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title: "Vol 3 0"
book: "PG MPUB 101 (1st Sem) Introduction to Public Administration"
category: "PG MPUB"
publisher: "Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd."
type: "Educational Material"
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According to Latest Syllabus
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RATAN
TEXT BOOK
INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Vol-3
M.A.Pub.Ad. (Sem-I)
Dr. Abhishek Soni
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Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd.
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Unit 15
Accountability and Control
Structure

15.1        Introduction

15.2       Learning Objectives

15.3       Legislative Control
Self-Check Exercise - 1

15.4      Executive Control
Self-Check Exercise - 2

15.5       Judicial Control
Self-Check Exercise - 3

15.6      External Accountability and Control
Self-Check Exercise - 4

15.7      Accountability in Global Governance
Self-Check Exercise - 5

15.8      Summary

15.9       Glossary

15.10     Answers to Self-Check Exercises

15.11     References/Suggested Readings

15.12     Terminal Questions

15.1    Introduction
In a democracy, the people should not only form the government, but they should also hold it responsible. Put another way, bureaucrats and government employees should serve the public interest and be held responsible for their actions. In actuality, laws, rules, and regulations enable professional civil officials administer the government. It is not always simple to understand why certain policies are adopted and how they are executed due to the scale of government and the distance between the general public and those working for the government. Government operations are frequently shielded by intricate laws and regulations and kept under wraps. Transparency is essential to democracy. Democracy is real and works when government processes are transparent and there is a mechanism in place to hold public employees responsible for their actions. The main issues with accountability are: how to put institutional restraints on those in positions of bureaucratic "power," how to supervise the use of "power," and how to apply checks on that authority. Therefore, "answerability" or providing a "report" of acts taken and "enforceability" or taking punitive action for unlawful, insufficient, or incorrect performance are both implied by the concept of accountability. To put it simply, accountability is taking responsibility for one's actions or behaviors. The process via which a public agency or a public official carries out their given responsibilities is known as public services accountability. It also covers the procedure by which the official or agency must give an explanation for these kinds of activities. The foundation of public administration in a democracy is bureaucratic accountability. It goes without saying that in a constitutional system of government, bureaucrats must answer to their hierarchical superiors within the organization as well as the court's interpretation of the Constitution's limits and duties. Additionally, democratic government assumes that the people and their elected representatives are superior to the bureaucracy. When it comes to accountability, our main focus should be on ways to make sure that those in positions of authority use their influence sensibly so that they can be held responsible for their deeds.
The accountability chain is really simple, according to classical democratic thought. Representatives are chosen by the public based on their positions on social, political, and economic problems. The representatives of the people enact policies, which are implemented by administrative agencies. It is true that they report to their political chiefs, who report to the legislature. This distinction between policymaking and policy implementation is not valid in contemporary administration. In today's large government, administrators have a great deal of discretion and do take part in the policy-making process. The public and media have
consistently demanded more transparent and clear public administration, as well as an improvement in the moral behavior of public officials, as the State has gotten larger and bureaucrats have abused their power.

15.2    Learning Objectives
After going through this lesson the students will be able to know

•    Legislative Control

•    Executive Control

•    Judicial Control

15.3    Legislative Control
In democratic the broad policies of administration are laid down in the legislative enactment. The tasks of government are, thus, not of its own making; these are broadly speaking, defined by the legislature. Further, the later provides the government with funds to finance the various programmes. The legislature lays down major public policies by enacting laws or by amending or repealing the existing ones. In practice, however, the initiative in policy making has gradually, but surely, shifted to the executive all over the ‘world. In India the tools of Legislative Control are Questions, Resolutions, and Zero-Hour Discussion. Adjustment Motions, Votes of Censure, Budgets, and Parliamentary Committees.
Parliamentary oversight of public administration operates in two ways: direct and indirect. Indirect control functions through ministers, who act as a bridge between their departments and the legislature. In a parliamentary system, ministers are held accountable on the floor of the house, ensuring that the administration remains answerable to the people's will. As both a servant of Parliament and the head of their department, a minister is responsible for addressing any lapses within their ministry. Similar to parliamentary practices in Britain, Canada, and Australia, the Indian Parliament has developed effective mechanisms to monitor and refine bureaucratic structures, ensuring greater operational efficiency. The Parliament/Legislative exercises supervision and control over administration, through the following means:
Budgetary Control: The most effective legislative oversight of administration is exercised through financial control, as no expenditure can be made without the legislature's approval. While the executive’s demands for grants cannot be rejected or reduced as long as it holds a
majority in the legislature, the process of voting on these grants is preceded by debates and discussions. This provides the opposition with a valuable platform to scrutinize the government’s actions, highlight its shortcomings, and ensure greater accountability. Such deliberations serve as a crucial mechanism for maintaining effective control over public administration.
President Speech: Each new session of Parliament begins with a speech by the President, outlining the key policies and initiatives the executive plans to focus on in the near future. Typically, four days are allocated for discussions on this address, providing a platform for indepth debate. This discussion allows the opposition to critically examine the government's policies and performance, not only in relation to the address but also across the broader scope of administration. It serves as an important mechanism for holding the government accountable and ensuring transparency in governance.
Question hour: The first hour of every parliamentary day is reserved for questions which provide an effective form of control. The privilege of asking questions keeps the entire administration on its toes. A question is generally followed by supplementary questions, which provide a sort of cross examination of the minister and do often catch him of his balance.
Zero Hour Discussion: ‘Zero Hour’ India’s innovation in the field of parliamentary practices, has emerged since 1952 as a powerful tool of control over the executive, though it is not a formally prescribed device available to the members of parliament and involved immediately after the question hour but before the items on the order paper of the house are taken up for discussion and disposal.
Adjournment Debates: The device of adjournment motion is a tool of day to day control and may be utilized for arising a discussion in the house of any specific question of urgent nature and of public importance.
No Confidence Motion: It is also called censor motion, exists in the constitution itself. It provides an occasion when the entire policy of the government or a part of it, comes under fire. An adverse vote on this occasion leads to the resignation of the Government.
Debate on Legislation: The various readings of a bill provide opportunities to the members of parliament to criticize the entire underlying of the bill.
Parliamentary Committees: These committees are Public Accounts Committee, Estimate Committee, Committee on Public Undertaking, Committee on Subordinate Legislation and Committee on Assurance are also tools of control over administration.
Audit: When Parliament approves funds for expenditure, it also bears the responsibility of ensuring that the allocated money is utilized efficiently and responsibly. This oversight of public expenditure is carried out through the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India, who audits government spending and ensures financial accountability. By examining expenditures and identifying irregularities, the CAG helps Parliament maintain transparency and enforce fiscal discipline in governance.
Limitation of Legislative Control: It is the function of Parliament to exercise surveillance or oversight over administration. But, while the administration is accountable to Parliament, Parliament is not supposed to interfere with the day to day administration. The pivotal position of Parliament in the Indian political system, in recent years has suffered some decline in its prestige. Some of the limits are discussed below
The executive plays a crucial role in policy formulation, making the government the primary legislative leader. With the increasing scope and complexity of administration, legislatures often lack the time and expertise to effectively oversee its rapid expansion. Additionally, financial oversight is hindered by a lack of technical knowledge in finance. As a result, there has been a growing demand for more specialized mechanisms of parliamentary control. This has led to the adoption of independent watchdog institutions, known as the Ombudsman in Scandinavian countries and the Lokpal and Lokayukta in India, to enhance accountability and transparency in governance.

• Self-Check Exercise 1
Q1. What are the various ways a legislature can ensure accountability in the country.

15.4    Executive Control
Executive Control over administration is another potent instrument is responsible government, meriting attention. The executive control of administration is exercised by the chief executive. According to E.N. Gladden “There are three important controls by executive on the civil service, tamely, political directions through ministerial administrator, the operation of the national budgetary system and recruitment by an independent authority”
Control through policy: The executive plays a crucial role in policy-making. In the United States, the Chief Executive sets the overall direction for administrative actions. In parliamentary systems, however, policy formulation, supreme administrative oversight, and coordination among various branches of administration are the responsibilities of the cabinet. The cabinet ensures that government policies are effectively implemented while maintaining control over the administration to achieve governance objectives efficiently.
Control through Budgetary System: The executive is responsible for preparing the budget, determining revenue sources, and allocating funds to various departments, ensuring that expenditures do not exceed the approved limits. As a result, every department remains under the continuous and effective oversight of the executive for both financial and personnel requirements. This centralized control allows the government to manage resources efficiently and maintain fiscal discipline across all administrative functions.
Control through Recruitment System: It is the executive who lays down general principles for recruitment of the civil service the ministers select their own secretaries and Deputy Sectaries to run the department.
Control through Executive Law Making: Executive law-making, or delegated legislation, is another means through which the executive exercises control over public officials. Most laws passed by the legislature serve as a framework, leaving the executive with the authority to define specific details. In India, the executive also holds the power to issue ordinances, which carry the same legal weight as legislation enacted by Parliament. However, ordinances are issued by the Chief Executive only in urgent situations when Parliament is not in session. These ordinances remain in effect temporarily and must be approved by Parliament once it reconvenes; otherwise, they lapse.

• Self-Check Exercise 2
Q1. Explain the methods of Executive Control in our democracy.

