayol means that authority and responsibility must go hand in hand. Fayol is of view thatpeople in organisation seek more authority and fear responsibility. This fear of responsibility paralyses initiative. He has said that vice-versa is equally true in another words. If he has some authority he should be givencertain responsibilities is a corollary with authority. 3.    Discipline: Discipline is necessary element for the smooth running of administration. By this Fayol means that all workers in the organisation should obey the order of suspensors in accordance with the standing agreement between the firm and its employees. Obedience should be absorbed in accordance withthe standing agreements,for the efficiency and effectiveness in the organisation. 4.    Unity of command: This principles is very important for an organisation which is based on hierarchical basis. Fayol maintains that “an employee should receive orders from one superior only. According to him. A body with two heads in the social as in the animal sphere a monster and has difficulty in serving.” Fayol is the opinion that every employee should have only one boss to whom he should be accountable. The principle this stresses on the receipt of commands from one superior and subordinate should also be accountable to him. 5.    Unity of Direction : Fayol insists that there should be “one lead one plan for a group of activitieshaving the same objective. He has made a distinction between unity of command and unity of direction. ForFayol, “unity of command’ cannot list without unity of direction, bit does not flow from it.’ He said that theformer is concerned with group the latter with the individual. 6.    Subordination of individual to general interest : The interest of the employee or group should notprevent over that of total organisation. By this he means that in an organisation over all interest of the organisation should get top priority. The interests of one employee or group of employees should not prevailover that of the total organization. He has said that is order to achieve the objective of the organisation and for its progress, if necessary the managers should sacrifice their personal interests for the collective interest. 7.    Remuneration of personnel : The remuneration for the services should be fair and afford satisfaction to both personal and the firm. From remuneration of personnel Fayol means that each employer should beadequate paid for the services rendered ‘by him. The wages & salary should be such that these providedsatisfaction both to employees as well as the firm. 8.    Centralisation : According to Fayol, centralizations belongs natural order. In large organisations series of intermediaries were necessary. The share of initiative left to intermediaries depends on the character of the marriage on the reliability of his subordinates and on the conditions of business Fayol has not used theword centralisation of power and authority but even then he believed that in order to efficiently run management, a properly plan, organize, coordinate and control the work of the organisation. 9.    Scalar Chain (Hierarchy) : The live of authority of superiors ranging from the ultimate authority to the lowest level. Hierarchy of scalar chain is a system in which there is a chain of officers from above to down below. In other words at the top is the superiors whereas of the bottom 4s that lowest placed employed. Fayol points out the dangers of e formahsm. He says “it is an error to depart needlessly from the line of authority, but it is an even greater one to it when detriment to the business ensues.” Thus if the rules of formal organisation are observed communication between two subordinates in differ departments may be length coia contact the other only by sending a message up a Ions ladder of command and waiting until it thandescends to its destination. Fayol uses a figure to illustrate this problem. Fayol has said that if the principle of hierarchy is strictly followed and every communication is to follow the method of proper channel then F is to send is message that will have to pass through E,D,C,B etc. It will have to pass through as many as nine channels which obviously is both time concussing and will result in delays, which no organization can afford. If ‘F’ is followed to use gangplank i.e. he can level him and is notto pass through these many channels then not only time will be saved for reaching ‘P’ but delays will also beavoided. Level jumping however, should be allowed in exceptional cases and that too with the permission ofthose who are to be level jumped. As said earlier level jumping should be in exception and not the rule. However, Fayol point out that there is less use of the ‘gang plaank’ is government agencies mainly tworedsons. First, because of vague aim in a government agency, each section tends to regard itself as its own end and neglect it relationship with other section, and second, the supreme authority itself not encourage itsown subordinate, to use the ‘gang plank’ themselves. 10.    One : Once the job structure is defined and the right personnel are chosen to fill the roles, each employee should be placed in a position where they can provide the most effective service. Fayol emphasizes the importance of ensuring that the right person is in the right role, which he refers to as proper placement. He believes that organizational order requires a clear understanding of both the human resources needed and the available resources, and that there should be a constant balance between these elements. This approach, he argues, leads to maximum production at minimum cost. 11.    Equity : For the personnel to be encouraged to perform their duties with devotion and loyalty there mustbe equity based on kindliness and justice in employer employee relation. It is one more principle of management which Fayol has put forth. According to him in order to encourage the personnel to perform their duties with-devotion. This will make the employee loyal to the organisation. 12.    Stability : Suitable conditions should be created to minimize turn over of employees. Fayol is for stability for smooth running of an undertaking. He had that instability of tenure is at one and the same time cause and effect of bad running. According to him such a stability is essential not because that the employees should identify themselves with the organisation also that they can easily pick up new assignments andperform their duties efficiently. 13.    Initiative : The ability to think fresh would act as a powerful motivation of human behaviour. Initiativeconsists of thinking out a plan and ensuring its success. It means that an employee should be encouraged to come forward with his positive suggestions for the improvement of work and enthuse him to do move work. 14.    Esprit-de-crops : Havonony Union, among the personnel of an organisation is a source of strength in that organisation. This principle believes that strength lies in unity. Fayol said that when number of personswork in an organisation differences are bound to arise but this principle stresses that fractions and differencesshould be replaced by cooperation and unity. Elements of management Fayol made a distinction between general principle of management and elements of 66 management. Hedivides management function into fixture posts. 1.    Planning : Fayol considered planning as the most important and difficult management function. For him managing meant “looking ahead” and Foresee meant bolh to access the future and make provision for it.He considered unity, continuity, flexibility and provision as the rrod feature of a good plan action in this opiniona good plan is a precious managerial instrument.” 2.    Organising : Fayol considered the organising function from a broad perspective and pointed out that to organise a business is to provide it with everything useful to its functioning raw materials tool capital personnel.” It should however, be noted that Fayol concerned Limsek both with structure and process listing sixteen managerial duties and emphasising the listing sixteen managerial duties and emphasising the necessityfor clear objectives authority decision and task. 3.    Command : After the organisation is formed it is mission of command to set it get going for everymanager the object of command is to get the optimum return for the employees of his unit in the interest of whom concern. The air of command, according to Fayol rests on certain personnel quality and a knowledgeof general principles of management. 4.    Co-ordination : According to Fayol to co-ordinate is to harmonise all the activities of a concern so-asto facilitate Its working and its process. According to him in a well be centenaries the following facts are tobe observed. (i)    Every department works in harmony with rest. (ii)    Division and subdivision in each deptt. are precisely informed as to the share they must take in the” commercial task and the reciprocal and they are to afford one another. (iii)    The working schedule of the various departments and subdivisions thereof is constantly to circumstances. 5.    Control: According to Fayol control consists, in verifying whether ever occurs in conformity withtheplan adopted, the instructions issued and the principle established, its object is to point out its weakness andorders to order to rectify them and prevent recurrence. It operates on everything-things people action. Fayol’s contribution to Management Thought: Henri Fayol contribution to management through can be stated as under: (a)    Management is a separate skill. It was Fayol who pointed out for the first me that management function was quite distinct from other functions. This function of manager was considered by him as the mostimportant and most difficult one. (b)    Father of Principles of management. Fayol’s most Important Principles of management (i)    Unity of direction, (ii)    Unity of command, (iii)    Responsibility equal to authority, and (iv)    Scalar Chain These have been reproduced in almost all standard boolts on general management and organisation. (c)    Help in Development of Management Theory : One of the greatest contribution of Fayol is that hisideas and thought paved the y for the development of theory of management. Theo Haimonn writes “His contribution to the theory of management is probably the most revolutionary and constructive that has everbeen made.” (d)    Systematic Analysis of the Process-management : The credit of a systematic analysis of a process management for the first time goes to Fayol. It was he who laid emphasis on various functions of managementfor the efficient functioning of an enterprise. (e)    Management can be and should be taught. It was again Fayol who firmly advocated that there aresome general principles of management which can be and should be taught. (f)    Foundation of Classical theory of Organization : It is now widely acknowledged that Fayols famous work General and industrial management formed the foundation of classical organizational doctrine (g)    Management skill are Universal-Fayol was the first to highlight the universal character of management principles: He said, “All undertaking require planning organization command coordination and control and iorder to function properly, all must observe the same general principle”. Self-check Exercise-4 Q.1 What are the fourteen principles of management given by Henry Fayol? 5.7    Criticism of Fayol’s Ideas Fayolism has faced criticism from various quarters. Structuralists, in particular, argue that while Fayol focused extensively on functional classification, he overlooked the structural aspect of organizations. Peter Drucker, a prominent critic of Fayol's approach, pointed out that some of the most significant errors in organizational development stem from trying to impose a rigid, mechanistic model of an ideal or universal organization onto a dynamic, real-world business. Norman Cuthbert has pointed out that Fayois view on management theory contains weaknesses of analysis andassessment (i)    His principles, elements and duties overlap. (ii)    He confuses structure an processes. (iii)    There is vagueness and superficiality about some of his terms and definitions. (iv)    He hinted at, but did not elaborate the limitations of his view that management can and should betaught. (v)   Senior managers and administration in imagined as a intellectual elite view which cannot be universalalthough true of his own circle. (vi)    He placed a higher value on management theory that it could be expected to support on the importanceof administration doctrine, as a contribution to peace. Inspire of some of the above mentioned limitations Fayol’s contribution to management theory is regardedas unique and outstanding. Self-check Exercise-5 Q.1 Write a short note on critical evaluation of ideas of Fayol? 5.8    Taylor Vs Fayol Fayol and Taylor are often regarded as pioneers of scientific management. Both were trained as scientists before transitioning into management roles, and they based their theories on practical observations. However, their focus areas differed. Taylor's work primarily addressed the operational level, particularly the shop floor, while Fayol's contributions were centered around management at the top level. Taylor's principles were concerned with management from the bottom 69 up, focusing on improving efficiency at the operational level. In contrast, Fayol, being a top-level manager, was in a better position to observe and analyze the broader functions of management. 1.    Henry Fayol (1841-1925): •    Fayol was a French mining engineer and management theorist. •    He is known for his administrative theory of management. •    Fayol's work laid the foundation for modern management theory. Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915): •    Taylor was an American mechanical engineer and management theorist. •    He is known as the father of scientific management. •    Taylor's work focused on improving industrial efficiency through the application of scientific methods. 2.    Approach to Management: Henry Fayol: •    Fayol proposed a general theory of management that identified five key functions of management: planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling. •    He emphasized the importance of managerial authority and the need for a clear organizational hierarchy. Frederick Winslow Taylor: •    Taylor's scientific management focused on improving productivity and efficiency in industrial settings. •    He advocated for the scientific selection and training of workers, the standardization of tools and processes, and the use of time and motion studies to determine the most efficient way of performing tasks. 3.    