15.5    Judicial Control
Accountability refers to the responsibility for decisions or actions, typically involving answerability to an external authority. Transparency in operations and decision-making processes is a key factor in ensuring accountability. Judicial accountability, therefore, means that judges are responsible for their rulings and conduct. However, The judiciary is not
subjected to the same level of accountability as the executive or legislative branches due to the need to uphold judicial independence. While accountability is essential, excessive oversight by the legislature or executive could compromise the judiciary’s autonomy, which is fundamental to liberty and the rule of law. To maintain this balance, specific mechanisms, such as judicial review, ethical codes, and oversight bodies, are in place to ensure accountability without undermining judicial independence.
The Constitution of India lays down provisions for the removal of Supreme Court and High Court judges on grounds of misbehavior and incapacity through the process of impeachment. These provisions are outlined in Article 124(4) for Supreme Court judges and Article 217(1)(b) for High Court judges. However, no judge has been successfully impeached to date. While an impeachment process was initiated against a Supreme Court judge, it did not reach completion. Similarly, no High Court judge has been removed through impeachment. To regulate the investigation process and establish evidence of incapacity or misconduct, the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968, was enacted.
Article 235 of the Indian Constitution grants the High Court control over the subordinate judiciary, providing a mechanism to ensure accountability at the lower judicial level. In 1997, the Supreme Court of India adopted the Restatement of Values of Judicial Life, a charter outlining universally accepted norms, guidelines, and conventions for judges, which has also been adopted by all High Courts. While this charter serves as a code of conduct, it does not function as a strict instrument of judicial accountability. To address misconduct, the Supreme Court passed a resolution in December 1999, establishing an in-house procedure for taking action against judges who violate judicial ethics. Under this procedure, if a complaint is filed against a judge, the Chief Justice of the concerned court may constitute a three-judge inquiry committee. If the committee finds the allegations serious, it may recommend initiating removal proceedings.
Enhancing judicial accountability can lead to several significant benefits:
First, Improved Efficiency and Quality Judgments – Holding judges accountable encourages them to deliver well-reasoned and fair judgments, ensuring justice in society. In recent years, certain controversial rulings have raised concerns. For instance, a Bombay High Court judge ruled that groping a child without skin-to-skin contact does not constitute an offense under the POCSO Act, which sparked widespread criticism.
Second, Impartial Functioning and Public Trust – Judicial accountability helps maintain the integrity and impartiality of the judiciary, thereby strengthening public confidence in the system. A notable controversy arose when a sitting Chief Justice of India (CJI) was accused of sexual harassment. Instead of an independent inquiry, an internal committee was formed, with judges appointed by the CJI himself, raising concerns about conflict of interest. The complainant was also denied legal representation, further questioning the transparency of the process.
Third, Greater Transparency in Judiciary – Courts have been reluctant to disclose certain information under the Right to Information (RTI) Act. For example, the Bombay High Court ruled that its file notings on administrative matters are not subject to RTI disclosure. This resistance to transparency was further emphasized when a former CJI stated that "the institution of the judiciary cannot be destroyed in the name of transparency." Ensuring greater openness can improve judicial credibility and accountability.
Fourth, Unlike the executive, the judiciary is not legally required to prepare or present annual reports before Parliament or State Legislatures. However, some High Courts, such as those of Madras, Himachal Pradesh, and Tripura, have voluntarily published annual reports in the past two years, promoting transparency in their functioning.
Fifth, The Indian Constitution does not provide any mechanism for external review of Supreme Court decisions. The only provision for reconsideration lies within the Supreme Court itself, through review petitions (Article 137) or curative petitions. No other body or council has the authority to oversee or overturn the rulings of the Apex Court, reinforcing its role as the final interpreter of the Constitution.
Sixth, The lack of judicial accountability has contributed to a massive backlog of cases, with over 4 crore cases pending in lower courts. Since judges are not directly accountable to the public or other branches of the state, no substantial action has been taken to resolve this crisis effectively. Judicial accountability mechanisms could introduce external pressure on the judiciary to address pendency, ensuring timely justice and improved efficiency in the legal system.
Seventh, The process of appointing judges to the higher judiciary is often criticized for lacking transparency. There is limited visibility into how much weight is given to the credentials of judges, particularly their commitment to constitutional ideals such as
secularism, socialism, and democracy. The absence of clear criteria and open deliberation in the selection process raises concerns about fairness, accountability, and the potential influence of subjective or non-merit-based factors. This opacity undermines public trust in the judiciary and its ability to uphold the foundational principles of the Constitution.
Eighth, The in-house procedure has several limitations. It lacks a statutory foundation, making it non-binding. No judge who has faced such a committee has chosen to resign solely due to an adverse report. Additionally, in some instances, allegations that warranted further investigation were dismissed by these committees.
Regulating judicial accountability poses a significant challenge due to the judiciary's independent status, which must be preserved. Subjecting the judiciary to legislative or executive oversight could expose it to external influences, compromising its impartiality. Striking a balance between judicial accountability and independence is a complex task. The only mechanism for removing a judge is impeachment, which is a lengthy and intricate process, making it difficult to enhance accountability. However, simplifying this process could undermine judicial independence. Additionally, the Supreme Court and High Courts hold contempt powers, preventing any imposition on the judiciary without its concurrence. As the ultimate authority in interpreting laws, policies, and regulations, the judiciary has the power to invalidate any measure it deems inappropriate.What steps can be taken to enhance Judicial Accountability?
First, Parliament has the authority to pass a law requiring the judiciary to publish an annual report. This legislation should explicitly define the report’s content and set a specific timeline for its release
Second, In India, the Judicial Standards and Accountability Bill was introduced in 2010 but eventually lapsed. There is a need for fresh legislation to establish judicial standards. As recommended by a former Chairperson of the Law Commission, the new Bill should address the shortcomings of the previous one while ensuring that neither the Legislature nor the Executive is granted excessive control over the judiciary
A central-level permanent disciplinary committee should be established to address complaints against judges. Based on the severity of misconduct, this committee should recommend appropriate actions, such as constituting a judicial inquiry committee under the Judges Inquiry Act for serious offenses
Third, the SC should clarify the extent and scope of RTI applicability to the judiciary. This will help in avoiding divergence in RTI response across the states.
Fourth, the judiciary can also be brought under the scope of Lokpal to enhance accountability as seen in countries like Sweden where judiciary comes under the scope of the ombudsman.
Fifth, A structured performance evaluation system for judges should be implemented. While a mechanism exists for assessing the lower judiciary, there is no such system for the higher judiciary. Establishing this framework is challenging, but adapting global best practices can serve as a suitable starting point.
The key challenge is to ensure sufficient judicial independence to enable impartial and neutral adjudication of cases. Striking the right balance between accountability and independence remains the crucial task.

• Self-Check Exercise 3
Q1. How judicial accountability ensures the checks and balances enshrined in constitutions.

15.6    External Accountability and Control
Social Audits are designed to build accountability and transparency in the use and management of public resources, through citizen monitoring, analysis and evaluation of government performance.
Media can stimulate actors to reflect on their behaviour, trigger formal accountability by reporting on the behaviour of actors, amplify formal accountability as they report on it or act as an independent and informal accountability forum.
The Right to Information (RTI) is a fundamental tool for promoting government transparency and accountability. Research indicates that RTI laws have significantly shaped governance and accountability in contemporary contexts.
Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) have been playing in contributing and supporting emergency policy responses. Despite uncertainty regarding the appropriateness of policy responses owing to the nature and constant evolution of the pandemic, it is evident that public participation and civic engagement have already driven some very positive developments. As a check on public authorities; independent media reports, citizen engagement and CSO
intervention; fulfilling the roles of advocacy, contestation, adversarial journalism, and bottom-up leadership can generate collective knowledge and press public authorities to serve better.
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) make important social, economic, and environmental interventions to address the suffering that has arisen from globalisation, market failures, and ineffective regulation. In addition, these organizations increasingly fill the gaps created by the retreating state and the resultant decrease in public service delivery.

• Self-Check Exercise 5
Q1. Enumerate some of the methods of external accountability.

15.7    Accountability in Global Governance
The World Bank lending conditions, framed under the concept of 'good governance,' have been extensively analysed by scholars in terms of its definition and impact on the development of third-world countries. Good governance is inherently linked to accountability and is primarily applied to developing nations. Institutional frameworks that promote economic growth and poverty reduction do not develop automatically; their establishment and sustainability require appropriate incentives and sufficient institutional capacity.
The World Bank's focus on accountability, particularly in the context of structural adjustment policies, has influenced both the public and private sectors. In many countries, public services and resources are often dominated by narrow special interest groups. Governments frequently operate with a lack of transparency, and the general public tends to be passive in demanding performance-related information. Accountability plays a crucial role in enhancing efficiency in investment, as well as in the production and distribution of public goods and services. Additionally, the government must uphold accountability in the private sector through effective corporate and securities legislation, competitive policies, and regulatory oversight— especially during periods of downsizing, disinvestment, privatization, and outsourcing.
In recent years, the demand for accountability at the international level has grown, driven by various emerging trends. Global governance has evolved into an extensive network, with governments increasingly relying on international organizations such as the UN, IMF, World Bank, and WTO to play expanded roles in maintaining stability, fostering growth, and
ensuring security both within and among nations. Additionally, large corporations are not only managing their commercial operations but also engaging in lobbying and self-regulation at a global scale to safeguard their transnational interests. Meanwhile, nongovernmental organizations are rapidly expanding across various sectors. As a result, this century has seen a rise in global actors, processes, and issues, creating complex implications for development. Unlike the international arena, where accountability mechanisms are less clear, people within nation-states have traditionally had avenues such as elections, impartial courts, ombudsmen, and the media to hold their governments accountable.
In international organizations, developing countries have limited power and influence to hold these agencies accountable. Additionally, their own actions within these organizations often go unmonitored by national media and NGOs. In the global private sector, emerging publicprivate expert networks, and ‘global civil society,’ developing nations face even greater challenges in ensuring accountability. Given these limitations, there is a pressing need to reconsider accountability mechanisms in global governance and their impact on development.

• Self-Check Exercise 5
Q1. How global governance mechanisms enhances accountability in the system.

15.8    Summary
Accountability and control are fundamental principles in public administration. While responsibility reflects the administration’s responsiveness to the public will, accountability refers to the mechanisms used to enforce that responsibility. From a democratic standpoint, accountability and control ensure transparency, efficiency, and adherence to public expectations. A key consideration is the accountability relationship that is, to whom public agencies and officials are answerable. Various forms of accountability exist, supported by different tools to make them effective. However, accountability is not a static concept; it has evolved over time, particularly with the emergence of New Public Management and Good Governance as modern paradigms of administration. Accountability entails taking ownership of actions or omissions and providing justified explanations for them. Control, on the other hand, refers to the mechanisms that monitor and regulate administrative processes, ensuring tasks are carried out efficiently and correctly. Both accountability and control are essential for maintaining integrity and effectiveness in public administration.

15.9    Glossary
Corporate Governance: Corporate governance is the framework through which business corporations are directed and managed. It defines the rights and responsibilities of key participants, including the board of directors, managers, shareholders, and other stakeholders. Additionally, it establishes the rules and procedures for decision-making in corporate affairs, ensuring transparency, accountability, and efficiency in business operations. Effective corporate governance enhances investor confidence, promotes ethical business practices, and contributes to long-term organizational success.
Global Governance: Global governance, as defined by British social scientist David Held, extends beyond state institutions and intergovernmental cooperation. It includes a wide range of actors, such as multinational corporations, transnational social movements, and nongovernmental organizations, all working toward objectives that have cross-border implications. It operates as a system-wide framework that both enables and limits the actions of various interdependent actors, despite the absence of a centralized political authority. This decentralized structure fosters collaboration on global challenges while balancing diverse interests and influences.
Ombudsman: An ombudsman is a government-appointed official responsible for protecting public interests by investigating and resolving complaints made by individuals against administrative actions or misconduct. The concept originated in Sweden, where the Parliamentary Ombudsman was established in 1809 to uphold citizens' rights by creating an independent supervisory body, separate from the executive branch. The ombudsman plays a crucial role in promoting transparency, accountability, and fairness within public administration.
Paradigm: It refers to a conceptual framework within any scientific discipline in an epistemological context. The application of paradigms to the social sciences gained prominence through Thomas Kuhn’s influential work, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.