Division of Labor: Henry Fayol: •    Fayol recognized the importance of division of labor in organizational efficiency. •    He emphasized the need for specialization and the division of work among employees to improve efficiency. Frederick Winslow Taylor: •    Taylor's scientific management principles also emphasized the division of labor. •    He believed that work should be divided and standardized to increase productivity and reduce inefficiencies. 4.    Worker-Management Relations: Henry Fayol: •    Fayol emphasized the importance of effective communication and cooperation between workers and managers. •    He believed that a harmonious relationship between workers and managers was essential for organizational success. Frederick Winslow Taylor: •    Taylor's approach to worker-management relations was more hierarchical. •    He advocated for a clear distinction between the roles of workers and managers, with managers responsible for planning and decision-making, and workers responsible for executing tasks as instructed. 5.    Influence on Management Theory: Henry Fayol: •    Fayol's administrative theory laid the groundwork for modern management theory. •    His principles of management, including the functions of management and the importance of organizational structure, remain influential today. Frederick Winslow Taylor: •    Taylor's scientific management principles revolutionized the field of industrial engineering and had a significant impact on management practices in the early 20th century. •    While some of Taylor's methods have been criticized for their focus on efficiency at the expense of worker welfare, his ideas laid the foundation for modern operations management. Henry Fayol and Frederick Winslow Taylor were two of the most influential figures in the development of management theory in the 20th century. While their approaches to management varied, both made lasting contributions to the field. Fayol’s theory of administration emphasized the functions of management and the significance of organizational structure, whereas Taylor’s principles of scientific management sought to enhance industrial efficiency through the use of scientific techniques. Despite their differing perspectives, both Fayol and Taylor had a profound impact on the evolution of modern management practices. Self-check Exercise-6 Q.1 Differentiate between ideas of Henry Fayol and FW Taylor? 5.9    Summary Henry Fayol, a successful executive of a mining company in France, made significant contribution to the management though and thus considered as the Founder of ‘Management Process School’. He emphasized the Universality of management processes and made a distinction between management and Public Administration Fayol derived fourteen principles of administration. Which are capable of adaptation to various enterprises and settings. He emphasized the importance of training in administration. He suggested gangplank i.e. ‘level jumping’ to counter the limitation of hierarchy and formations. 5.10    Glossary Authority- The power or right to give orders, make decisions and enforce obedience. Control- The power to influencing or direct people’s behavior or the losers of events. Satiability- The state of being stable. Command- give an authoritative or peremptory order. 5.11    Answer to Self-Check Exercises Self-check Exercise-1 Ans 1. Refer to section 5.3 Self-check Exercise-2 Ans 1. Refer to section 5.4 Self-Check Exercise-3 Ans 1. Refer to section 5.5 Self-Check Exercise-4 Ans 1. Refer to section 5.6 Self-Check Exercise-5 Ans 1. Refer to section 5.7 Self-Check Exercise-6 Ans 1. Refer to section 5.8 5.12    References/Suggested Readings •    Prasad, D. Ravindra, Prasad, V.S. and Satyanaryana, P.‘Administrative Thinkers’, Sterling PublishingHouse, New Delhi, 2009. •    Laxmikant,M. ‘PublicAdministration’Fifth Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited,New Delhi,2016. •    Avasthi, Dr. A., And S. R. Maheshwari, ‘PublicAdministration’30th Edition, Laxmi NarayanAgarwal, Agra, 2009. •    Arora, K. Ramesh and Batra, K. Satish., ‘Governance and Development,Aalekh Publications, Jaipur,2011. •    Bhattacharya., M. ‘New Horizons of Public Administration’, 7th Edition, Jawahar Publishers and Distribution, New Delhi, 2008. •    Fadia., Prof. B.L. & Fadia., Dr. K. ‘Public Administration: theories and concepts’ Sahitya BhavanPublications,Agra, 2009. •    Sharma, M.P. ‘Public Administration Theory and Practice’ Kitab Mahal, Allahabad, 1960. 5.13    Terminal Questions a.    What are the managerial qualities recommended by H.Foyol? b.    Elaborate Fayol’s General Principles of Management. c.    What do you mean by Gangplank? UNIT 6FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR Structure 6.1    Introduction 6.2    Learning Objectives 6.3    Taylors concept of Management Self-check Exercise-1 6.4    Objectives of Scientific Management Self-check Exercise-2 6.5    Taylors contributions of Management Thought Self-check Exercise-3 6.6    Criticism of Taylorism Self-check Exercise-4 6.7    Summary 6.8    Glossary 6.9    Answer to Self-Check Exercises 6.10    Terminal Questions 6.11    References/Suggested Readings 6.1    Introduction The credit of systematic study and practice of management goes to Tredenck W. Taylor very well known in the management literature as the father of scientific management. Administrative science can be said tohave tnily begun with the writings of Taylor and the work of Henry Ford of Ford Motor 75 Company U.S.A. Frederick K. Taylor was born in Germantown, Pennsylvania, on March 20, 1856. He began his career in 1875 as an apprentice in a small machinery manufacturing shop in Philadelphia. Having worked his way up from the lower ranks to a top position, Taylor understood that workers were producing only about one-third of their potential output. He identified the primary reason for this inefficiency as their reliance on traditional methods of production. Taylor emphasized the importance of management in identifying the precise nature of tasks and determining the most effective ways to perform them. From 1901 onward, he dedicated his time to researching and refining scientific management techniques. His contributions to the field continued until his passing on March 28, 1915. 6.2    Learning Objectives After studying this lesson, the learner will be able -    To know about Taylors concept of management. -    To understand the principles of scientific management. -    To examine the cooperation between management and works. -    To comprehend the objectives of scientific management. 6.3    Taylors Concept of Management According to Taylor, the primary goal of management is to ensure maximum prosperity for every employee. His philosophy of scientific management is based on the belief that there is no fundamental conflict between the interests of employers, workers, and consumers. Taylor emphasized that increased productivity should benefit all stakeholders—workers should receive higher wages, employers should earn greater profits, and consumers should enjoy lower prices for products. Principles of scientific management Taylor strongly advocated for social prosperity through class collaboration and intentional cooperation between workers and management. He believed that applying scientific methods to work processes required mutual understanding and teamwork. His management philosophy was rooted in shared interests and was guided by four fundamental principles of scientific management. 1.    Development of True science of work His first principle retained to the development of a science of each task which would replace the rule of thumb in management. This he, observed could be achieved, by scientifically investigating the working conditionsand the amount of work to be undertaken and then fixing daily task assignment so that the workers, may work in a planned manner. For this the work operating under the scheme of scientific management to be given higher rate of pay in comparison to one operating in an unscientifically managed factory. Clearly, he however, subscribes to the carat and suck theory. He believed, that the worker should be penalized if he fails to achievethe desired level of output. 2.    Scientific Selection and Training of Worker Taylor's principle emphasizes the importance of scientifically selecting and placing workers in roles that best match their skills and abilities. This process should consider both their physical and intellectual capabilities. Additionally, management has a responsibility to provide proper training and opportunities for growth, enabling workers to enhance their skills and develop their full potential. 3.    Equal Division of Work Between Management and Workers. The third Taylorian principle was that there should be equal division of work and responsibility between the management and workers the management should take all’ the tasks in its hands for which it was suitably prepared. This will mitigate chances of conflict and thus help iii creating a peaceful atmosphere for bothworks and the management. Cooperation Between Management and Workers Taylor's third principle emphasized the need for close cooperation between management and workers to create a healthy work environment and enhance industrial efficiency. He believed that the successful implementation of these four principles formed the foundation of scientific management. Mechanisms of management: Taylor distinguished between the “principles” of management and ‘mechanism of management. Somemechanism ensured by Taylor are: 1.    The use of the stop-watch was essential for technique of time study. 2.    Functional foremanship should be adopted by replacing the system of foremanship. 3.    Standardization of all tools and techniques used in traders. 4.    Planning of a large daily task should be undertaken in order to promote industrial efficiency. Therefore Taylor favoured the setting up of separate planning cell or a department in every industrial unit. 5.    The use of time saving device, e.g. slide rules. 6.    The use of instruction card system to record what to do and how to-do particular tasks. 7.    Adaptation of proper classification, system of manufactured products as well as implements used in themanufacturing process. 8.    Use of the bonus system for the successful performance of the task. 9.    Application of the “exception principal under which Taylor called for setting up a large daily task, withreward for meeting it and penalty for not achieving the targets. 10.    Promotion of modem costing system. Self-check Exercise-1 Q.1 What are the principles of scientific management given by FW Taylor? 6.4    Objectives of Scientific Management The main aims of objectives of Taylors society were: 1.    To help in developing higher standards by increasing the income of worker. 2.    To avoid wastage of resources in over to get larger, income from expenditure. ThisIncome should be get more income from expenditure. The income should be divided between the managementand the workers. 3.    Management should assure a happier home and environment to the worker by removing disagreeablefactors. 4.    Individually and socially, health conditions of work should be to the member of the organisation. 5.    Maximum opportunities should be made available for the highest development of, individuals capacity throughscientific method of work assignment and selection, training, transfer and promotion. 6.    Training should be Imparted to workers so ‘that they may develop newer capabilities and at the 79 sametime eligible for promotion. 7.    Measures should be taken for the development of self- confidence and self-respect among workers. 8.    An atmosphere for research should be created where workers could develop of the organisation. 9.    In order to promote justice, discrimination in wages would be avoided. 10.    Factors which caused conflict and a feeling of intolerance should be eliminated from the environment. Self-check Exercise-2 Q.1    What are the objectives of scientific management given by FW Taylor? 6.5    Taylors Contribution of Management Thought: The basic philosophy of Taylor’s scientific management was that there was a need of / fundamental change of attitude on the part of both manager and man. He spoke of “mental revolution” on part of bothemployer andemployees. Mental Revolution : According to Taylor, the essence of scientific management lies in a complete transformation of mindset for everyone involved in an industry or organization. Workers must rethink their responsibilities toward their tasks, colleagues, and employers, just as management, business owners, and decision-makers must redefine their approach toward employees and workplace challenges. This mutual shift in perspective is essential—without it, true scientific management cannot exist. Taylor believed that this profound change in thinking was the foundation of effective management. Managerial Responsibilities: Taylor said that under scientific management managers should assume newresponsibilities and new burdens. He strongly felt that it was their duty to develop a science of each taskelement and for selecting and training right persons for the right job. He grouped the new duties h responsibilitiesunder four heads. i)    They should develop a science of each element of mans work which replaces the old rule of thumbmethod. •    They should scientifically select and then train, teach and develop the work man. •    They should heartily co-operate with the men’ so as to ensure performance of work in accordance with the principles of the science which have been developed iv) There should be almost equal divisions of work and responsibility between management and workman. Thus, in order words Taylor wanted that management should take the responsibility of planning, directingand organizingwork. II Prosperity of Employees : Taylor defined the art of management as “knowing exactly what youwant men do and then seeing that they do it in the best and cheapest way.” In order to practice management is an art Taylor advocated the application of principles. (a)    A Large Daily Task : Each main the establishment, high or tow should daily have a clearly definedtask laid out before him. (b)    Standard Conditions : Each man task should call for a full day work and, at the, same time theworkman should be given some standardised condition and appliances as will enable him to accomplishhis task with certainty. (c)    High Pay for Success : He should be sure of large pay when he accomplishes his task. (d)    Loss in Case of Failure : When he jails he should be sure that sooner or later he will be the looserby it. (e)    Separation of Planning From doing : One of the most ‘important contribution of Taylor was to have highlighted that planning and execution were two different job. According to Peter Prucker, “To have discovered that planning is different from doing was one of Taylor most valuable insights. (f)    Functional Foremanship : To exercise ‘strict control over the workers who bid systematic soliderings. Taylor suggested functional foremanship and the divided or function foremanship each,worker, should receive orders directly from different bosses. In fact, functional foremanship is a byproduct of overspecialization. These being violation of unity ofcommand there remains greater danger of confusion. Self-check Exercise-3 Q.1 What is the concept of mental revolution given by FW Taylor? 