15.10    Answers to Self-Check Exercises
Self-Check Exercise 1:              Ans 1. Refer 15.3
Self-Check Exercise 2:

Ans 1. Refer 15.4
Ans 1. Refer 15.5
Ans 1. Refer 15.6
Ans 1. Refer 15.7

Self-Check Exercise 3:
Self-Check Exercise 4:
Self-Check Exercise 5:

15.11    References/Suggested Readings
Bhattacharya, Mohit, 2003, “Nexus Between Accountability and Good Governance;Conceptual, and Practical Issues” in Pardeep Sahni and Uma Medury (Eds), Governance for Development: Issues and Strategies, Prentice- Hall India, New Delhi.
Fesler, James W, and Donald F. Kettl, 1999, The Politics of the Administrative Process, Chaltham House Publishers, New Jersey.
Jabbra, Joseph G and O.P. Dwivedi (Eds), 1998, Public Service Accountability, Kumarian Press Inc.
UNDP, Human Development Report, 2002, Background Paper on Accountability in Global Governance by Ngaire Woods.
Word Bank, 1989, Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth: A Longterm Perspective Study, Washington.

15.12    Terminal Questions

1.    Explain why accountability is main feature of good governance.

2.    Elaborate some of the ways to ensure internal and external accountability in a democracy.
Unit 16
Public Relations and Role of Media
Structure

16.1    Introduction

16.2     Learning Objectives

16.3    Nature and Scope of Public Relations
Self-Check Exercise - 1

16.4    Public Relations Process and its Benefits
Self-Check Exercise - 2

16.5    Media and Governance
Self-Check Exercise - 3

16.6    Challenges for Media
Self-Check Exercise - 4

16.7    Summary

16.8     Glossary

16.9    Answers to Self-Check Exercises

16.10    References/Suggested Reading

16.11    Terminal Questions

16.1    Introduction
Creating a two-way communication channel and establishing understanding based on facts, knowledge, and complete information are the goals of public relations practice. Conflicts of interest are to be resolved by looking for areas of mutual interest or common ground. The extent of efforts to foster positive public relations can differ significantly based on the size and makeup of the stakeholders involved. However, the principles, approaches, and techniques are always the same, regardless of whether the goal of the PR program is to enhance global
comprehension or strengthen ties between a local business and its clients, associates, and staff. We must become more adept at handling people as science grants us more control over matter, machinery, and techniques. Through influencing public opinion, public relations, as a tool for instilling attitudes, can significantly accelerate the social adjustments necessary for our material growth. There are noticeable changes in many facets of society, especially in terms of views and habits. As a result, whether in business, government, education, research, or technology, public attitudes have changed, which has led to the current changes in society. This is the reason why public relations are becoming more and more well-known on a global scale. The UK's Institute of Public Relations spent a great deal of time developing a thorough definition of public relations. Their effort produced a definition that is currently widely accepted by public relations professionals around the globe, including the vast majority of practitioners in India. The Institute defines public relations as the purposeful, organized, and ongoing endeavor to create and preserve mutual understanding between an organization and its audience.

16.2    Learning Objectives
After going through this lesson the students will be able to know

•    Nature and Scope of Public Relations

•    Media and Governance

•    Challenges for Media

16.3    Nature and Scope of Public Relations
The process of public relations has several purposes. Although there are many different definitions, public relations is generally understood to be the process of using information sharing to build rapport and goodwill between an individual, organization, or company and the community at large. It aims to gain support, mobilize, or ask for favours for a concept, a cause, an issue, an organization, or a person. In order to deal with public opinion, it employs two-way communication. It first evaluates the public's perceptions of the organization. After that, it carries out communication campaigns to help the general public comprehend and accept the management's viewpoint. Public Relations involve four major elements. They are inter-related and overlapping. In fact, one tends to lead to another. These are:

•    Two-way Communication: Therefore, the main goal of any public relations campaign
is to create a two-way information flow and enhance the current channels of communication. Two-way communication is a process in which messages are exchanged between a sender and a receiver, allowing for feedback and mutual understanding. It involves active engagement, dialogue, and the exchange of information, ideas, and perspectives between the parties involved.

•    Mutual Understanding: A state of common comprehension, acknowledgment, or agreement between two or more people or groups is known as mutual understanding. It can be used to describe a cordial or sympathetic relationship or a vague or informal partnership without a formal commitment or declaration.

•    Caring for Public Opinion: Public opinion is the culmination of the individual opinions, attitudes, and convictions that a sizable segment of a community has expressed over a certain subject. While some academics perceive the aggregate as a synthesis of the opinions of everyone or a certain subset of society, others see it as a compilation of numerous conflicting or divergent viewpoints.

•    Social Responsibility: An ethical framework known as "social responsibility" holds people and organizations accountable for carrying out their civic responsibilities and making decisions that benefit the environment and society. There are various forms of social responsibility, including charitable, ethical, environmental, and economic. Any firm or system may be made more sustainable and successful in the long run by practicing social responsibility.
Public relations (PR) are a strategic communication process employed by companies, individuals, and organizations to foster mutually beneficial relationships with the public. A PR specialist develops a tailored communication plan, utilizing media and various direct and indirect channels to build and sustain a positive brand image while strengthening connections with the target audience. In essence, public relations involve the deliberate management of information related to an organization, ensuring its dissemination to the public in a way that upholds and enhances the organization's reputation and its brands.

•    Self-Check Exercise 1
Q1. Explain the nature and scope of public relations in administration.

16.4

Public Relations Process and its Benefits
Main goals of public relations are to keep the brand's reputation favourable and to uphold strategic relationships with stakeholders like as partners, investors, employees, and the general public. This enhances the brand's perception and gives it an air of legitimacy, success, significance, and relevancy. In a diverse and developing society like India, characterized by its vast population, linguistic variety, cultural richness, religious plurality, and numerous ethnic groups—along with challenges such as illiteracy, ignorance, and deeply rooted beliefs—Public Relations plays a crucial role. As the government bears social accountability for its policies and programs, effective Public Relations becomes essential in shaping public opinion. It also facilitates mutual understanding among different groups and institutions, helping a complex, pluralistic society make informed decisions and function more efficiently.
Public relations play a crucial role in spreading information to shape public perception and maintain an organisation’s reputation, especially during a crisis. One of the biggest responsibilities of a PR team in any company is to express the company’s expertise, build relationships with customers and stakeholders, achieve global recognition, and combine all these to build favourable brand awareness.
Public relations (PR) differs from advertising in several key ways. Unlike advertising agencies, PR firms do not purchase ads, write stories for journalists, or create paid promotional content. Instead, their primary function is to enhance a brand’s reputation by securing editorial coverage in newspapers, magazines, news channels, websites, blogs, and TV programs. One of the main advantages of PR is its reliance on earned or free media, rather than paid promotions. This approach lends credibility, as information published through independent sources carries third-party validation and is perceived as more trustworthy by the public compared to traditional advertisements.
Without a doubt, public relations is a powerful tool for fostering harmonious relationships, preserving reputations, boosting sales, and enhancing a company's image. It shouldn't be thought of as a cure-all, though. Remember that PR can only assist in gaining attention in conjunction with a commensurate performance. Stunts and gimmicks are not used in public relations campaigns. Unlike a coat of whitewash applied to the dirty walls, it is not a miracle cure. Propaganda is not what it is. It cannot afford to compromise on morality, veracity, or the common good. It’s not only phony PR campaigns meant to boost sales. Since goodwill takes time to develop, it cannot help avert a crisis like a functioning fire alarm.
The public is elusive, ever-evolving, and nearly limitless in quantity. Additionally, because many publics have different wants and interests, the multiplicity of publics can lead to internal disputes. It is difficult to settle these disputes. For example, the general audience of employees is curious to learn more about an organization's policies around hiring, compensation, employee incentives, etc. Customers are interested in knowing things like product quality, prices, aftersale support, and product range. This also applies to other audiences, as differences in interests exist between various groups, such as customers and employees. A public relations professional must carefully identify all relevant stakeholders for a given project and assess any additional groups that may influence it. To effectively communicate key messages, PR practitioners may sometimes need to conduct research to better understand the identities, opinions, and expectations of these audiences. Moreover, public relations should not focus solely on major stakeholders; it must also consider the perspectives of smaller or marginalized groups alongside the majority viewpoint. According to the functions of the public relations department/agencies, public relations can be divided into 7 types. These are:
Media Relations: Establishing a good relationship with the media organisations and acting as their content source.
Investor Relations: Handling investors’ events, releasing financial reports and regulatory filings, and handling investors, analysts and media queries and complaints.
Government Relations: Representing the brand to the government regarding fulfilling policies like corporate social responsibility, fair competition, consumer protection, and employee protection.
Community Relations: Handling the social aspect of the brand and establishing a positive reputation in the social niche, such as environmental protection, education, etc.
Internal Relations: Counselling the organisation’s employees regarding policies, courses of action, the organisation’s responsibility, and their responsibility. Cooperating with them during special product launches and events.
Customer Relations: Manage relationships with the target market and lead consumers. Conduct market research to learn more about customers’ interests, attitudes, and priorities and craft strategies to influence them using earned media.
Marketing Communications: Supporting marketing efforts relating to product launches, special campaigns, brand awareness, image, and positioning.
Public Relations today involve complete analysis and understanding of all the factors that influence people's attitudes toward an organisation. This is achieved through what has been popularly called “Public Relation's Four-stage Process”. The stages are:

•    Fact-finding - research analysis of opinion, environment.

•    Planning - policy formulation, programming, goal setting.

•    Communication - implementing planned communication activities, execution.

•    Evaluation - feedback and adjustment/course modification.
Every institution and function is evaluated based on the value it provides to others rather than solely focusing on its own interests. Public relations (PR) play a crucial role in this process by facilitating communication between organizations and the public. Ultimately, public relations is more than just brand promotion it acts as a bridge between institutions and the public, promoting transparency, trust, and positive engagement.

•    Self-Check Exercise 2
Q1. What are the benefits of public relations for an organization?

16.5    Media and Governance
The process of making decisions and the way those decisions are carried out are together known as governance. It explains the ways in which different public organizations handle public issues and administer public funds. The market, civil society, the media, nongovernmental organizations, and the general public all need to effectively participate in it in addition to the three branches of government the executive, legislative, and judicial. With the remarkable advancements in information and communication technology (ICT) of today’s knowledge society, the media is essential to maintaining good governance. In actuality, the media is regarded as democracy's fourth pillar. "Medium" means "mode" or "carrier," and this is where the word "media" comes from. An extensive target audience or group can be reached and addressed through media. Its general definition is an impersonal kind of communication that can be expressed by writing, visuals, sounds, or occasionally a mix of these. The audience
receives direct communication of messages, facts, and ideas through this. Put more simply, "media" refers to the channels of communication that are used to reach a broad audience, whether they are visual pictures, audio, video, or written or printed words. Simply put, the media can be defined as the organizations that inform and update the public about news and other information. Media serves as a structured platform for disseminating information, enabling communication with a vast audience rapidly, timely, effectively, and efficiently. The main characteristics of media are:

•    It can reach millions of people in short time; even instantaneously.