6.6 Criticism of Taylorism There seems to be a sharp divergence of opinions among experts about the worth of Taylors work. Opinions concerning to merits of Taylors contribution to the scientific management movement range fromthat of exalted Worship his designation as the father of scientific management - to that of exposing his as original recipient of undue credit Taylor s work criticised on following grounds Taylor’s scientific management faced criticism from several scholars, including British management thinker Oliver Sheldon, American business philosopher Mary Parker Follett, Sam Lewison, Elton Mayo, and Peter Drucker. They argued that Taylor’s approach was overly mechanical and failed to consider human and social factors in the workplace. This criticism led to various industrial and psychological studies, most notably the Hawthorne Experiments conducted by Elton Mayo. These studies emphasized the importance of human relations and group dynamics in the workplace, ultimately challenging many aspects of Taylorism. 1.    Taylor was criticized on the ground that he was excessively utilitarian and impersonal, paying too littleattentionto the human element and that in his schemes, wages of labour did not increase in direct proportion to productivity increase. His scientific management was considered to be autocratic or at best paternalistic. 2.    Taylor’s belief that workers are naturally lazy and tend to avoid work has been widely challenged. Brown’s analysis suggests that work is an essential aspect of a person’s life, as it provides status and fosters a sense of connection to society. When workers seem disengaged or unmotivated, the issue often lies not with them but with the psychological and social conditions of the job itself. 3.    Another criticism of Taylor is that he did not properly understand the autonomy of the work. His emphasis on the minute division of the work and the specialization was severely criticized on several grounds. (a)    The work gets depersonalized, the worker becomes a mere cock in the machine and the relationbetween the worker and executives become remote as a result of which ne tacks the sense of participation in the work more than everythingthe worker findsno outlets no outlets to exhibit ail his abilities and potentialities. (b)    Secondly it may be bad to automation of the worker’ which may have physiological and neurologicalconsequences. (c)Thirdly Taylors division of work people into planning and executive division has severely been criticizedproper team spirit and, if planning to totally diverted from to secure the participation of the workers In, theprogress of the firm. Self-check Exercise-4 Q.1    Write a short note on critical evaluation of ideas FW Taylor? 6.7Summary Despite some limitations in fully understanding human psychology, sociology, and the intricacies of work, Taylor's contributions to management remain highly significant. His work is foundational in several ways: he was the first to apply systematic principles to management problems, emphasizing that it was the responsibility of management to clearly communicate expectations and specify the methods for completing tasks. Taylor also pioneered the idea of a "mental revolution," encouraging both employers and employees to adopt a more cooperative mindset. Furthermore, he introduced the use of time and motion studies to improve efficiency and recognized the importance of separating the planning of work from its execution. One of his key innovations was the concept of the "functional foreman," a role designed to optimize the management of tasks. 6.8    Glossary Management – The process of dealing with or controlling things or people. Cooperation- The action or process of working together to the some end. Managerial- Related to management or managers. 6.9    Answer to self check exercise. Self-check Exercise-1 Ans 1. Refer to section 6.3 Self-check Exercise-2 Ans 1. Refer to section 6.4 Self-Check Exercise-3 Ans 1. Refer to section 6.5 Self-Check Exercise-4 Ans 1. Refer to section 6.6 6.10    References/Suggested Readings •    Prasad, D. Ravindra, Prasad, V.S. and Satyanaryana, P.‘Administrative Thinkers’, Sterling PublishingHouse, New Delhi, 2009. •    Laxmikant,M. ‘PublicAdministration’Fifth Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited,New Delhi,2016. •    Avasthi, Dr. A., And S. R. Maheshwari, ‘PublicAdministration’30th Edition, Laxmi NarayanAgarwal, Agra, 2009. •    Arora, K. Ramesh and Batra, K. Satish., ‘Governance and Development,Aalekh Publications, Jaipur,2011. •    Bhattacharya., M. ‘New Horizons of Public Administration’, 7th Edition, Jawahar Publishers and Distribution, New Delhi, 2008. •    Fadia., Prof. B.L. & Fadia., Dr. K. ‘Public Administration: theories and concepts’ Sahitya BhavanPublications,Agra, 2009. •  Sharma, M.P. ‘Public Administration Theory and Practice’ Kitab Mahal, Allahabad, 1960. 6.11    Terminal Questions (a)    What are the objective of scientific management? (b)    Write a note on managerial responsibility. (c)    Explain the concept of functional foremanship given by F.W. Taylor. ***** ***** UNIT-7 MAX WEBER Structure: 7.1    Introduction 7.2    Learning Objectives 7.3    Max Weber on Bureaucracy Self-check Exercise-1 7.4    Max Weber on Authority Self-check Exercise-2 7.5    Comments about Weber’s Theory and Concept Self-check Exercise-3 7.6    Challenges of Bureaucracy to Democracy Self-check Exercise-4 7.7    Appreciations and Criticism of works of Max Weber Self-check Exercise-5 7.8    Summary 7.9    Glossary 7.10    Answers to Self - Check Exercises 7.11    References/Suggested Readings 7.12    Terminal Questions 7.1    Introduction Biographical Sketch of Max Weber Max Weber (1864-1920) was brought up in Germany during the Bismarckian era. He was a legal practitioner. In the Intellectually stimulating atmosphere of Waberians the young Weber in languages, historyand the classics. Weber attended Heidelberg (1882) Gottingen and Berlin universities. Although Weber tried his luck at legal professional but simultaneously he acquired professional competence as an economist, historianand philosopher. Weber took; this bar examination 1816 and completed his academic training in 1891 but his failing healthdid not permit him to hold a permanent academic position. After serving as a private dozen hold a permanentacademic position. After serving as a private dozen in law at the university of Berlin and as a government consultant and having completed extensive research projects (this is the years immediately preceding and following his marriage in 1893), he became professor of economics first the university of Fridoning in 1894 and then at Heidelberg in 1896 in 1898 however. Learning Objectives: After studying this lesson, the learner will be able: -  To understand the main features of Bureaucracy. -  To know about the concept and forms of Authority given by Max Weber. -  To analyze about charismatic theory presented by Max Weber. To analyze about the challenges of Bureaucracy to Democracy. 7.2    Weber on Bureaucracy In 1920, Weber brought out principles of Social & Economic Organisation in which he discussed bureaucracy is a like a social organisation in hierarchical order. In this individual are placed at different hierarchical order in a ladder in this every person has power and authority. The whole order is move or less permanent in nature and aims at running the state and it’s administrative. According to Weber, bureaucracy has very close relationships which democracy. It is believed that a person can occupy anyposition is bureaucracy provided he is capable and able of doing so. Max Weber constructed an “Ideal type” of model of bureaucracy it is called an ideal type of pure bureaucracy because it was believed that the bureaucratic necessary and efficient. Main feature of Bureaucracy: According to Weber, bureaucracy of an ideal type was certain Features 1.    There is a clear cut division of Labour with organisation tasks of officially designed as belongingto various position and states. 2.    This division of labour is linked to specialization and employees are lived on the basis of theirtechnical qualifications for the positions. 3.   There is a hierarchy of authority, with officials or subordinates above and subordinates below. Thescope of authority each above is clearly defined and limits. 4.    There is formally established system of rules & regulations that ensures co-ordination of activitiesand promotion stability. 5.   Officials are expected to act univesalistically and impersonally and judge others on the basis of theirperformance that is in terms of their actions rather than their personal traits. 6.    Employment by an organisation provides security in that persons are selected according to their qualifications and can expect to advance systematically if they perform their functions correctly. Presumably, persons gain the right to their positions after a trial period are protected against arbitrarydismissal. The principle of job security is most typical of certain lends of civil ^service positions and is reflected in seniority rules, and use of tenure in educational institutions. Matures of Weber’s idealtype is less characteristic of other actual work settings. Rational Bureaucracy Weber has defined bureaucracy as administrative body of appointed officials. According to him bureaucracy can be patrimonial which can be found in charismatic traditions societies and legal rational which is based on legal authority. It is also known as Webenan Model of Bureaucracy. He has said that whatever may be form or system of government, if that is to run efficiently for that it is essential that it should have legitimacy. In it obedience is not due to the individual who grants him that. Then he has saidthat with It a, legal code can be possibly developed to which the members of the organisation are requiredto obey. One more feature of legitimacy is that those individuals who exercise authority should also obey impersonal order: Then it is to be seen that administrative looks after the interests of all in the org with in understood to mean system of abstract rules which are applied to specific, cases. Bureaucracy and Rationalization Professor Zeithin says that “Growing bureaucratization was one more powerful manifestation of foams and technical rationality of the “rationalization” process in the West. Hence, it was essential, Weber believedto understand the nature of bureaucracy. Weber is often considered as the main adherent to thetheory about bureaucracy as efficient. Weber makes a number of claims in his ‘Wirtschaft and Gosellschaff that point towards some theory about bureaucration ability or efficiency. Self-check Exercise-1 Q.1 What are the features of bureaucracy? 7.3    Max Weber on Authority Power is highly intra going sociological concept. Power holders legitimate power as authority. Authority is power seen holders legitimate power as authority. Authority is power seen as legitimate reasonable too thoseaffected by It. According to Weber, authority has social relationship with social control. It can however, be legal, traditional and charismatic. According to him legal authority is one which a person enjoys because of occupies that position. Traditional authority is one which one uses because traditionally that is being used. As regards charismatic authority, according to him it is an authority which is present in the individual by his own self. Weber identified three Ideal points of authority concerning different communities and Institutions, 1.    TraditionalAuthority 2.    Rational LegalAuthority 3.    CharismaticAuthority 1.    Traditional Authority : It is charactezised by power which people accept because it is backed by customs and long usage. It is a type of authority which one gets not because of one is occupying a particular legal position or status but because traditionally authority or position of the person has a long been accepted. The ruler or a leader in such a system has authority by virtue of the status that he has inherited, and the extentof his authority is fixed by customer usage. The organisation form under a traditional authority can be either: (i) Patrimonial or (ii) Feudal Under the patrimonial form, the officials are personal servants who depend on their ruler for remuneration.But under the Feudal Form, the official have mu more autonomy with their own source of income. Two mainimportant attributes of traditional authority one customs and personal attributes. Those who obey the commandate called lower a have personal loyalty and regard for the master. 2.    Legal Rational Authority : Legal authority is an organisation means us of authority in accordancewith certain well estabhishc principles and that too impartially. These principles should be applicable to allmembers in the organism Such a type of authority is regarded legitimate because it had been achievedaccording to “rules and regulations”. Specific for the attainment of power. All the regulation and democraticforms of government rest on kgal-vati authority. 3.    Charismatic Authority : The term charisma refers to a unique quality in an individual's personality that sets them apart from others. This trait makes them appear exceptional, often perceived as possessing extraordinary or even superhuman abilities. Such qualities are considered beyond the reach of ordinary individuals and are sometimes believed to have divine or exemplary origins. Because of these attributes, a charismatic person is recognized and treated as a leader. Administrative Authority Weber wrote that, “the effectiveness of legal authority rests on the acceptance of the valid of the following mutually interdependent ideas : 1.    A legal norm can be established either through agreement or based on one's position, grounded in considerations of expediency, rational values, or both. It carries a claim to obedience, particularly from the members of the corporate group. 2.    That every body of law consists essentially in a consistent system of abstract rules which have normally been dimensionally established administration of law is held to consist in the application of theserules a particular cases. 3.    The typical person in a position of authority holds an "office." In performing the duties linked to their status, including issuing commands to others, they are guided by an impersonal system to which their actions are aligned. 