•    Audio media is very useful for illiterate and visually challenged.

•    Visual media can be effective in a multilingual society with illiteracy to a large extent.

•    It is cost-effective and user-friendly.

•    Generally, media provides one way communication to the recipients. Though these days opinion polls, letters to editors or open columns are some methods of making it interactive, but still they are limited.
The media now plays a significant role in our daily lives. It plays a vital role in raising public awareness of the rule of law, encouraging vigilance, and ensuring that all citizens have access to information, including legislative and administrative procedures and records. The media is the primary source of information for most people regarding politics, local events, current affairs, and other topics. It helps to build a society that is conscious, knowledgeable, and accountable. Print, broadcast, and online media are the three primary categories of news media. In order to be considered good governance, the market and civil society must collaborate with the government to govern, uphold the rule of law, and advance accountability, transparency, and human rights. It involves administration that is inclusive, equitable, responsive, transparent, and accountable. As the fourth pillar of democracy, the media plays a crucial role in upholding the principles of good governance. Its primary function is to serve the public interest rather than personal or corporate gains. The media fosters transparency and accountability by scrutinizing government actions and amplifying public concerns. The cornerstone of any effective government is democracy. It's also true that a democracy without the media would be like a car without wheels. Thomas Jefferson once said, “If it were left on me to decide whether we should have a government without newspapers or newspapers without a government, I should not hesitate a moment to prefer the latter” This statement demonstrates
the importance of the media in a democratic society. The media is seen as democracy's fourth pillar. The media serves as one of the main tools for social change and raises public awareness. Within a democratic system, the media serves to both reinforce democratic norms and principles and quicken the rate of growth.
People's involvement refers to the ability of citizens and their institutions to meaningfully participate in the making of decisions that impact them or that pique their interest. People become more involved in government when they use the media. It gives individuals the knowledge and abilities need to engage with the political system. It gives people the impression that they have the ability, the right, and a channel for getting their voices heard. People can use the media to shape the decisions that have an impact on their lives. Access to political information is facilitated by media. It allows for the establishment of a public arena or area in which individuals can engage in a variety of discussions and offer opposing views. Public opinion is the culmination of people's opinions about politics, the government, society, and other topics. Public opinion is the driving force behind citizens' political actions, therefore understanding and accepting it is crucial for any kind of government or democracy. It facilitates the understanding of public expectations by the political and administrative systems. The motivations behind particular policy results are clarified by public opinion. It also acts as a form of criticism for the government's decisions and policies. Therefore, in democratic government, public opinion is used to inform authorities about the requirements, desires, aspirations, and complaints of the populace.
By informing the public and decision-makers alike about various issues, the media impacts public opinion. First, issues are brought to light by the media. It then offers data, facts, and professional judgment. This helps people express a range of viewpoints regarding reform and governance and fosters public agreement to effect change. In order for public policy makers to make an informed choice and proceed with a suitable resolution to the problem, the media subsequently supplies them with this knowledge. As it highlights the flaws in government acts and policies, it functions as a kind of check and balance on the government. The media keeps an eye out for abuses of administrative power. Its constant monitoring of public policies and actions guarantees public accountability to the government, which enhances governance and service delivery. The media's reporting serves as a check on the government's and its institutions arbitrary use of power and guarantees that accountability and openness are upheld in governance. The media has the power to bring about change. Owing to its extensive reach, the media has significantly contributed to the nation's development. It suggests that better
systems and procedures will replace outdated customs and organizational structures in a constructive manner. The media is essential to the conceptualization, dissemination, and implementation of this shift. People's perceptions are shaped and their mindsets are altered by the media. It brings up a number of societal concerns and shapes public opinion. It educates people about their responsibilities and rights. Particularly in a nation like India where ignorance and poverty are pervasive, the media is essential in influencing public opinion.
In addition to spreading information, the media is essential for influencing public opinion. It makes it easier to organize and understand data into definite points of view and empowers individuals to voice their thoughts. This is evident in how the nation's elections are conducted. By promoting public complaints, speeches by notable persons, legislative debates, and current concerns, the media also aids in increasing public awareness. People's political and social awareness is increased by such news and viewpoints, and thus aids in the shaping of public opinion. We are all aware of how the media shapes public opinion on problems in our nation both before and during elections.
The media plays a crucial role in safeguarding and promoting human rights. It has the power to raise awareness about human rights issues and foster an environment conducive to their protection. Essential human rights, such as the right to equality, freedom of speech, the right to peace, and the right to live with dignity, should be prioritized in media coverage and be at the forefront of public discussion. The media must contribute to cultivating a human rights culture across all societal sectors. When free from political or administrative pressure, the media can significantly advance democracy and uphold the rule of law. If information sources are not safeguarded, media outlets may face legal action that would hinder their ability to report in the public interest, so jeopardizing their independence.

•    Self-Check Exercise 3
Q1. Why media is important in governance of a country?

16.6    Challenges for Media
The promotion of good governance's key indicators by the media serves as a stimulus for it. It fosters, safeguards, and advances good governance by establishing the necessary conditions. But for the media to succeed in this endeavor, they must be unbiased, independent, and honest. However, a biased, corrupt media that favors only one party or a small number of people can be extremely harmful to the efficient operation of democracy. On the other hand, the credibility of
the media is jeopardized when it is controlled by a single party or corporate entity. In order to support strong democracy and responsible governance, paid news must be curtailed since it poses a threat to the free and fair media. In present scenario, media is facing enormous challenges:

•    The close ties between political parties, media, and corporate entities are increasingly detrimental to good governance. Often, the media reflects not the voice of the people, but the interests of its powerful stakeholders. This compromises the democratic process, hindering healthy public participation and undermining government accountability. As a result, it fosters a new form of corruption and shifts the balance of democracy towards an oligarchy. Therefore, it is crucial that the media remains independent and impartial, so it can operate freely, without fear or external influence.

•    Equally important is the need for reasonable restrictions on the media’s power. There have been numerous instances where the media’s influence has been misused. It is essential that the media respects its boundaries and refrains from overstepping into the domain of the other three branches of government. Only by maintaining this balance can the media effectively serve as a true instrument of good governance..

•    Media must be sensitive in presenting and facilitating discussions on issues that drive development. Additionally, the use of ICT and responsible social media plays a crucial role in creating informed and engaged citizens.
Enhancing professionalism and ethical standards in media requires independence, capacity building, and strengthened accountability. It is essential to ensure freedom from state and media owner intervention while also promoting democratized access to media. Media independence is to be ensured and its potential in promotion of effective governance is to be sustained.

•    Self-Check Exercise 4
Q1. Enumerate challenges faced by media in a democracy.

16.7    Summary
Public Relations is a key management function that assesses public attitudes, aligns an organization’s policies and practices with public interest, and implements strategies to gain
public understanding and support. In a democracy, the media plays a crucial role by offering information, encouraging public discourse, holding leaders accountable, and ensuring transparency in governance. The media helps citizens to learn how government works, identify problems in society, and take action on the basis of news stories. The media also serves as a medium for deliberation, debate, discussion, and analysis. A free, independent, and moral media is essential for the strengthening and development of democracy.

16.8    Glossary
ICT: Information and Communication Technology
Paid News: It refers to the practice of media outlets publishing articles in newspapers, magazines, or broadcasting news coverage on electronic media in exchange for monetary compensation.
Public Interest Litigation: It refers to a petition filed by an individual or group in the Supreme Court or High Courts, typically concerning matters of public interest. These petitions often address issues like the violation of fundamental rights, as well as concerns related to education, health, the environment, and other societal matters.

16.9    Answer to Self-Check Exercise
Self-Check Exercise 1:

Ans 1. Refer 16.3
Ans 1. Refer 16.4
Ans 1. Refer 16.5
Ans 1. Refer 16.6

Self-Check Exercise 2:
Self-Check Exercise 3:
Self-Check Exercise 4:

16.10    References/Suggested Readings
Dutta, S. (2011). Social Responsibility of Media and Indian Democracy. Global Media Journal – Indian Edition/ Summer Issue. 1-8.
Gorwala, A.D. (1971). The Press as an Educative Factor. In A.G.Noorani (ed.).Freedom of
Press in India. Bombay: Nachiketa
James, B. (2006). Media and Good Governance. Retrived from:
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001463/146311e.pdf
Kaur, S. & Navjot, K. (2014). Role of Media in Present Indian Social Scenario. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science. 19(9): 50-51.

16.11    Terminal Questions

1.    Explain the importance of public relations for any organization.

2.    How media plays an important role in vibrant democracies.
Unit 17
Disaster Management
Structure

17.1          Introduction

17.2         Learning Objectives

17.3         Classification of Disasters
Self-Check Exercise - 1

17.4        Causes and Impact of Disasters
Self-Check Exercise - 2

17.5        Disaster Management Institutional Framework
Self-Check Exercise - 3

17.6    Role of Government and Challenges faced in Implementation
Self-Check Exercise - 4

17.7       Recent Changes in Government Approach
Self-Check Exercise - 5

17.8         Glossary

17.9       Answers to Self-Check Exercises

17.10      References/Suggested Reading

17.11       Terminal Questions

17.1    Introduction
Natural disasters and crises have always been a part of human history, dating back to the earliest civilizations, such as the rise and fall of the Indus Valley and Babylonian civilizations. In the past, individuals and communities would typically lead the response to disasters. However, with the rise of the modern welfare state and the trends of globalization, urbanization, mass migrations, and climate change in the 20th century, the scale and complexity of crises have grown significantly. For instance, while the frequency of disasters may not have changed, the growing population densities and urbanization have amplified their impact on human lives and property. In public health, while major progress has been made in combating epidemics, new challenges have emerged, including drug-resistant microorganisms and novel virus strains, raising concerns about the potential for global pandemics of more severe diseases. Similarly, while frequency of wars has declined, modern weapons and mass urbanization have increased manifold the human crisis caused by such conflicts. The rise of terrorism has introduced new forms of disaster, while the growing reliance on communications and computer networks has heightened the risk of emerging crises if these systems are disrupted, either by accident or design. Additionally, factors such as modernization, the explosion of information, transnational migrations, and the increasing economic interdependence between nations have all amplified the reach and impact of crises, extending their effects over broader regions.
The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) of the United Nations defines a hazard as “a potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon, or human activity that may result in loss of life, injury, property damage, social and economic disruption, or environmental degradation.” Hazards can be natural, such as geological, hydrometeorological, or biological events, or they can be induced by human activities, such as environmental degradation or technological hazards. Hazards may occur as isolated events, in a sequence, or as a combination of factors with interconnected effects. Hazard analysis involves identifying, studying, and monitoring these hazards to understand their potential, origin, and characteristics. A disaster is the outcome of natural or man-made causes that leads to a sudden disruption of normal life, resulting in significant damage to life and property. The impact is often so severe that existing social and economic protection systems are unable to cope. It is important to distinguish between hazards and disasters. Floods, cyclones, and similar events are natural occurrences until a combination of factors whether natural, human-
made, or both turns the hazard into a disaster. In essence, a disaster is the actual realization of a potential catastrophe.
A disaster is unpredictable and often strikes without warning, leaving little time for preparation. Recovery from its aftermath can take weeks, months, years, and in some extreme cases, even decades. From natural events like volcanic eruptions to industrial accidents like gas leaks, the types of disasters that can occur are vast. However, this doesn’t mean we should succumb to helplessness. As the saying goes, “precaution is better than cure,” and the key to survival is learning how to manage these crises effectively. Disaster management refers to the organized handling of resources and responsibilities to address all aspects of emergencies, especially preparedness, response, and recovery, with the goal of reducing the impact of disasters. In India, the institutional framework for disaster management can be seen in the various steps taken to handle crises effectively. Disaster management is a process that involves thorough preparation and response to disasters, including strategically organizing resources to minimize the harm caused. It also requires a systematic approach to managing prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery efforts.