4.    That the person who obeys authority does so as it is normally stated, only in his capacity as a memberof the corporate group and what he obeys is only the law. 5.    In conformity with point 3. it is held that members of the corporate group in so far as they obey a person is authority do not owe this obedience to him as an individual, but to the impersonal order. Hence, it follows that there is an obligation to obedience only within the sphere of the rationally distinctive authority which interms of the order has been conferred upon him. Fundamental Categories of Rational Legal Authority 1.    A continuous organisations of official functions bound by rules. 2.    A specified sphere of competence-marked of as part of a systematic division of functions in the provision of the incumbent with necessary authority of carry out these functions that the necessary means of compassion are clearly define and their use is subject to definite conditions. A just exercising authoritywhich is organized in this way will be called an administrative organ”. 3.    The organisation of officer follows the principle of hierarchy by that is, each lower officer under thecontrol an supervision of higher one. 4.    The rules governing office conduct can often be technical in nature, requiring specific expertise. For these rules to be applied effectively and rationally, proper training is essential. Therefore, it is typically expected that only individuals who have received adequate technical training are qualified to become part of the administrative staff in such structured organizations. 5.    In the rational type of a matter principle that the members of the administrative staff should be completely from ownership of the mean of production or administrative. Officials, employee and workers attached to theadministrative staff do not themselves own the non human means by production and administration. 6.    In the rational type case, there is also a complete absence of appropriation of his official position by theIncumbent. 7.    Administrative acts, decisions and rules formulated and recorded in writing, even in cases where oraldiscussion is the rule oris even mandatory. 8.    Legal authority can be exercised is a wide variety of different forms which will be distinguished later. Waber’s analysis work deliberately confirmed to the expect of imperative co-ordination is the structure ofthe administrative staff. Weberian analysis consists in terms of ideal types or official law of bureaucracy.” Self-check Exercise-2 Q.1 What are the various types of authority given by Max Weber? 7.4    Comments About Weber’s Theory andconcept:Concept of personal Charisma William Spinard of Atelphi University a Professor for Sociology as a major theme of his article and interms of personal charisma has little value for understanding macroscopic political events. “In the objective is to lease out the more prominent features in his (Webers) formulations, to test their heuristic value as applied by him and others. In specific situations. Typically, he sought to facilitate understanding of reality, not to describe’ reality his ideal type concepts were designated as intellectual guides, not as logicallytight categores. Charisma is a type of authority which induces automatic obedience to an individual outside of and commonly counting obedience rats on the special personal qualities of such individuals inspired by the early Christian notion of “gilt of grace” is its applicability to many types of social phenomenon often to anypurely personal appeal or innovating tactics of a leader. Thus the personality attributes of charismatic suggest a unique human being with a transcendental aura and contain obvious religious implications possessed of a “supernatural and divine force capable of “super human powers inspiring awe and reverence even subjugation to the “Coercios if the gods. Some social scientists have developed more comprehensive lists of personality traints stimulating such observations among followers. Assessment of Max Weber Max Weber was highly conscious of power that such elite corps would likely to enjoy Max Weber asserted that “the power position of a fully developed bureaucracy is always very strong and under normal conditions supreme. The political master finds himself in the position of the “dilettante” is the case of the ‘expert” when he confronts the trained official established as manager of the “administration”. This remains true whether the political master is the whole people or an elected Parliament. Weber viewed the but eaucratization of modem society with apprehension. The immense concentration of power in fewer and fewer hands was bound to endanger liberal-democratic institutions and to diminish individual freedom. Increasingly an individual was subjected to an organisation discipline that drastically reduced his initiatives, increasingly he as subjected to a formally ration that eliminated any opportunities forautonom genuinely rational conduct. Max Webers Assessment of Bureaucratic Power Weber viewed the bureaucratization of modem society with apprehension. Bureaucratic discipline is nothingbut the consistently rationalised, methodically prepared and exact execution of the received order, in which all personal criticisms is unconditionally suspended and the actor is an as wearingly and exclusively set forcarrying out the command. Bureaucratic organisations are characterized for “regimentation” and discipline”. A bureaucracy, no less than a factory, tends to mold a person’s psycho-physical being in an effort to adapt it to the demands of theorganisation. In short, bureaucracy “functionalized” human beings. Self-check Exercise-3 Q.1 What is meant by personal charism as per Max Weber? 7.5    Challenges of Bureaucracy to Democracy Zeitlin says that, “The challenges that bureaucratization poses .to democracy are formidable. Weber correctly fore saw that the powerful bureaucratic tendency is bound to bring with it less individual freedom, not more. Yet in no complex, industrial society has bureaucratization been halted, much less reversed. This istrue in gardless of whether the societies in question are liberal-capitalist or socialist. Weber persuasive analysis therefore raises fundamental issue of vital concern to all of us. In modern governance, bureaucracy and democracy often coexist, but their relationship is not without tension. Bureaucracy, characterized by structured and hierarchical organization, specialized roles, and a commitment to procedural correctness, can sometimes pose challenges to democratic ideals such as transparency, accountability, and citizen participation. Key Challenges 1.    Accountability and Transparency •    Opacity in Decision-Making: Bureaucratic processes are often complex and opaque, making it difficult for citizens to understand how decisions are made. This lack of transparency can lead to suspicions of inefficiency or corruption. •    Limited Oversight: While democratic systems have mechanisms for oversight, the specialized knowledge required to understand bureaucratic operations can make effective monitoring challenging for elected officials and the public. 2.    Efficiency versus Responsiveness •    Rigidity: Bureaucratic structures are designed to ensure consistency and adherence to rules. However, this rigidity can make it difficult for bureaucracies to adapt quickly to new situations or respond to public needs. •    Red Tape: Extensive regulations and procedures can slow down decision-making processes, leading to delays in the implementation of policies and services that citizens rely on. 3.    Representation and Inclusiveness •    Distance from Citizens: Bureaucrats are typically appointed rather than elected, which can create a gap between the public and those making administrative decisions. This can result in policies that do not fully reflect the needs or desires of the populace. •    Insulation from Public Opinion: Because bureaucrats do not face regular elections, they may be less responsive to public opinion and more focused on maintaining internal protocols and standards. 4.    Concentration of Power •    Expertise and Specialization: Bureaucracies rely on specialized knowledge, which can concentrate power in the hands of a few experts. This can undermine democratic principles of equal participation and shared governance. •    Administrative Discretion: Bureaucrats often have significant discretion in how they implement policies, which can lead to inconsistent application of laws and potential abuse of power. 5.    Innovation and Adaptability •    Resistance to Change: Bureaucracies are inherently conservative institutions, often resistant to change and innovation. This can hinder the adoption of new technologies or approaches that might improve public services. •    Bureaucratic Inertia: The large scale and hierarchical nature of bureaucracies can lead to inertia, where changing direction or implementing new policies becomes a slow and cumbersome process. 6.    Ethical and Corruption Concerns •    Ethical Dilemmas: Bureaucrats often face ethical dilemmas, balancing the need to follow rules with the need to achieve outcomes. This can lead to situations where the most ethical choice is not clear. •    Corruption Risks: The concentration of power and lack of transparency in bureaucracies can create opportunities for corruption. Without strong oversight and accountability mechanisms, unethical behavior can flourish. Mitigating the Challenges To address these challenges, various strategies can be employed: •    Enhancing Transparency: Implementing open government initiatives and using technology to make bureaucratic processes more transparent can help increase accountability. •    Improving Responsiveness: Reforming bureaucratic structures to be more flexible and responsive to citizens' needs can bridge the gap between bureaucracy and democracy. •    Increasing Public Participation: Encouraging greater citizen involvement in decisionmaking processes can help ensure that policies reflect the public's needs and values. •    Strengthening Oversight: Establishing robust mechanisms for oversight and accountability can help mitigate risks of corruption and abuse of power. •    Promoting Ethical Standards: Developing and enforcing strong ethical guidelines can help bureaucrats navigate complex ethical dilemmas and maintain public trust. Self-check Exercise-4 Q.1 What are the challenges of bureaucracy? 7.6    Appreciation and Criticism of works of Max Weber It is significant that some aspect of Webers work have been used as starting points of scholarly work that goes beyond his own frame of reference. A notable example is the work of otto Hintze on comparative Constitutional Development (1902-1932). At the theoretical level Tolectt Parsons has synthesized Weber’s analyze of action in the structural-functional sociology of durkhelln.Athird example is the analysis of emerging poetical communities and the interpretation of charisma b Edward Shift (1956, 1959, 1960). These are only some prominent instances of the remarkable influenced of Weber’s work: Its many sided intellectual perspectives and penetrating Insights have proved more stimulating than a number of easiest as more integratedsystems of sociological thought. Critics of Weber attack his concepts. Some have argued about his purposes, and still others about his model. Most frequently, he has been accused of taking the autocratic Prussian bureaucracy and making thisthe standard b which the world’s organisations should be judged. Without doubt there is considerable truth inthis; yet his writing forms the conceptual core of a large part of social science research in this field. The bureaucratic organisation thus viewed by Weber was more rational as compared to other non-rationalbureaucratic organisations. Robert R. Merton in his Classic Essay : Bureaucratic Structure find personality (social forces 18:560:568) May 1940 felt that Weber had little impact on the more vocational management literature but the social scientists had, in recent past, used his model as a basis for empirical research in large scale organisations. Weber contrasted bureaucracy and the rule of law with administrative and legal structure under patrimonisalism while its analytical power is diminished when he was dealing with the study of politics andbureaucratic behaviour under existing legal systems (this has been pointed out by Bendix 1956. Blau 1963,Crozler 1963, Delan 1963, Luhmann 1964, Jchweitzer 1964). Peter Blay say3 that Webers noted explain the social structure only through the function of its elements. It does not investigate into disturbaricesor dysfunctions’ that various produce in the structure of an organisations. Blay points out that Weber could not reorganize that the same factors that enhances efficiency in one respect often threatens it in another, it may have both functional and dysfunctional consequences. According to Blayefficiency in administration can be secured only when an individual is allowed to identify with the purpose of the organisation and to adopt his behaviour to his perception of changing circumstances. Max Weber bureaucratic form of organisation based strictly on formalistic structure is criticized b Chester Bamand and Simon. According to Barnard, informal organisations are necessary to the operation of formalorganisation. A close examination of Webers model shows that it contains sonic contradictions. The two principles Imprisons detachment” and “esprit de crops’’, which according to Weber achieve administrative efficiency are incompatible, since if the relations between the administrative staff and dictated by impersonal detachment, it becomes difficult to see how unspent de crops can emerge. Likewise, rigid adherence to the principle of hierarchical relations between the superiors and the subordinates gives rise to mutual suspicion, as the ablate tends to conceal ordinates in their work and interfere with the upward flow of information. Similarly there isa contradiction between the system of promotion according to seniority and according to merits which again cannot fail to reflect on the hierarchically built relations. While criticizing rational legal model of democracy as developed by Weber, Merton has said the structure in which Weber has laid stress on hierarchy and rules can easily generate unexpected consequences which can prove detrimental to the attainment of objectives of an organisation. Further, Weber has said stress on the division of function in an organisation. Setzrick while criticizing this has said that in actual practice it has been found that each sub-unit sets up its own goal which confect with the goal of the organisation as a whole. Robert Presthus has also criticized Webers concept of bureaucracy by saying that he makes implicit assumptionsabout human motivations which are not necessary valid in non-western environments. Self-check Exercise-5 Q.1 Write a short note on criticism of the ideas of Max Weber. 