17.2    Learning Objectives
After going through this lesson the students will be able to know

•    The Classification of Disasters

•    Institutional Framework to handle Disasters

•    Challenges faced in its implementation

17.3    Classification of Disasters
Disasters are generally categorized based on their origin into two main types: natural and manmade. They can also be classified by severity as either minor or major, depending on their impact. Natural disasters involve sudden ecological disturbances or threats that exceed the affected community’s capacity to manage, necessitating external assistance.
Man-made disasters, in contrast, result from human activities and include incidents such as hazardous material spills, fires, groundwater contamination, transportation accidents, structural failures, mining accidents, explosions, and acts of terrorism. These disasters often stem from
negligence, technological failures, or intentional actions. Disasters can be classified into the following categories:

•    Water and Climate Disaster: Flood, hail storms, cloudburst, cyclones, heat waves, cold waves, droughts, hurricanes.

•    Geological Disaster: Landslides, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes

•    Biological Disaster: Viral epidemics, pest attacks, cattle epidemic, and locust plagues

•    Industrial Disaster: Chemical and industrial accidents, mine shaft fires, oil spills,

•    Nuclear Disasters: Nuclear core meltdowns, radiation poisoning

•    Man-made disasters: Urban and forest fires, oil spill, the collapse of huge building structures
There is growing recognition that many so-called natural disasters have man-made causes, which has led to a shift in how we perceive and understand disasters. Both natural and manmade disasters are increasingly being viewed as policy disasters rather than just the result of nature's unpredictability or fate’s design. Evidence suggests that human errors and oversights such as insufficient legal frameworks to regulate hazardous industries have led to major tragedies. The Bhopal gas tragedy and various incidents at the Vizag Steel Plant, including minor fires and employee fatalities due to mishaps, are examples of such disasters. Moreover, practices like uncontrolled deforestation, severe damage to mountain ecosystems, overextraction of groundwater, and changes in agricultural patterns have contributed to recurring floods and droughts. In the case of the Himalayas, the increasing frequency of landslides in recent years can be directly linked to unchecked exploitation of forest resources, the destruction of mountain vegetation, and the indiscriminate construction of roads under the guise of development. These examples highlight the critical role that human activities and policies play in exacerbating disaster risks.

•    Self-Check Exercise 1
Q1. Explain NPA and its feature.

17.4    Causes and Impact of Disasters
Broadly we can categorise the reasons for occurrence of disasters as follows:
Environmental degradation: Removal of trees and forest cover from a watershed area have caused, soil erosion, expansion of flood plain area in upper and middle course of rivers and groundwater depletion.
Developmental process: Exploitation of land use, development of infrastructure, rapid urbanization and technological development have caused increasing pressure over the natural resources.
Political issues: War, nuclear power aspirations, fight between countries to become super power and conquering land, sea and skies. These have resulted into wide range of disaster events such as Hiroshima nuclear explosion, Syrian civil war, growing militarisation of oceans and outer space.
Industrialization: This has resulted into warming of earth and frequency of extreme weather events has also increased.
A disaster, whether natural or human-induced, is an unwelcome event that leaves a lasting mark on its victims. It wreaks havoc on people's lives, causing severe losses to both human life and infrastructure. Disasters disrupt the normal flow of life, severely affecting regulatory and development systems. The economic, social, and psychological impacts of disasters also have far-reaching effects on the environment. The frequency and intensity of natural disasters are increasing globally, including in India. These impacts are particularly pronounced in developing countries, where vulnerable populations, with limited economic resources, struggle to cope due to their inadequate capacity to adjust to such catastrophic events. Below mentioned are the major impacts seen after disaster:

•    Disaster impacts individuals physically (through loss of life, injury, health, disability) as well as psychologically.

•    Disaster results in huge economic loss due to destruction of property, human settlements and infrastructure etc.

•    Disaster can alter the natural environment, loss of habitat to many plants and animals and cause ecological stress that can result in biodiversity loss.

•    After natural disasters, food and other natural resources like water often becomes scarce
resulting into food and water scarcity.
Some Worst Disaster occurred in India

•    Kashmir Floods (2014) affected Srinagar, Bandipur, Rajouri etc. areas of J&K have resulted into death of more than 500 people.

•    Uttarakhand Flash Floods (2013) affected Govindghat, Kedar Dome, Rudraprayag district of Uttarakhand and resulted into death of more than 5,000 people.

•    The Indian Ocean Tsunami (2004) affected parts of southern India and Andaman Nicobar Islands, Sri Lanka, Indonesia etc., and resulted in the death of more than 2 lakh people.

•    Gujarat Earthquake (2001) affected Bhuj, Ahmedabad, Gandhinagar, Kutch, Surat, Surendranagar, Rajkot district, Jamnagar and Jodia districts of Gujarat and resulted in death of more than 20,000 people.

•    Odisha Super Cyclone or Paradip cyclone (1999) affected the coastal districts of Bhadrak, Kendrapara, Balasore, Jagatsinghpur, Puri, Ganjam etc., and resulted into death of more than 10,000 people.

•    The Great Famine (1876-1878) affected Madras, Mysore, Hyderabad, and Bombay and resulted into death of around 3 crore people. Even today, it is considered as one of the worst natural calamities in India of all time.

•    Coringa Cyclone (1839) that affected Coringa district of Andhra Pradesh and Calcutta Cyclone (1737) are some other instances of natural calamities faced by the country in the past.
Recently, there have been several incidents highlighting the consequences of negligence and poor management. Railway accidents, fire disasters in hospitals and coaching centres, and the collapse of infrastructure like flyovers, metro tracks, and residential buildings have occurred due to the failure to enforce existing safety regulations, as well as poor construction practices, such as the use of substandard materials or illegal additions to buildings. Recurring floods are also a result of inadequate planning and environmental mismanagement. Furthermore, stampedes at large public gatherings, such as the Kumbh Mela, have been caused by inadequate crowd management strategies and insufficient infrastructure to monitor and manage large-scale
events. These incidents demonstrate the critical need for better adherence to safety standards, effective planning, and proper resource management to prevent such avoidable disasters.

•    Self-Check Exercise 2
Q1. What are the causes and impacts of disaster for society?

17.5    Disaster Management Institutional Framework
The Disaster Management (DM) Act was enacted by the Government of India in 2005 to ensure the "efficient management of disasters" and related matters. It officially came into force in January 2006. The primary objective of the Act is to manage disasters, which includes the preparation of mitigation strategies, capacity-building, and other essential measures to reduce the impact of disasters. Section 2(d) of the DM Act defines a "disaster" as a "catastrophe, mishap, calamity, or grave occurrence in any area, arising from natural or man-made causes." The Act applies to the entire territory of India and aims to provide a framework for the "effective management of disasters" along with other related or incidental matters. The DM Act is a comprehensive legislative tool designed to enhance India’s preparedness and response to disasters. The Disaster Management Act, enacted in 2005, has a new multidisciplinary focus on disaster prevention and risk reduction and a move away from a relief-centric regime.

•    The institutional framework under the Act mandated the creation of the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) and State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) as the bodies responsible for disaster preparedness and risk reduction at the respective levels.

•    The Disaster Management Division of the Ministry of Home Affairs retained responsibility for overall steering of the national disaster response.

•    It mandated the concerned Ministries and Departments to draw up their own plans in accordance with the National Plan.

•    The Act further contains the provisions for financial mechanisms such as the creation of funds for the response, National Disaster Mitigation Fund and similar funds at the state and district levels.
Nodal Agency: The Act designates the Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA) as the nodal ministry for steering the overall national disaster management. Institutional Structure wise it puts into place a systematic structure of institutions at the national, state and district levels.
National Level Important Entities:
The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA): It is tasked with laying down disaster management policies and ensuring timely and effective response mechanisms.
The National Executive Committee (NEC): The National Executive Committee (NEC) is constituted under Section 8 of the Disaster Management (DM) Act to assist the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) in carrying out its functions. The NEC is responsible for preparing the National Disaster Management Plan for the entire country and ensuring that it is "reviewed and updated annually." This plan outlines strategies for disaster preparedness, mitigation, response, and recovery at the national level, and the NEC plays a key role in ensuring that it remains relevant and effective in addressing evolving disaster risks.
The National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM): It is an institute for training and capacity development programs for managing natural calamities.
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF): It refers to trained professional units that are called upon for specialized response to disasters
State and District level: The Act also provides for state and district level authorities responsible for, among other things, drawing plans for implementation of national plans and preparing local plans.

•    State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA): All Under Section 14 of the Disaster Management (DM) Act, all State Governments are required to establish a State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA). The SDMA is headed by the Chief Minister of the State as the Chairperson, with no more than eight members appointed by the Chief Minister. The State Executive Committee, as outlined in Section 22, is tasked with formulating the State Disaster Management Plan (SDMP) and implementing the National Disaster Management Plan within the state. Additionally, Section 28 mandates that the SDMA ensures all state departments prepare their own disaster management plans, in alignment with the guidelines set by both the National and State Authorities. This framework ensures a coordinated approach to disaster management at the state level, integrating efforts across various sectors.

•    District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA): The Chairperson of District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) is the Collector or District Magistrate or Deputy Commissioner of the district. The elected representative of the area is an ex officio coChairperson.
Finance: It includes provisions for financial mechanisms, such as the establishment of funds for emergency response, including the National Disaster Response Fund, along with similar funds at the state and district levels.
Civil and Criminal Liabilities: The Disaster Management (DM) Act includes provisions for civil and criminal liabilities in cases of non-compliance with its regulations. Under Section 51 of the Act, any individual who refuses to comply with orders issued under the Act can face punishment, which may include imprisonment for up to one year, a fine, or both. If the refusal to comply results in the death of individuals, the person responsible can be punished with imprisonment for up to two years. These provisions are designed to ensure accountability and enforce adherence to disaster management protocols, emphasizing the seriousness of compliance in disaster-related situations.

•    Self-Check Exercise 3
Q1. What is the disaster management institutional framework?

17.6    Role of Government and Challenges faced in Implementation
The Central Ministries and Departments will take into account the recommendations provided by State Governments when determining pre-disaster requirements and formulating strategies for disaster prevention and mitigation. They will ensure that disaster prevention and mitigation measures are incorporated into developmental plans and projects, allocate sufficient funds for pre-disaster needs, and take necessary steps to enhance preparedness and effectively respond to any disaster situation. Additionally, the Central Ministries will have the authority to issue directives to the National Executive Committee (NEC), State Governments, State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs), State Executive Committees (SECs), or any associated officers or employees to facilitate or support disaster management efforts. These entities and officials will be obligated to adhere to such directives.
Role of Central Ministries and Departments
Since disaster management is a multidisciplinary process, all Central Ministries and departments play a crucial role in this domain. The Secretaries of the nodal Ministries and Departments of the Government of India, such as the Ministries of Home Affairs (MHA), Agriculture, Civil Aviation, Environment and Forests, Health, Atomic Energy, Space, Earth Sciences, Water Resources, Mines, Railways, and others, are members of the National Executive Committee (NEC). They will continue to serve as nodal agencies for specific types
of disasters, leveraging their core expertise or as designated by their respective roles. The National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC), consisting of high-level officials from the Government of India and chaired by the Cabinet Secretary, is responsible for addressing major crises that have serious implications. The committee is supported by the Crisis Management Groups (CMG) of the Central Nodal Ministries and is assisted by the National Executive Committee (NEC) when necessary. The Secretary of the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is a permanent invitee to the committee, ensuring continuous coordination and input from the disaster management body. This structure is designed to handle crises effectively and in a timely manner, ensuring that all government agencies are aligned in their response.
State Governments
The responsibility for disaster management primarily lies with the States. To support effective disaster management, institutional frameworks have been established at the Centre, State, and District levels. The Disaster Management Act of 2005 requires State Governments, among other things, to create state disaster management plans, incorporate disaster prevention or mitigation strategies into state development plans, allocate resources, set up early warning systems, and cooperate with the Central Government and other organizations in various disaster management activities.
District Administration
At the District level, DDMAs will act as the planning, coordinating and implementing body for disaster management and will take all measures for the purposes of disaster management in the respective Districts in accordance with the Guidelines laid down by NDMA and the concerned SDMA.
Armed Forces
Traditionally, the Armed Forces are involved in disaster response only when the civil administration is overwhelmed by the situation. In practice, however, the Armed Forces often serve as the first responders in severe disaster scenarios. Due to their extensive training, vast experience, willingness to take risks, quick mobilization, and access to significant resources, the Armed Forces have consistently played a crucial role in providing emergency support.
Challenges
Absence of Disaster Prone Zones: A significant limitation of the Act is the lack of a provision for designating 'disaster-prone zones.' In contrast, most disaster-related laws globally include provisions for identifying and mapping disaster-prone areas within their jurisdictions. Without such a classification, the state cannot take a proactive approach in disaster management. Additionally, identifying these zones is crucial for assessing potential damage and preparing targeted responses.
Neglects Progressive Behaviour of Disasters: The Act primarily treats disasters as sudden events, overlooking the fact that some disasters can develop progressively over time. For instance, in 2006, more than 3,500 individuals were impacted by dengue, a disease with a recurring history of outbreaks in India. However, no effective system has been established to address such recurring crises. Similarly, tuberculosis claims thousands of lives annually in the country, yet it remains excluded from the Act because its impact is gradual rather than immediate or sudden. This highlights a significant gap in the legislation, as it fails to account for disasters that unfold progressively.
Overlapping Functions: The Act mandates the creation of multiple national-level bodies, but their overlapping functions often make coordination challenging. Meanwhile, local authorities, who serve as crucial first responders during disasters, receive minimal attention. The Act lacks substantial guidelines for them, offering only a brief mention of taking "necessary measures" without clearly defining their roles or responsibilities.
Procedural Delays and Inadequate Technology: Additionally, India's disaster management framework faces challenges such as delayed response, ineffective implementation of plans and policies, and procedural delays. The lack of advanced technology for precise disaster prediction and assessment further contributes to widespread damage, highlighting the need for improved preparedness and response mechanisms While the DM Act has significantly bridged a gap in the government's approach to disaster management, merely drafting detailed plans on paper is insufficient without effective implementation. Civil society, private enterprises, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) can contribute meaningfully to creating a safer India.

• Self-Check Exercise 4
Q1. Explain role of government and challenges faced in disaster management.

17.7    Recent Changes in Government Approach
India has historically been prone to natural disasters due to its distinct geo-climatic conditions. Disasters, whether caused by natural or human factors, lead to sudden disruptions in daily life, resulting in significant loss of life and property. Disaster management in India is governed by the Disaster Management Act, 2005. In recent years, disaster management strategies have shifted from a reactive approach where action was taken only after a disaster occurred to a more proactive and preventive framework. Such an approach used to focus entirely on rescue, rehabilitation and reconstruction. But recent measures, inter alia, also focus on preparedness, mitigation and adaptation.
The approach to disaster management in the country has been improved by replacing the earlier approach of reactionary and relief-centric with a holistic and integrated management approach. India presented a practical approach and roadmap with the launch of a global Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) to make the infrastructure resilient in the face of disasters. It provides member countries technical support and capacity development, research, and knowledge management, to facilitate and encourage investment in disaster-resilient infrastructure systems. National disaster management services: The scheme has an integrated approach to provide reliable telecommunication infrastructure to disaster managers during times of non-disasters and in the event of disasters. It is a NDMA pilot project being implemented by BSNL. APADA Mitra Scheme: The NDMA has approved a Centrally Sponsored Scheme focusing on training community volunteers in disaster response in the 30 most flood-prone districts of 25 states in India.

•    Project to reduce the risk of urban flooding in the seven most populous metros.

•    National Landslide Risk Mitigation Project for Landslide Mitigation in 17 States and UTs.

•    Scheme for Expansion and Modernization of Fire Services to expand and modernise Fire services across the states.

•    Self-Check Exercise 5
Q1. Explain some of the recent changes in the disaster management.

17.8    Summary
Disasters are unforeseen events that disrupt normal life and hinder developmental progress. They may arise from natural causes, human activities, or a combination of both. Their impact is often more severe on communities that are highly vulnerable, whether due to physical exposure or socio-economic challenges. As a result, disaster management is a crucial aspect of public administration, requiring timely intervention through effective policies. In alignment with post-modern perspectives, the focus today is on ensuring sustainable development, marking a shift toward long-term resilience and preparedness. In many ways, this reflects a full-circle approach to disaster management. Thus development, as is the perception now, in itself may not be sustainable if it runs counter to environmental concerns. Public administration and emergency management practitioners support emergency preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation efforts. During disasters, these professionals assist in the effective communication of crucial information and assess and track ongoing crises. It is the government’s responsibility to protect its people, infrastructure and economy from disasters, and to make contingency plans to counter the effects.

17.9    Glossary
Man-made disasters: Accidents, chemical spills nuclear disasters are manmade disasters since they are caused by human activity.
Natural disasters: Floods, Cyclones, Earthquakes, etc. are natural disasters since they originate in natural phenomenon/processes.
Preparedness: Preparedness is explained as a state of readiness of the administrative apparatus to respond to a disaster quickly and in a way that minimises the loss of life and property that could accrue, implying, minimum time lag and maximum effectiveness.
Urban risks: Risks created due to specific conditions in the urban environment are termed urban risks. For example, threat of fire outbreaks, epidemics due to congestion and poor drainage in slums are urban risks.
Vulnerability: Susceptibility to physical attack.

17.10    Answers to Self-Check Exercises
| Self-Check Exercise 1: | Ans 1. Refer 17.3 |
|---|---|
| Self-Check Exercise 2: | Ans 1. Refer 17.4 |
| Self-Check Exercise 3: | Ans 1. Refer 17.5 |
| Self-Check Exercise 4: | Ans 1. Refer 17.6 |
| Self-Check Exercise 5: | Ans 1. Refer 17.7 |



17.11    References/Suggested Readings
Aichner, T., Grünfelder, M., Maurer, O., & Jegeni, D. (2021). Twenty-five years of social media: a review of social media applications and definitions from 1994 to 2019. Cyberpsychology, behavior, and social networking, 24(4), 215-222.
Bhattacharya, Mohit, 2001, New Horizons of Public Administration, Jawahar Publishers, New Delhi.
Henry, Nicholas, 1975, Public Administration and Public Affairs, Prentice Hall, New York.
Osborne, David and Ted Gaebler, 1992, Reinventing Government, How the Entrepreneurial Spirit is Transforming the Public Sector, Addison-Wesley.

17.12    Terminal Questions

1.    What are the types of Disaster? Elaborate causes and impacts of disaster.

2.    Elaborate on institutional framework and recent changes in disaster management.
Unit 18
Techniques of Administrative Improvement
Structure
| 18.1 | Introduction |
|---|---|
| 18.2 | Learning Objectives |
| 18.3 | Administrative Reforms Self-Check Exercise - 1 |
| 18.4 | E-Governance and ICT Self-Check Exercise - 2 |
| 18.5 | Organizational Development and Behavior Self-Check Exercise - 3 |
| 18.6 | Tools of Administrative Improvement Self-Check Exercise - 4 |
| 18.7 | Future Technological Revolutions Self-Check Exercise - 5 |
| 18.8 | Glossary |
| 18.9 | Answers to Self-Check Exercises |
| 18.10 | References/Suggested Reading |
| 18.11 | Terminal Questions |



18.1    Introduction
After gaining independence, India inherited a colonial administrative system primarily designed for revenue collection and maintaining law and order. In the initial years, the government was largely focused on integrating princely states and rehabilitating refugees. However, with the country becoming a republic, the emphasis shifted toward social and economic development, necessitating a more people-centric administration. To align
governance with the needs of independent India, administrative reforms became essential. The Government of India introduced various measures, formed committees and commissions, and organized conferences to recommend improvements. These reforms covered multiple aspects, including organizational restructuring, process optimization, policy adjustments, and capacity building. They are not spontaneous but rather result from a comprehensive analysis, planning, and implementation to achieve specific objectives. Reform is more than a series of incremental changes or marginal adjustments, though it may result from the accumulation of small changes, which periodically creates requirement for comprehensive and systematic efforts.