7.7    Summary Despite all the differences, criticism, Max, Webers model of bureaucracy form of organisation has gainedwidespread recognition in practice of organisation both in developed and developing countries. His model continues to influence the development of modem ozganisation and administration. Webenar model still attractsmany administrators and researchers. Some social scientists feel that bureaucracy is studying on the way ofdevelopment and they stand for de bureaucratization. According to Weber, the bureaucratic form makes the members of administration staff work efficiently-men they possess the requisite skills and know-how and usethen rationally. 7.8    Glossary Bureaucracy – a system of government in which most of the important decisions are taken by stateofficials rather than by elected representatives. Rationalization- the action of attempting the explain or justify behavior or an attitude with logical reasons,even if these are not appropriate. Personal Charisma- magnetic attraction of an individual’s which produces an effect on other individuals. 7.9    Answer to Self-Check Exercises Self-check Exercise-1 Ans 1. Refer to section 7.3 Self-check Exercise-2 Ans 1. Refer to section 7.4 Self-Check Exercise-3 Ans 1. Refer to section 7.5 Self-Check Exercise-4 Ans 1. Refer to section 7.6 Self-Check Exercise-5 Ans 1. Refer to section 7.7 7.10    References/Suggested Readings •    Prasad, D. Ravindra, Prasad, V.S. and Satyanaryana, P.‘Administrative Thinkers’, Sterling PublishingHouse, New Delhi, 2009. •    Laxmikant,M. ‘PublicAdministration’Fifth Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited,New Delhi,2016. •    Avasthi, Dr. A., And S. R. Maheshwari, ‘PublicAdministration’30th Edition, Laxmi NarayanAgarwal, Agra, 2009. •    Arora, K. Ramesh and Batra, K. Satish., ‘Governance and Development,Aalekh Publications, Jaipur,2011. •    Bhattacharya., M. ‘New Horizons of Public Administration’, 7th Edition, Jawahar Publishers and Distribution, New Delhi, 2008. •    Fadia., Prof. B.L. & Fadia., Dr. K. ‘Public Administration: theories and concepts’ Sahitya BhavanPublications,Agra, 2009. •    Sharma, M.P. ‘Public Administration Theory and Practice’ Kitab Mahal, Allahabad, 1960. 7.11    Terminal Questions a.    Discuss about the challenges to Democracy? b.    What are the similarities between charismatic and trait theory of authority? c.    Write a note on legal rational authority of Max Webers. UNIT-8 KARL MARX Structure: 8.1    Introduction 8.2    Learning Objectives 8.3    Origins of Bureaucracy Self-check Exercise-1 8.4    Bureaucracy as an Exploitative Instrument Self-check Exercise-2 8.5    Parasitic Role of Bureaucracy Self-check Exercise-3 8.6    Bureaucrat’s Private Ends Self-check Exercise-4 8.7    Characteristics of Bureaucracy Self-check Exercise-5 8.8    Glossary 8.9    Answers to Self-check Exercises 8.10    References/Suggested Readings 8.11    Terminal Questions 8.1    Introduction Marxism, founded on the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, has had a significant impact on social sciences across the world. Karl Marx is considered one of the three key figures, alongside Émile Durkheim and Max Weber, who shaped modern social science. As a philosopher, economist, historian, political theorist, sociologist, communist, and revolutionary, Marx offered a comprehensive critique of the economic and political systems that shape modern organizations. His ideas laid the groundwork for modern communism, and no other thinker has had as profound an influence on 20th-century thought as Marx. His work inspired the formation of numerous political regimes worldwide, making any discussion of state, society, and administration incomplete without considering his contributions. Beyond his economic theories, Marx's most significant contribution to the social sciences is his theory of historical materialism. This concept attempts to unify all social sciences into one cohesive science of society. Marx argued that human survival is intrinsically linked to social organization, and each mode of production is built upon specific relations of production that form the foundation (or "infrastructure") of society. This infrastructure supports a complex superstructure, which includes the state, law, ideology, religion, philosophy, art, morality, and more. Marx's philosophy offers valuable insights into the functioning of modern organizations, including administrative structures like bureaucracy, which are not new but have existed for thousands of years, particularly in ancient Egypt, Rome, China, and India. In contemporary times, bureaucracy has taken on a special significance and is often seen as a symbol of the modern era. 8.2    Learning Objectives: After studying this lesson, the learner will be able: 8.1.1    To understand the main features of Bureaucracy. 8.1.2    To know about the concept and forms ofAuthority given by Max Weber. 8.1.3    To analyze about charismatic theory presented by Max Weber. 8.1.4    To analyze about the challenges of Bureaucracy to Democracy. 8.3    Origins of Bureaucracy In Karl Marx's and Friedrich Engels' theory of historical materialism, the origins of bureaucracy are traced to four key sources: religion, the formation of the state, commerce, and technology. Early bureaucracies were made up of religious clergy, officials, scribes who performed rituals, and armed functionaries tasked with maintaining order. As human societies transitioned from small, egalitarian communities to more complex, class-based civil societies around 10,000 years ago, authority became more centralized and enforced by a state apparatus that operated separately from society. The state began to create, enforce, and uphold laws, as well as collect taxes, giving rise to an officialdom responsible for carrying out these duties. In this way, the state mediated conflicts among individuals and ensured that they stayed within acceptable limits. It also organized defense efforts and restricted the right of ordinary people to use force, reserving this authority for state authorities. The rise of trade and commerce added another layer to bureaucracy, as the need for record-keeping, managing transactions, and enforcing trade laws grew. As markets increasingly determined the distribution of resources through pricing, the complexity of commercial administration surpassed that of government administration. In modern capitalist societies, this shift is evident, as private sector bureaucracies often outnumber government bureaucracies in terms of the number of administrative workers. Some corporations even have revenues that exceed the national income of entire countries, necessitating large administrative teams to manage their operations. A fourth source of bureaucracy, according to Marxist theory, lies in the technologies of mass production, which require standardized routines and procedures. Even with the advent of machines replacing human labor, there remains a need for people to design, control, supervise, and operate the machinery. The technologies chosen for mass production may not necessarily benefit everyone equally, but they often serve the interests of a particular class, maintaining their economic power. This type of bureaucracy, sometimes referred to as a technocracy, derives its authority from control over specialized technical knowledge or access to critical information. Self-check Exercise-1 Q.1 Write a short note on origin of bureaucracy? 8.4    Bureaucracy as an Exploitative Instrument In Karl Marx's and Friedrich Engels' theory of historical materialism, the origins of bureaucracy are traced to four key sources: religion, the formation of the state, commerce, and technology. Early bureaucracies were made up of religious clergy, officials, scribes who performed rituals, and armed functionaries tasked with maintaining order. As human societies transitioned from small, egalitarian communities to more complex, class-based civil societies around 10,000 years ago, authority became more centralized and enforced by a state apparatus that operated separately from society. The state began to create, enforce, and uphold laws, as well as collect taxes, giving rise to an officialdom responsible for carrying out these duties. In this way, the state mediated conflicts among individuals and ensured that they stayed within acceptable limits. It also organized defense efforts and restricted the right of ordinary people to use force, reserving this authority for state authorities. The rise of trade and commerce added another layer to bureaucracy, as the need for recordkeeping, managing transactions, and enforcing trade laws grew. As markets increasingly determined the distribution of resources through pricing, the complexity of commercial administration surpassed that of government administration. In modern capitalist societies, this shift is evident, as private sector bureaucracies often outnumber government bureaucracies in terms of the number of administrative workers. Some corporations even have revenues that exceed the national income of entire countries, necessitating large administrative teams to manage their operations. A fourth source of bureaucracy, according to Marxist theory, lies in the technologies of mass production, which require standardized routines and procedures. Even with the advent of machines replacing human labor, there remains a need for people to design, control, supervise, and operate the machinery. The technologies chosen for mass production may not necessarily benefit everyone equally, but they often serve the interests of a particular class, maintaining their economic power. This type of bureaucracy, sometimes referred to as a technocracy, derives its authority from control over specialized technical knowledge or access to critical information. Self-check Exercise-2 Q.1 How can you say that bureaucracy is an exploitative instrument? 8.5    Parasitic Role of Bureaucracy Marx views the political system as a product of the collective activities of people within society. In the Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859), he asserts that law and the state are not autonomous or merely the products of human thought, but arise from "material conditions of life." This perspective applies not only to the position of rulers, which is shaped by social consent rather than natural law, but also to the state and bureaucracy. For Marx, productive activity is central to understanding human affairs. He argues that the mode of production should not be seen just as the reproduction of material existence, but as a specific form of human activity and expression. In his words: "Rather, it is a definite form of their activity, a definite way of expressing their life. As individuals express their life, so they are. What they are, therefore, coincides with what they produce and how they produce." In this view, the nature of individuals is shaped by the material conditions that govern their mode of production. Marx emphasizes that social structures and the state evolve from the real-life experiences of individuals, not from imaginary ideas or perceptions, but from how people truly exist within their society. Marx believes that the key to understanding the relations of production lies in recognizing the social classes. In each mode of production, there are two primary classes: one that owns the means of production and one that does not. In a class-based society, Marx argues, bureaucracy does not have an intrinsic role in the production process. He critiques bureaucracy as a “parasite,” created to uphold the status quo and protect the privileges of the ruling class, rather than serving as a necessary part of productive labor. Self-check Exercise-3 Q.1 Write a short note on parasitic nature of bureaucracy? 8.6    Bureaucrat’s Private Ends State power functions for the bureaucracy in much the same way that private property serves the property-owning class. As Marx states, “bureaucracy holds in its essence the state, the spiritual essence of society; it is its private property.” He goes on to explain that bureaucracy "constitutes the imaginary state alongside the real state, and is the spiritualism of the state." In the case of individual bureaucrats, the broader objectives of the state become personal ambitions, with the pursuit of higher positions and career advancement taking center stage. For Marx, the state is not the higher, ethical entity that Hegel suggested, existing above the family or civil society. He rejects the idea that the state has a universal role in harmonizing societal conflicts and uniting people on a higher moral level. In The German Ideology, Marx traces the origin of the state and other social institutions to the division of labor. Each historical mode of production creates a political system that serves the interests of the dominant class. Marx argues that the state is essentially the instrument through which the ruling class asserts and defends its collective interests. Marx saw bureaucracy as a key tool of exploitation within the state. Rather than promoting the public good or fostering communication with citizens, bureaucracy exists to safeguard the private interests of the ruling class. To do so, it cloaks state activities in secrecy, keeping the public in the dark. Marx describes the general spirit of bureaucracy as one of concealment and mystery, noting that it avoids transparency and treats any public awareness of state matters as a form of betrayal. Bureaucracy's power is rooted in maintaining this secrecy, with a hierarchical structure that keeps information closed off and distant from the public. As a result, people become alienated, seeing bureaucracy as an imposing, remote force. The bureaucrats themselves also suffer from alienation, often unaware of the exploitative and oppressive nature of their roles in perpetuating the system. Self-check Exercise-4 Q.1 What are the private ends of bureaucracy? 