18.2    Learning Objectives
After going through this lesson the students will be able to know

•    Organisation and Methods

•    E-Governance and ICT

•    Organisational Development

18.3    Administrative Reforms
Administrative Reforms in India provide services intended to fulfil the needs of the citizens of this country. The Administrative Reforms in India cater to the new societal changes or to rectify old administrative processes’ faults. After independence, there was a need for a Commission to perform the work of public administration efficiently and to guide in reforming the administrative practices as and when needed. Thus, an Administrative Reforms Commission was set up in January 1966. The first Administrative Reforms in India are considered the change from colonial rule to the democracy we know today. Since then, many commissions and committees have been established to shape an efficient administrative system. Here we will be sharing information related to Administrative Reforms in India. The government has introduced many major Administrative Reforms in India in recent years that emphasize making the government more accessible. These Administrative Reforms in India encourage corruption-free governance and boost efficiency. The motive of the Administrative Reforms is to promote government administrative agencies to implement public policies smoothly. After gaining independence in 1947, India faced numerous challenges, including
partition, the rehabilitation of refugees, the retirement of a significant number of administrative personnel, and the integration of princely states. The newly formed government prioritized the welfare of the people through socio-economic development, leading to an expansion of administrative responsibilities. However, the colonial-era administrative system, weakened by these turbulent circumstances, required significant restructuring and reinforcement. As the key instrument for planning and implementing development programs, the administration had to be reformed and modernized. In recent years, the Union Government has introduced major administrative reforms aimed at improving governance by enhancing efficiency, ensuring transparency, reducing corruption, promoting accountability, and minimizing discretionary powers. The Government follows the maxim “Minimum Government - Maximum Governance”. Below mentioned are some of the latest initiatives:
Mission Karmayogi: The National Programme for Civil Services Capacity Building (NPCSCB) is a comprehensive initiative designed to reform and enhance capacity-building at individual, institutional, and process levels for more effective public service delivery. Its objective is to develop a future-ready civil service equipped with the right skills, knowledge, and attitude, in line with the vision of a progressive India. The program is implemented through the iGOT-Karmayogi digital platform, which incorporates content based on global best practices to ensure high-quality training and development.
Lateral Entry: Lateral entry refers to the appointment of professionals from the private sector to key administrative positions in the government, even if they are not part of the traditional bureaucratic framework. This approach is crucial in modern times, as governance increasingly demands highly skilled and result-oriented individuals to enhance public service delivery. Lateral entry introduces principles of economy, efficiency, and effectiveness in government operations while fostering a performance-driven culture within the public sector.
e-Samiksha: A real-time online system has been established to monitor and track follow-up actions on decisions made at the highest levels of government regarding the implementation of key programs and projects. This digital platform serves as a monitoring tool to enhance accountability and ensure efficiency within the bureaucracy. Additionally, the government has been conducting rigorous reviews to identify and remove inefficient officials or those with questionable integrity through premature retirement.
Citizen Charters: The government has mandated Citizen Charters for all ministries and departments, ensuring they are regularly updated and reviewed. These charters serve as written
documents outlining the service provider’s commitment to addressing the needs of citizens and customers.
Good Governance Index 2019: The Governance Performance Index (GGI) evaluates the state of governance and the impact of various initiatives undertaken by State Governments and Union Territories (UTs). Its key objectives include providing measurable data to assess governance across all States and UTs, assisting them in developing and implementing effective strategies for improvement, and promoting a results-driven approach to administration. Launched by the Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances & Pensions, GGI aims to enhance transparency, efficiency, and accountability in governance.
National Conference on e-Governance: The National Conference on e-Governance serves as a platform for the government to collaborate with experts, industry professionals, and academic institutions to share insights and best practices on e-Governance initiatives. In 2020, the 23rd edition of this conference was jointly organized by the Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances (DARPG) and the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) in Mumbai, fostering discussions on enhancing digital governance and public service delivery.
Centralized Public Grievance Redress and Monitoring System (CPGRAMS): The Centralized Public Grievance Redress and Monitoring System (CPGRAMS) is an online, webenabled platform developed by the National Informatics Centre (NIC) under the Ministry of Electronics & IT (MeitY) in collaboration with the Directorate of Public Grievances (DPG) and the Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances (DARPG). CPGRAMS allows citizens to lodge grievances online from any location and track their status in real time. It also facilitates monitoring by the concerned departments and enables DARPG to oversee grievance resolution efficiently.

• Self-Check Exercise 1
Q1. Explain Recent Administrative reforms undertaken by Government of India.

18.4    E-Governance and ICT
E-Governance refers to the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to deliver government services, facilitate information exchange, conduct transactions, and integrate various public service platforms. In India, the concept of e-Governance emerged in the 1970s, initially focusing on internal government applications in sectors such as defense, economic planning, and data management for elections, census, and tax administration. A significant milestone was the establishment of the Department of Electronics in 1970, which emphasized the role of information and communication in governance. The formation of the National Informatics Centre (NIC) in 1977 further advanced e-Governance through initiatives like the District Information System program, aimed at computerizing district offices nationwide. The launch of NICNET in 1987, a national satellite-based computer network, provided a major boost to e-Governance, enabling more efficient public administration and service delivery.
Simple: It refers to the simplification of government rules and regulations, minimizing complex processes through the application of ICTs, thereby ensuring a more user-friendly and accessible governance system.
Moral: It signifies the evolution of a new system within the administrative and political framework, incorporating technological interventions to enhance the efficiency of government agencies.
Accountable: It focuses on developing effective information management systems and performance measurement mechanisms to enhance the accountability of public service functionaries.
Responsive: It speeds up processes by streamlining them, hence making the system more responsive.
Transparent: It ensures transparency in government functions and processes by making information publicly accessible through websites and various online portals
E-government is the use of information and communication technology (ICT) in government services to increase the effectiveness of communication and transactions between citizens, businessman, and the government. It saves the cost of physical monitoring and administration and thus leads to cost saving for the government. Now there will be efficient usage of public
funds as they will be less prone to neglect and waste expenses. It will remove the barriers and make the government better at administration and thus result in better governance. It will increase the data collection and thus will help the administration in better evaluation, implementation, and better scheme outcomes. Public policies result in better outcomes and hence public trust in administration will also increase with the reduced gap because of minimum government and maximum governance.

• Self-Check Exercise 2
Q1. What is e-governance and explain its benefits?

18.5    Organizational Development and Behavior
Organizations are more than just physical structures; they are made up of people and function as social entities. Organizational Behaviour (OB) examines how individuals interact within an organizational setting, recognizing that workplace behaviour often differs from personal conduct. Until the 1980s, business schools primarily focused on quantitative and technical aspects of management. However, during the late 20th century, rapid changes in the business environment highlighted the importance of understanding human behaviour within organizations. While the primary goal of OB is to enhance organizational efficiency and effectiveness, it also benefits employees by applying scientific approaches to improve individual and collective performance. Ultimately, OB focuses on understanding, shaping, and managing human behaviour to optimize workplace productivity and harmony. The foundation of an organization lies in the principle that a group of individuals can accomplish what a single person cannot. Organizations bring together people with diverse skills and expertise to work toward shared objectives. Within this structure, individuals have expectations regarding each other's roles and performance to ensure the achievement of collective goals. The Industrial Revolution marked a significant shift with the introduction of the bureaucratic system in organizations. Bureaucratic organizations featured a rigid hierarchy, division into specialized functional units, and were staffed by technically skilled professionals. This system made organizations more impersonal by enforcing rule-based administration, ensuring uniform application of policies to all employees. Unlike the pre-bureaucratic era, where promotions were often influenced by personal relationships with superiors or owners, bureaucracy introduced clear and structured rules for career advancement, emphasizing merit and qualifications over favouritism.
Organisation Development helps an organisation to deal with:
Workforce diversity: Workforce diversity refers to the inclusion of employees from various backgrounds, including differences in race, gender, religion, caste, and other demographic factors. A diverse workforce introduces fresh perspectives, fosters creativity, and enhances problem-solving by incorporating varied experiences and viewpoints. However, it also presents challenges such as communication barriers, cultural misunderstandings, and potential conflicts. Effective management of diversity requires inclusive policies, sensitivity training, and a workplace culture that promotes respect and collaboration among employees.
Globalisation: Globalisation is a challenge as well as an opportunity for most organisations. Those organisations which address its challenges well will be able to tap into the opportunities in a better way.
Customer-Orientation: Mahatma Gandhi famously stated, “Customer is king,” emphasizing the importance of customer satisfaction. However, this does not imply that organizations should prioritize customers at the expense of their employees. Employee satisfaction plays a crucial role in delivering quality service, as motivated and content employees are more likely to create positive customer experiences. Conversely, dissatisfied employees may unintentionally transfer their frustration to customers, potentially harming the organization’s reputation and success. Therefore, a balanced approach that values both employee well-being and customer satisfaction is essential for sustainable growth.
Innovation and Disruption: Innovation and disruption have become commonplace in today's dynamic world. Innovation refers to the adoption of new ideas, methods, processes, or technologies that generate value for customers while driving profitability for organizations. It plays a crucial role in maintaining a competitive edge, improving efficiency, and addressing evolving consumer needs. In an era where rapid advancements shape industries, organizations must embrace innovation to stay relevant and thrive in an ever-changing business landscape.
Work Environment: The work environment encompasses not only the physical workspace but also the psychological and emotional atmosphere within an organization. A truly conducive work environment fosters positive relationships between employees, their colleagues, and superiors, promoting mutual respect, open communication, and collaboration. When employees
feel valued and supported, they are more engaged, motivated, and productive, ultimately contributing to the organization's overall success.

• Self-Check Exercise 3
Q1. Why in modern times Organisational Behaviour need to be studied to improve efficiency?

18.6    Tools of Administrative Improvement
Administration is becoming complex day by in order to fulfil large scale demands of growing population. Modern citizenry demands quantity as well as quality in the service deliver. Below mentioned are few tools to improve administrative efficiency:
Management Information System (MIS): Management Information System (MIS) is one of the five major Computer-Based Information Systems (CBIS) designed to fulfil the general information needs of managers within a firm or organization. As a computer-based system, it provides relevant data to users with similar requirements, whether they are students aspiring to become managers, entrepreneurs, or professionals. Information system and information technology is a vital component of any successful business and is regarded as a major functional area like any other functional area of a business organization like marketing, finance, production, human resources (HR) etc.
PERT and CPM: PERT stands for Project Evaluation and Review Technique. This is an appropriate technique that is used for projects where the time required or needed to complete different activities is not known. This planning tool is used to calculate the amount of time it will take to realistically finish a project. It provides the blueprint of project and is an efficient technique for project evaluation. In this technique, a PERT Chart is made which represents a schedule for all the specified tasks in the project. The PERT chart is used to schedule, organize, and coordinate tasks within the project. The objective of the PERT chart is to determine the critical path, which comprises critical activities that should be completed on schedule.
CPM is a technique that is used for projects where the time needed for completion is already known. It is primarily used for determining the approximate time within which a project can be completed. The critical path is the largest path in project management that always results in the shortest time to complete the project. CPM also helps project managers identify critical tasks
and non-critical tasks, allowing them to prioritize resources and manage project schedules effectively.
Benefits of Using PERT and CPM

•    Effective Task Scheduling: PERT is ideal for scheduling tasks in projects and determining the critical path, which is essential for understanding project timelines.