8.7    Characteristics of Bureaucracy Marx highlights several core features that define bureaucracy, including division of labor, hierarchy, training, and rules. Each of these elements plays a crucial role in shaping the functioning of modern organizations, particularly within capitalist society. Division of Labor: While Marx acknowledges that the division of labor contributes to increased productivity in capitalist organizations, he also points out a significant oversight—the division between intellectual and material activities. Workers engage in physical labor, while capitalists and bureaucrats handle intellectual tasks. As a result, workers bear the brunt of the hard work, while the gains of higher productivity mainly benefit the capitalists, with bureaucrats receiving their share through higher salaries. In some cases, the introduction of high-tech processes leads to higher unemployment among workers, reducing wages, and leaving them with minimal benefits from the increased productivity. Hierarchy: Marx criticizes the hierarchical nature of bureaucracy, which he believes does not prevent individuals from pursuing personal career ambitions. He describes bureaucracy as a hierarchy of knowledge, where those at the top entrust lower levels with specific insights, while the lower levels regard the top as holding a broader understanding of the general picture. This creates mutual deception, with all parties deceived by the hierarchical structure. Marx rejects the 106 idea that any safeguards against bureaucratic abuses can be based on the human qualities of officials, suggesting that the bureaucracy’s inherent structure prevents genuine protection from exploitation. Training: While Hegel argued that liberal education could humanize civil servants, Marx contends that the bureaucratic system dehumanizes workers. The mechanical nature of bureaucratic work and the pressures of office work diminish the individual's humanity. Marx also critiques the system of competitive examinations for selecting bureaucrats, pointing out that they favor individuals from the upper classes who can afford expensive higher education, which also reinforces capitalist values. Education in this system not only creates social distance but also serves the interests of the capitalist system, which is further reflected in the alienation of workers in bureaucratic structures. Rules: Marx observes that bureaucratic minds, conditioned by subordination and passive obedience, come to view adherence to rules as an end in itself, rather than as a means to achieve a broader goal. Bureaucrats focus on following the rules without regard for human needs, which leads to a dehumanized, rigid system. As a result, "actual knowledge" seems empty, and social life appears lifeless. Theory of Alienation: Marx’s theory of alienation suggests that under capitalist conditions, workers lose control over their lives and work, becoming alienated from their productive activity. In pre-capitalist societies, individuals, such as artisans, had more autonomy in their work, but under modern industrial conditions, workers are reduced to cogs in an impersonal, large-scale production system. This alienation applies to both workers and bureaucrats. The bureaucrat, like the worker, is alienated from the product of their work and from their fellow employees, contributing to a sense of disconnection and loss of autonomy. Marx identifies four key aspects of alienation within administrative theory: 1.    Loss of Freedom: Both the exploited and the exploiters suffer from alienation. Workers are forced into jobs and then controlled by management through coercion and threats. Even capitalists lose their freedom, as they are constrained by the demands of their business. 2.    Loss of Creativity: Bureaucracy stifles creativity by enforcing rigid divisions of labor, where no worker has ownership of the entire product. Hierarchies also limit individual contributions, and the detailed control ensured by rules suppresses the worker’s ability to innovate. Even administrators, who might be responsible for policy-making, cannot claim full credit for their contributions. 3.    Loss of Humanity: Workers in large bureaucratic organizations become increasingly machine-like in their functions, stripped of their humanity. The office itself becomes an impersonal structure that overlooks the human aspects of its workers. Managers, too, are part of this impersonal system, which diminishes the human values essential for meaningful work. 4.    Loss of Morality: Marx argues that the loss of freedom, creativity, and humanity leads to a loss of morality. It is immoral to strip workers of their freedom and reduce them to mere tools for production. Likewise, when professionals, such as engineers or doctors, prioritize profits over the safety of others, they become immoral. The lack of sensitivity to others’ suffering within bureaucratic systems is also a moral failing. In essence, Marx’s critique of bureaucracy centers on its dehumanizing effects and its role in maintaining capitalist exploitation. Bureaucratic structures, through their focus on hierarchy, rules, and division of labor, alienate individuals from their work, their fellow workers, and their own humanity. Proletariat’s Alienation from Bureaucracy For Marx, bureaucracy serves as a symbol of alienation for the working class. This alienation has two major implications. Firstly, it suggests that before dismantling the bureaucratic system, the state itself must be abolished. In The Eighteenth Brumaire, Marx notes that while past revolutions sought to challenge bureaucratic control, the proletariat must go further by completely eliminating the institution. On the other hand, Max Weber saw bureaucracy as the rational outcome of social engineering, much like the machines of the Industrial Revolution were the result of mechanical engineering. He argued that bureaucracy advanced primarily due to its technical superiority over previous organizational forms, comparing it to how machines revolutionized production methods. Weber coined the term “rational bureaucracy,” highlighting its features: functional specialization, clear hierarchical authority, expert training for managers, and decision-making based on consistent rules. These elements work together to ensure that organizations function efficiently and predictably, achieving their goals with minimal deviation. Weber also emphasized the importance of merit-based appointments and promotions in bureaucracies, ensuring that individuals are chosen for their expertise rather than personal favoritism. He argued that to maintain order in decision-making, business must be conducted through formal, written rules and records. Hierarchical authority is necessary so that managers with specialized expertise can effectively supervise their departments. Weber further observed that top officials often rotate through different divisions within the organization to understand the diverse issues their subordinates face, ensuring a more comprehensive approach to management. In contrast, Marx took a class-based approach to understanding bureaucracy, seeing it as directly tied to the social divisions within society. He argued that bureaucracy is not an independent social entity but depends on the division between civil society and the state. According to Marx, bureaucratic recruitment, such as the examination process, is not a means of bridging civil society and the state; rather, it serves to separate individuals and their activities from the common good, placing them within the state apparatus. Marx viewed the examination as nothing more than a “bureaucratic baptism of knowledge.” Marx’s take on bureaucracy also includes two crucial points about its relationship with other social corporations. First, bureaucracy often perceives other corporations as rivals and actively competes against them. Second, it relies on the existence of corporations or the "spirit of corporations," aiming to serve its own particular interests, much like the corporate entities it competes with. Marx’s analysis of bureaucracy has profound implications across sociology, politics, and economics. As Avineri points out, bureaucratic structures do not merely reflect the prevailing social power; they distort and manipulate it. Bureaucracy, in Marx’s view, is not an external or accidental feature of the state but is inherently intertwined with the state’s very existence. Hal Draper further elaborates, stating that bureaucracy is not just an unfortunate byproduct but an essential part of the state's structure. From a political standpoint, Marx’s theory of bureaucracy carries a clear message for the proletariat. Marx was not content to merely interpret the world; he sought to change it. He believed that the state’s machinery must be violently overthrown, with the level of violence dictated by the strength of the state’s military and bureaucratic apparatus. For Marx, it is essential for the proletariat to assess the nature and power of the bureaucracy in an oppressive state, recognizing it as a central barrier to revolutionary change. Self-check Exercise-5 Q.1 What are the features of bureaucracy? 8.8    Glossary Karl Marx, “Bureaucracy is a necessary evil” “Capitalist society is the one in which large investment of capital is made by small group of persons for production of goods with the aim of maximizing the profit” 8.9    Answers to Self-check Exercises Self-check Exercise-1 Ans 1. Refer to section 8.3 Self-check Exercise-2 Ans 1. Refer to section 8.4 Self-Check Exercise-3 Ans 1. Refer to section 8.5 Self-Check Exercise-4 Ans 1. Refer to section 8.6 Self-Check Exercise-5 Ans 1. Refer to section 8.7 8.10    References/Suggested Readings •    Prasad, D. Ravindra, Prasad, V.S. and Satyanaryana, P.‘Administrative Thinkers’, Sterling PublishingHouse, New Delhi, 2009. •    Laxmikant,M. ‘PublicAdministration’Fifth Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited,New Delhi,2016. •    Avasthi, Dr. A., And S. R. Maheshwari, ‘PublicAdministration’30th Edition, Laxmi NarayanAgarwal, Agra, 2009. •    Arora, K. Ramesh and Batra, K. Satish., ‘Governance and Development,Aalekh Publications, Jaipur,2011. •    Bhattacharya., M. ‘New Horizons of Public Administration’, 7th Edition, Jawahar Publishers and Distribution, New Delhi, 2008. •    Fadia., Prof. B.L. & Fadia., Dr. K. ‘Public Administration: theories and concepts’ Sahitya BhavanPublications,Agra, 2009. •  Sharma, M.P. ‘Public Administration Theory and Practice’ Kitab Mahal, Allahabad, 1960. 8.11    Terminal Questions 1.    Describe Marx’s ideas on Bureaucracy? 2.    What do you understand by proletariat? ***** UNIT-9 ELTON MAYO Structure 9.1    Introduction 9.2    Learning Objectives 9.3    Hawthorne experiments Self-check Exercise-1 9.4    Special Study as Human Attitudes and Sentiments Self-check Exercise-2 9.5    Human Factor in Management Self-check Exercise-3 9.6    Main findings of Hawthorne Experiments Self-check Exercise-4 9.7    Criticism Self-check Exercise-5 9.8    Summary 9.9    Glossary 9.10    Answer to Self-Check Exercises 9.11    References/Suggested Readings 9.12 Terminal Questions 9.1    Introduction/Life Sketch George Elton Mayo (1880-1949) exercised an influenced on the management studies which as overbearing and propound. His influence on research was for more than a century with of course his famous Hawthornestudies. He studied both industrial sociology and psychology and devoted his attention to studying the problems of private Industrial establishments on the one hand and fatigues, industrial accidents, rest period on the other. Born in 1880 at Adelaide Australia, Elton Mayo received his M.A. degree in logic are philosophy from the University of Adelaide in 1899. He travelled widely in search ofa suitable profession. In this attempt hestudied medicine n Edinbur, Scotland. Mayo also studied Psychology at Adelaide University. After teaching in the University of Queensland in 1919, Mayo emigrated to America and joined and faculty of the WhartonSchool of Finance and Commerce. Later in 1926, Mayo became Professor of Industrial Research at Graduateof Business Administration. He concentrated all his attention on private industrial establishment and wassupported by Rockefeller and Carnegie Foundation Grants throughout his career. In all his -research programmes Mayo focused his attention on the behaviour of the workers and theirproduction capacity keeping in view physiological, physical, economic and psychological aspects. He called this approach a clinical method. Mayo published a few books i.e. the Human problems of Industrial Civilization.The Social Problerqs of Industrial Civilization. The Political Problems of Industrial Civilization, and contributeda number of scholarly articles, to several journals. To name a few i.e. what is Monotony? Changing Methodsin Industry, The Frightened People, Supervision — what it means? Influence on Mayo Mayo was an original thinker and in his thinking he was very much influenced by Pierre Janet andSigmund Freud, well known Psychologists of his times. It was under their influence that he paid his attentionto the behaviour of the workers. Mayo carried out several experiments with a view to finding out the factorswhich influence the behaviour of the workers and their affects on production. The First Inquiry: - It was first major research experiment which was carried out by Mayo, while hewas at Harvard. The experiment was in a textile mill near Bhilandelphia in 1923. The mill was considered a model organisation and provided many facilities .to the workers. The employerswere quite cooperative but even then mule spinning department was creating problems for the management where turnover was about 250%. In order to come over difficulties the management introduced’ schemes butthe labourers did not stick to this department of the mill. Even financial incentives introduced in consultation with efficiency engineer, did not produce the desiredresults. The management referred the problem for study results. The management referred, the problem forstudy to Harward University. Mayo’s Solution: - After studying the problem he started his experiment by introducing rest periods of terminates each time in the morning and afternoon with every team. He found that results were encouraging. The problem of physical fatigue appeared to have been come over. The labour turn over did not exist and morale of, the workers, improved. In addition, production went up. The system of earning bonus was introducedby which those workers who produced more than a certain percentage were paid bonus proportionate to their extra production. This further reduced labour turn over and related in extra production. After sometime for some reasons the scheme of rest pauses was abandoned, within a week production and fatigue reappeared. Again the Mill had to be shut down for teen minutes each, four times a day. 9.2    Learning Objectives After studying this lesson, the learner will be able: -    To know about the life sketch of Elton Mayo and his Contribution. -    To understand about Hawthorne experiments and their findings. -    To Comprehend about the role of Human factors in Management. 9.3    Hawthorne Experiments: These experiments were carried out by Mayo and his colleagues and changed radically the thinking of management. The experiments were carried out for about 8 years between 1924-1932 in Hawthorne worksof Western Electric Company of the U.S.A. These were caned out jointly b western Electric Company and Graduate School of Business Administration of Harward University under the auspices of National ResearchCouncil. The company employed 25,000 workers and was located in the Chicago city. The management of the con party believed that there was cause-effect relationship between the physical Work, environment, the well being and productivity the workers.lt also believed that given proper ventilation, temperature, lighting and other physical conditions along with wage incentive schemes, the production will go up. Problem’ whichblocked efficiency were believed to be improper job design, fatigues and other conditions of work. Illuminationof the workplace was also believed to be an important aspect since it affected the quality, quantity and safety. Therefore, the national Research. Council for the National Academy of sciences decided to examine the precise relationship between illumination and the efficiency of the worker with a research programme at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric Company. Need for Experiments It may however be mentioned that at the time of carrying out of experiments management properly looked after the interests of the workers. They had fixed working hours, aid reasonably good wages and there was provision for a good canteen and hospital. They also had scope for entertainment. During the last 25 years, the workers had not gone on strike even once. But even then the workers were not satisfied. They had nogood social life and were not satisfied. They had no good social life and were always suffering from onedisease or the other. There was always a tense atmosphere in the company. In order to find out the causes ofthe tension the following experiments were carried out. 1.    The lighting experiments, 2.    The relay Assembly Test room Experiment. 3.    Second Relay Ass Group Test. 4.    The Mica Splitting Group Test 5.    The Bank wiring Group observation The Lighting Experiments In one of the experiments two groups of female workers each consisting of six was selected and located n two separate rooms. Each group was required to perform same type of work. The rooms were equallyilluminating and the experiments to be carried out were to find out as to what was the effect of light on production. In the beginning in both the rooms same conditions of work were provided but subsequentlywhereas in one room no change in light was made during work hour, in the other room light, was increased and decreased. The experiment was carried out for one and a half year and at the end it was found that irrespective of the effect of light, production in both the cases increased. Thus it was concluded that increasesin light had no significant effect, hence light experiment was abandoned. Later Mayo tried to find out the effect of payment of wages rest periods, during working hours, groupincentives, individual piece rate on rise and slowing down on production.All changes led to increased production. Production also want on increasing when working hours were reduced and letter canteen facilities were provided to the workers. In a kid to find out the causes which adversely affected production the researchers decided to revert the old system by abolishing all the above mentioned privileges and began from the position from which the experiments had been started. ‘But even than production went on increasing and this quizzed the research team. Thus, the researchers concluded that neither light, nor incentive scheme, nor rest periodhad really any relevance with increased production. The Relay Assembly Test Room Experiments These experiments started in 1927 continues till 1932. The outcome was some important findings. In theseexperiments six girls were picked up for experimentation. These were put in a small room and. assigned the duty of assembling small telephone parts. These were never experts nor raw in the work also to them. Thesewere average workers. An observer was appointed to observe their performance. He observed not only when they were at work but also temperature, humidity happenings, conversations in the room and productionof girls. The girls were also medically experienced. Another experiment corned out was that the workers were given minutes the morning and in the eveningand it was found that production remained unchanged. When rest pause was increased from 5 to 10 minutesthere was marginal increase in production. The production however, increased when the workers were given 15 minutes rest in the morning and 10minutes rest in the evening and also provided hot free food. Finding: Mao and his team thus carried out several experiments about rest pauses and working hoursand found that for about rest pauses and working hours and found that for about one and a half years production increased and the workers were quite happy. They came close to each other and there was goodunderstanding between the workers and the observers. They also worked in a free atmosphere and the management did not interfere much in their style of working. Physical atmosphere conditions, it was found could as well as could not adversely affect production. It was also found that the girls which were beingexperimented showed considerable concern about their job security when the world was faced with serious when the world was faced with serious when the world was faced with serious economic depression of1929. The researchers also established that relief from monotony always meant more production as that hadnothing to do with physical environments. It was also found that it was not wage it something else that led togreater output. Then Mayo also found that work satisfaction depended to a large extent on the informal social pattern of the working group. The supervisor therefore, should be so trained that they should take personal interest in the subordinates. This can help in increased production. He suggested that an environment should be created by which the workers could openly tell their requirements freely to their superiors in the company. Supervision morale and productivity go hand in hand. The Second Relay Assembly Group Test In this test a group of workers were kept away from their main department and made to work as a separate group. For this purpose in 1932 five workers were selected. They were assured monetary incentives and for about nine weeks their work was supervised. A separate account was kept of their output after joining the group. Thetr working conditions were not materially hanged. The only change was that these workers were not allowed to mix with the workers of their main group. It was found that the productionincreased by about 13%. Mayo and his team thus came to the conclusion that if the workers were kept inseparate groups then production could go up. Some other Experiments: In an experiment called Mira Splitting group experiment some girls were kept in a separate room where their working conditions were changed five times in a ‘gear. It was found that girls did not cherish thesechanges. The researchers also found that these workers and established social contacts. Mayo and his teamcame to the conclusion that to a large extent wok satisfaction was responsible for this. During 1928-29 about 1600 workers were interviewed and they were questioned about their working conditions, company’s policies and programmes etc. They were asked to express their views freely and frankly. The views expressed by the workers helped in developing certain good principles to be followed by the company. The Interviews also made it clear that demands of the worker were very much influenced it clear that demands of the workers were very influenced by internal and external forces. It was also found that the adverse feelings of the workers to a large extent could he-adjusted. The last phase of these experiments was Bank Wiring Group observation. The main purpose of theobserve was to know the role of informal social relationship on production etc. It was found that in a commercial organization informal social relationship had very important role. It was established that insteadof monetary incentives informal social contacts and human approach to the problems of the workers go along way. Self-check Exercise-1 Q.1 Describe the hawthrone experiments conducted by Elton Mayo. Q.2 Write a short note on Relay Assembly Test Room Experiment. 9.4    Special Study on Human Attitudes and Sentiments This study revealed that when workers were given the opportunity to voice their concerns, they experienced a sense of relief, even though no changes were made to their wages or work environment. The research also found that there was no significant correlation between the type of complaint and the outcomes, but it did highlight that workers' personal and family issues negatively impacted their performance at work. Additionally, the study showed that when workers were encouraged to share their thoughts on company policies, activities, and their personal concerns, they felt a sense of validation. The act of expressing themselves made them feel more respected, as it gave them a voice alongside the management. This sense of being heard brought them a sense of satisfaction, even if no immediate changes were made. Subordinates, who had previously been intimidated by their supervisors, were now able to openly share their opinions. In the Bank Wiring Experiment, it was observed that workers had a clear, self-imposed standard of output that was lower than the management's target. Despite some workers being capable of producing more, the group collectively decided not to increase or decrease the output. The group maintained a strong internal cohesion, exerting informal pressure on members to correct any behavior that deviated from their agreed-upon norms. They deliberately kept the workload balanced, avoiding attempts to stand out or show excessive effort. Furthermore, they collectively agreed not to share information with their superiors that could potentially undermine the group's interests. Interestingly, the behavior of the group had little to do with management directives or the plant’s broader economic conditions. The workers were particularly resistant to interference from technologists in their tasks. Self-check Exercise-2 Q.1 Write a short note on Human Attitudes and Sentiments Experiment. 9.5    Human factor in Management Mayo pointed out that each individual had certain hopes, expectations and aspirations and As such he could not be made to work under the threat or use of force. He was of the opinion that for efficiency and better production human factor played moral an — important role than technical factors and as such the former should be given maximum importance. He has suggested that at work satisfaction also provide social satisfaction. He has also said that due attention should be paid to individual problem of the workers as well, so that these do net he come organizational problems and hamper production. Mayo also found that during the course of their work the workers themselves developed their cultural andsocial contacts and that these could be studied and analysed. It was very essential than an administrator, while paying attention to achieving targets of the organisation should try to give social satisfaction to eachworker and try to meet his social needs. He has suggested the managers to pay more attention to win thecooperation of the workers and stud human aspect in the organisation. Absenteeism in Industries Mayo also studied the problem of obscenities in three industries and found that this could be considerable checked if the management encouraged formation of informal groups and treated the workers with humanunderstanding. He therefore, suggested the management that the workers should not be treated only as one of the factors of production but as human beings. They should not carry the impression that the management is bent upon exploiting them. The management should try to develop human relationship in industry andencourage the workers to take initiative. Self-check Exercise-3 Q.1 Describe the issue of absenteeism in industries. 9.6    Main findings of Hawthorne Experiments These experiments which were carried out for years together made Mayo and his team came to the conclusion that human approach of the management not only increase production also gives social satisfaction to the workers. The workers automatically do not develop group feelings but for that the management should make efforts. The demands of the workers are influenced both by inter! Condition prevailing in the organisation and those which prevail outside the organisation. Environmental conditions and light does not materially affect output and production. Similarly physical and environmental factors do not adversely affect the efficiencyof the worker. The experiments also brought out clearly the role of informal social group in production andoutput; The experiments also established that the workers did not work simply for the same of earning money but these were also several others causes for that, which had not much relevance with money. Self-check Exercise-4 Q.1 What were the major findings of Hawthrone Experiment? 9.7    Criticism Mayo and his findings faced significant criticism. One major critique was that his theory seemed to promote human relations-focused supervisors as a replacement for union representation. Critics argued that Mayo failed to grasp the importance of unions in a free society. They contended that he never truly incorporated unions into his framework, which led to accusations that he was anti-union and overly supportive of management. In fact, in 1949, the United Auto Workers union strongly criticized Mayo's ideas, even condemning "Mayoism" as harmful. They branded the Hawthorne researchers as biased sociologists serving management's interests. Another point of criticism was that Mayo drew broad, sweeping conclusions from a relatively small sample of studies, which some critics argued were full of limitations and methodological flaws. Self-check Exercise-5 Q.1 Critically evaluate the works of Elton Mayo. 9.8    Summary Mayo's contribution to administrative organization was a significant innovation in modern times. For the first time, he sought to understand the challenges faced by industrial labor from a perspective distinct from the traditional scientific management approach. His focus extended beyond just human relations within the organization. In addition to human relation in the organisation, Mayo critically examined the employee — employer relations, stability of the labour, supervision, etc. of the industrial workers. The studies, as Drucker has put it “are still the best, the most advanced and the most complete works in the field of human relations and the most complete works in the field of human relations. Indeed it is debatable whether the many refinements added since by the labour of countless people industry, labour unions and academic life, have darified or observed the original insight.” 9.9    Glossary Lighting – equipment is a room, building or street for producing light. Experiment- a scientific procedure undertaken to make a discovery, text a hypothesis, or demonstrate aknown fact. 9.10    Answer to Self-Check Exercises Self-check Exercise-1 Ans 1. Refer to section 9.3 Ans 2. Refer to section 9.3 Self-check Exercise-2 Ans 1. Refer to section 9.4 Self-Check Exercise-3 Ans 1. Refer to section 9.5 Self-Check Exercise-4 Ans 1. Refer to section 9.6 Self-Check Exercise-5 Ans 1. Refer to section 9.7 9.11    References/Suggested Readings •    Prasad, D. Ravindra, Prasad, V.S. and Satyanaryana, P.‘Administrative Thinkers’, Sterling PublishingHouse, New Delhi, 2009. •    Laxmikant,M. ‘PublicAdministration’Fifth Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited,New Delhi,2016. •    Avasthi, Dr. A., And S. R. Maheshwari, ‘PublicAdministration’30th Edition, Laxmi NarayanAgarwal, Agra, 2009. •    Arora, K. Ramesh and Batra, K. Satish., ‘Governance and Development, Aalekh Publications,Jaipur, 2011. •    Bhattacharya., M. ‘New Horizons of Public Administration’, 7th Edition, Jawahar Publishers and Distribution, New Delhi, 2008. •    Fadia., Prof. B.L. & Fadia., Dr. K. ‘Public Administration: theories and concepts’ Sahitya BhavanPublications,Agra, 2009. •    Sharma, M.P. ‘Public Administration Theory and Practice’ Kitab Mahal, Allahabad, 1960. 9.12    Terminal Questions a.    Write a note on “Human Attitudes and Sentiments”. b.    What do you mean Rabble Hypothesis? ***** UNIT-10 ABRAHAM MASLOW Structure 10.1    Introduction 10.2    Learning Objectives 10.3    Maslow’s theory of Motivation Self-check Exercise-1 10.4    Pandiculation of needs Self-check Exercise-2 10.5    Exception to the need hierarchy Self-check Exercise-3 10.6    Criticism Self-check Exercise-4 10.7    Summary 10.8    Glossary 10.9    Answers to Self - Check Exercises 10.10    References/Suggested Readings 10.11    Terminal Questions 10.1    Introduction/Life Sketch Abraham H. Maslow (198-1970) a renowned scholar of psychology based his theory of motivation on the simple assumption that greater pay motivates more work. Maslow, a Brades University psychologist in has famous work of motivates and personality (1954) presents a readable discussion which emphasizes thehierarchy of needs and its relation to motivation. He has been called the “Father of Human Psychology”, wholaid the foundation for subsequent psychologists i.e Likert, Herzberg. McGregor, Porter & Lawler etc. The original paper present very little empirical evidence in support of the theory and no research at all that tests the model in its entirety. Indeed, Maslow argues that the theory is primarily a framework or future research. He wrote many looks among which the prominent ones are: •    New know in Human Values (1959 ed). •    Eupsychiun Management(1965) •    Principles of Abnormal Psychology (1965). •    The partner Reaches of Human Nature (1978) The partner Reaches of Human Nature (1978), published posthumously. 10.2    Learning Objectives After studying this lesson, the learner will be able: -  To know about life sketch and various important works of Abraham Maslow. -  To understand about Maslow’s Theory of Motivation. -  To comprehend about the hierarchy of needs. 10.3    Maslow’s theory of motivation Although there is a wise consensus among managers and researchers alike that motivation is a critical determinant of behavior in organizations. In general it involves three basic questions i.e. what gets the behaviourstarted, what determines the magnitude or intensity of behaviour, and what finally causes behavior to stop. Toanswer these questions psychologists tell us that people behave in certain ways and pursue particular courses of action in order to satisfy their needs; Because behaviour is directed towards need satisfaction, it is ofstrategic importance to know what people desire from nob if we are to motivate them. In terms of motivationequation, the process appears as follows: Need Want + incentive = ActionDrive Ability On the left side of the equation are those things that people want or need, or the drives that cause andexplain behaviour. So Maslow’s theory too is a need based theory. It hypothesizes that people have a variety of different needs and that those needs which are most import and salient to a person at a given time have acritical towards greater financial support. 1.    The Social Needs : The needs for contact and interaction with other people in the society are triggeredonce physiological and safety needs have been net people need to feel they belong that they are accepted asan important element of the group, and have some influence with other group embers. Non-satisfaction of this level of needs may affect the psychology of the Individual. 2.    The Esteem Needs : Maslow identifies the need for respect and esteem, both from oneself and others, as essential for personal growth. He divides these needs into two categories. The first includes the desire for strength, achievement, confidence, and independence—essentially, the need to feel capable and free. The second category encompasses the desire for reputation, prestige, recognition, and appreciation from others. When these self-esteem needs are met, individuals experience feelings of self-confidence, worth, and a sense of being capable and useful. This framework is visually represented in the figure above. 3.    The Physiological Needs : The needs of the body for shelter, food and water are physiological in nature. In such a case, no other needs service as a basis for motivation. As Maslow states, “A person who is lacking food, safety, love and esteem would probably hunger for food more strongly than for anything else.” When these basic needs begin to be fulfilled then rest of the levels of needs become important, and these motivateand dominate the behaviours of the individual. The physiological needs, along with their partial goals; when chronically gratified cease to exist as active determinants or organizers of behaviour. 4.    The Safety Needs : The two types of security needs are physical and economic. The latter need is theone discussed under safety needs. These needs include protection from physical harm, ill health economic disaster and the unexpected from a managerial. These also form the basic format of Maslow theory ofmotivation which is discussed as follows : The theory of Motivation As it is already discussed that unsatisfied needs are starting point in the process of motivation. Theneed hierarchy theory hypothesize that there are five basic categories of needs and that a person is motivatedto engage in behaviour that will bad to the fulfillment of the need or needs which are most salient at aparticular time. The needs are arranged in a hierarchy from lower level deficiency needs to higher legalgrowth needs Maslow believed that five levels of needs exist. These levels are (1 ) physiological (2) safety (3) social (4) esteem (5) sell-actualization. Fig.: 1. The hierarchy of Needs 8.    Any classification of motivations must deal with the problem of levels of specificity or generalizationsof the motives . 9.    Classification motivations should be based upon goals rather than upon instigating 10.    Motivation theory should be human- centered rather than animal-centered. 11.    The situation in the field in which a person reacts must be taken into account. 12.    Not only the integration of the person must be taken into account, but also the possibility of isolated, specific, partial or segmental reactions. 13.    Motivation theory is not Synonymous with behaviour theory. The motivations are only one class ofdeterminants of behaviour while behaviour is almost always motivated it is also almost always biologicallyculturally and situationally determined as well. These propositions provide a guidelines to the management thinkers in the sphere of motivations in organisations necessary in the world. People obtain gratlflcatcn by becoming members of a group, institution,political party, club, etc. 5.    The Need for Self Actualization Maslow suggests that even if all of a person's needs are met, a new sense of discontent and restlessness may arise unless the individual is engaging in what they are truly meant to do. In other words, people have an inherent drive to realize their full potential. This idea, originally coined by Kurt Goldstein, refers to the desire for self-fulfillment—the drive to become the best version of oneself and fully actualize one's capabilities. Maslow assumes that the satisfaction of self-actualization needs is possible only after the satisfaction ofall other needs. Self-check Exercise-1 Q.1 Describe Maslow’s theory of motivation. 10.4    Pandiculation of needs Maslow had given a five-need theory in 1943, but not content with it, he added two needs more, which are: a)    Integration or wholeness Needs, b)    Meta Needs Integration needs refer to the needs of individuals to maintain an integrated and consistent picture of themselves and their world. This need, arising after fulfillment of esteem needs, comprises the need toresolve conflict, the need to feel that one is fairly and justly treated and the need to make order out of disorganized or chaotic situations. By meta-motivations, Maslow meant such tendencies that seek certain growth ends as truth, beauty goodness and older. They are ends in themselves and as such the term. ‘Being values devotes a state of being rather than a state of becoming. Truth, justice, beauty, virtual, perfection, wholeness, richness, simplicity, sellsufficiency and meaningfulness are some of the meta-motive or B- values. Self-check Exercise-2 Q.1 Write a short note on pandiculation of needs. 10.5    Exception to the Need Hierarchy Though the hierarchy of needs given by Maslow applicable in -a fixed manner in the situations studied,however there have been a member of exception be has outlined: (1)    For some individuals, self-esteem appears to be more important than love. As a result, those who lack love and yearn for it may display outwardly confident or aggressive behaviors as a defense mechanism. (2)    There are other, innately creative people in whom the drive of creativeness seems to be more importantthan anyother. (3)    In certain people the level of aspiration may be permanently deadened or lowered i.e. chronic unemployment, etc. (4)    The so-called psychopathic personality is another example of permanent loss of the love needs. Thesepeople have simply lost forever the desire and he ability to give and receive affection. (5)    Another cause of reversal of the hierarchy is that when a need has been satisfied for a longtime, its need may be undervalued for e.g some pale have never experienced chronic hunger thus look upon food asunimportantthing (6)   Perhaps more important than all these exceptions the one that involve ideals, high social standards,high values and the like for e.g. martyrs; ideal, patriotism. To sum up, Maslow adds that our needs emerge only when more prepotent neeu ... gratified. This gratification has an important role in motivation theory. Self-check Exercise-3 Q.1 What is the exception to need hierarchy theory? 10.6    Criticism The theory motivation of Maslow has greatly contributed to the management and also to the individual psychology. Though the need hierarchy theory has enjoyed popularity among practitioners over the pasttwenty years. Unfortunately, in spite of its considerable popular appeal, the theory has not stood up particularly well to systematic scientific inquiry. The extensive research by American Scholars on the issue of whether or not there are in fact five distinct categories of need arranged in a hierarchy and how people move from one level of needs to the next. The research conducted b Wahba & bridwell report that: There are many factors which complicate the motivate process. The first among them is perhaps that motivators change from time to time. The strong motivators of to-day may not retain their same degree of potency tomorrow. Mother factor is that people behave indifferent ways to satisfy a given need. It is already mentioned earlier, that all of us want recognition and a certain amount of individual attention. A highly qualified person may get recognition and attention through positive behaviour and may be willing to put forth add effortin anemergency. Self-check Exercise-4 Q.1 Critically evaluate the theory of motivation given by Abraham Maslow. 10.7    Summary Maslow organized human needs into a hierarchy, with the basic physiological and security needs at the bottom. Above these are social and self-esteem needs, which are considered middle-order needs, while self-actualization sits at the top as a higher-order need. According to Maslow, satisfying the lower-order needs is essential before the higher-order needs can emerge. He refers to the lower and middle-order needs as "deficit needs" or 'D' needs, while self-actualization is categorized as a "being need" or 'B' needs. This represents the desire for personal growth, fulfillment, and leading a meaningful life, although the way this need manifests can differ for each individual. 10.8    Glossary Integration — the action or process of integrating. Self-actualization — the realization or fulfillment of one’s talents and potentialities, especially consideredas a drive or need present in everyone. Esteem need — desire for reputation or prestige. 10.9    Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-check Exercise-1 Ans 1. Refer to section 10.3 Self-check Exercise-2 Ans 1. Refer to section 10.4 Self-Check Exercise-3 Ans 1. Refer to section 10.5 Self-Check Exercise-4 Ans 1. Refer to section 10.6 10.10    References/Suggested Readings •    Prasad, D. Ravindra, Prasad, V.S. and Satyanaryana, P.‘Administrative Thinkers’, Sterling PublishingHouse, New Delhi, 2009. •    Laxmikant,M. ‘PublicAdministration’Fifth Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited,New Delhi,2016. •    Avasthi, Dr. A., And S. R. Maheshwari, ‘PublicAdministration’30th Edition, Laxmi NarayanAgarwal, Agra, 2009. •    Arora, K. Ramesh and Batra, K. Satish., ‘Governance and Development,Aalekh Publications, Jaipur,2011. •    Bhattacharya., M. ‘New Horizons of Public Administration’, 7th Edition, Jawahar Publishers and Distribution, New Delhi, 2008. •    Fadia., Prof. B.L. & Fadia., Dr. K. ‘Public Administration: theories and concepts’ Sahitya BhavanPublications,Agra, 2009. •    Sharma, M.P. ‘Public Administration Theory and Practice’ Kitab Mahal, Allahabad, 1960. 10.11    Terminal Questions (a)    Who coined the term ‘self-actualization’? (b)    Discuss Maslow’s hierarchy of need in chronological order? (c)    What do you mean by Integration needs and Meta need? ***** 132