•    Timely Decision Making: Both PERT and CPM enable project managers to make timely decisions during project execution, helping to prevent delays and ensure on-time project delivery. PERT is particularly useful for exploring different scenarios, while the critical path identified by CPM helps identify potential uncertainties.

•    Promoting Department Coordination: Using both techniques promotes coordination among project departments and facilitates decision-making for cross-functional teams by providing ample data. This analysis aids in managing the project within budget constraints.

•    Long-Term Planning and Milestone Identification: CPM assists in long-term planning by identifying critical tasks, streamlining planning, scheduling, and project control, resulting in increased productivity and better resource management. PERT, on the other hand, identifies project milestones and task sequences visually, aiding in team comprehension. Regular updates to PERT charts throughout the project lifecycle ensure continued benefits.

•    Self-Check Exercise 4
Q1. Explain some of the tools which are used to improve efficiency of administration.

18.7    Future Technological Revolutions
Public administration, the backbone of government operations, is undergoing a transformative journey as societies adapt to the digital age, dynamic socio-economic shifts, and increasing demands for transparency, efficiency, and citizen engagement. The future of public administration is exciting, challenging, and rife with opportunities to shape the way governments serve their constituents.
Digital Transformation and Data-Driven Decision-Making: The rise of digital technologies is revolutionizing public administration. Governments around the world are harnessing the power of data analytics, artificial intelligence, and automation to streamline operations, enhance service delivery, and make more informed decisions. From predictive analytics for resource allocation to the implementation of digital citizen service portals, technology is reshaping the way public administrators work.
Inclusive Governance and Citizen Engagement: The future of public administration is all about engaging citizens in the decision-making process. Inclusivity and transparency are becoming core principles for effective governance. Technology plays a pivotal role in this transformation, enabling governments to involve citizens in policy discussions, gather feedback, and co-create solutions.
Agile and Adaptable Organizations: The rapid pace of change in today's world demands agile and adaptable public organizations. Bureaucratic structures are giving way to more flexible, results-oriented models. This shift allows governments to respond swiftly to emerging challenges, whether it's a global pandemic, climate crisis, or technological disruption. Crosssector collaboration is becoming essential, as complex problems rarely fall within the purview of a single government agency. Collaborative networks, both domestically and internationally, are forming to tackle multifaceted issues that require a coordinated approach.
Ethics and Privacy in a Digital Age: As public administration embraces technology, it must grapple with critical ethical and privacy concerns. Balancing the benefits of data-driven decision-making with the need to protect individual rights is a challenge that requires careful consideration. Governments must establish robust data protection measures, ensure transparency in data usage, and develop ethical guidelines for the deployment of emerging technologies such as facial recognition and AI. Striking the right balance between innovation and privacy will be crucial in shaping public trust and confidence.
The future of public administration holds tremendous potential to improve the lives of citizens through innovation, inclusivity, and efficiency. By embracing digital transformation, prioritizing citizen engagement, fostering agility, and addressing ethical concerns, governments can create a more responsive and effective public administration system. As the world continues to evolve, so too must the institutions that serve its people. The future of public administration is an exciting frontier, and it's up to us to ensure it leads to a brighter, more connected, and equitable future for all.

• Self-Check Exercise 5
Q1. Explain the impact of future technologies on public administration.

18.8    Summary
The core objective of administrative management is to create a formal structure that facilitates success for a particular business or organization. Administrative management employees create a hierarchy of authority, decide on their key functions, assign the different areas of responsibilities and divide labour across the company’s departments. The concept of what effective administrative management looks like has evolved over time as different theories were created and applied. An administrator is a person who directs the activities of their team or employees and undertakes the responsibility to achieve the objectives of a particular organization or business. Improvement of administration has overall impact on the democracy which can deliver services in efficient manner to the last mile.

18.9    Glossary
CPM:       Critical Path Method
ICT:        Information and Communication Technology
MIS:        Management Information System
PERT:      Performance Evaluation and Review Technique

18.10    Answers to Self-Check Exercises
| Self-Check Exercise 1: | Ans 1. Refer 18.3 |
|---|---|
| Self-Check Exercise 2: | Ans 1. Refer 18.4 |
| Self-Check Exercise 3: | Ans 1. Refer 18.5 |
| Self-Check Exercise 4: | Ans 1. Refer 18.6 |
| Self-Check Exercise 5: | Ans 1. Refer 18.7 |



18.11    References/Suggested Readings
Alter, S., & Ginzberg, M. (1978). Managing uncertainty in MIS implementation. Sloan Management Review (pre-1986), 20(1), 23.
Aras, R. M., & Surkis, J. (1964). PERT and CPM techniques in project management. Journal of the Construction Division, 90(1), 1-25.
Kumar, K., Kumar, S., & Pandey, N. (2020). Application of program evaluation and review technique (PERT) and critical path method (CPM) for monitoring and scheduling of survey research. Indian Journal of Extension Education, 56(1), 201-204.

18.12    Terminal Questions

1.    What is e-governance? Explain its benefits.

2.    Explain the role of future technological revolutions in the field of public administration.
Unit 19

Structure
19.1
19.2
19.3
19.4
19.5
19.6
19.7
19.8
19.9
19.10
19.11

Public Policy
Introduction
Learning Objectives
Need of Public Policies
Self-Check Exercise - 1
Types of Public Policies
Self-Check Exercise - 2
Public Policy Cycle
Self-Check Exercise - 3
Models of Public Policy
Self-Check Exercise - 4
Importance of Public Policy
Self-Check Exercise - 5
Glossary
Answers to Self-Check Exercises
References/Suggested Reading
Terminal Questions

19.1    Introduction
In the early 1950s, the academic discipline of “public policy” began to emerge. Over time, it has grown significantly and is now striving to establish itself as a distinct field of study. Policy plays a central role in various social science disciplines, such as political science, public administration, economics, and management. The rapid academic expansion of public policy has led many scholars, educators, and public administrators to perceive it as increasingly complex. Public policy inherently transcends the traditional boundaries of academic disciplines, drawing from multiple fields. This interdisciplinary nature is precisely what makes the study of public policy both fascinating and intellectually stimulating.
Public policy is an enigmatic concept that has profound implications for the functioning of society. So, what is public policy? It's the roadmap governments follow to address societal needs, consisting of a series of actions or decisions taken by authorities with the aim of solving issues at hand. It's the compass that guides a nation towards its objectives, defining its priorities and values. Public policy can appear as an abstract concept, but it's omnipresent, affecting every aspect of our lives. At its core, public policy is the actions and decisions made by a government body that address various societal issues. India, with its diverse demographic, cultural, and economic landscape, presents a dynamic context for public policy. Public policy in India is a testament to its democratic ideals, aiming to address the complex challenges of a rapidly developing nation. Over the years, it has aimed at promoting inclusive growth, sustainable development, and social justice.

19.2    Learning Objectives
After going through this lesson the students will be able to know

•    Need and Types of Public Policies

•    Public Policy Cycle

•    Models of Public Policy

19.3    Need of Public Policies
Public policy is based on democratic principles. It is intended to serve the public interest, and its formulation often involves consultation and participation from various stakeholders, including the public. It is a manifestation of democracy, reflecting the will and welfare of the people.
Understanding these characteristics of public policy allows us to appreciate its unique role and impact in society. For those involved in policy-making or studying it, like UPSC aspirants, understanding these features can provide a solid foundation for grasping the nuances of public policy and its role in shaping our world.
One might question the need for public policies. After all, they involve complex processes and often require a delicate balancing act among competing interests. Despite these challenges, the importance of public policies is undeniable. They form the foundation of any democratic government's modus operandi, serving as tools for societal progress. Let's delve deeper into the need and importance of public policies. Public policies are framed for different aspects of administration and sectors like energy, food, gender, retail, education, environment and many more. These rules are necessary for the smooth flow of administration. A good public policy can be made with the inclusive efforts of both government and non-government institutions.
The different constituents of Public Policies are:

•    Laws

•    Rules & regulations

•    Welfare programs & practises

•    Specific policy changes that are based on national, state and local levels.

•    Self-Check Exercise 1
Q1. Explain Recent Administrative reforms undertaken by Government of India.

19.4    Types of Public Policies
Public policies can be divided into below mentioned major types:
Distributive Policies: Policies intended to benefit specific groups of people are known as distributive policies. It could be in the form of aid, public assistance, health services, and other welfare steps. Thus, all public aid and welfare programs are included in this category. Adult education programs, food distribution, social insurance, and immunisation camps are some examples of distributive policies.
Regulatory Policies: Regulatory policies encompass rules and guidelines governing trade, business, safety measures, public utilities, and other sectors. These policies are implemented by independent organizations operating on behalf of the government to ensure compliance, efficiency, and accountability. Notable examples include the Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC), the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), the Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI), and other public agencies. In essence, regulatory policies are designed to oversee and regulate entities that provide goods and services in alignment with government objectives.
Redistributive Policies: Redistributive policies aim to bring social and economic changes in society. The prime focus of these kinds of policies is to remove inequality and work for the welfare of society at large. With the help of these policies, the government tries to ensure that resources are not concentrated in the hands of a few people by transferring resources from privileged groups to deprived ones.
Substantive Policies: Substantive policies are concerned with society’s overall welfare and development. Some substantive policies are programs such as education and employment opportunities, economic stabilisation, law and order enforcement, anti-pollution laws, etc. These policies cover a wide range of issues that affect society’s overall well-being and progress.
Fiscal Policies: Fiscal policy is a set of rules related to government spending and taxation. These policies decide the government budget allocation and set the tax rates imposed on the people. Some examples of fiscal policy include rules related to taxation on investments, debt and surplus management, welfare schemes by the government and more.
Monetary Policies: Monetary policies are the set of rules that ensure the supply and demand in the country. It also looks after the valuation of the currency. A robust monetary policy can elevate a nation’s finances. Some examples of monetary policies would include guidelines related to the bank rates, credit card interest rates, and buying and selling of government securities, among others.
Social Assistance Policies: These policies are related to social welfare actions and assistance to lower-income groups. Some examples of social assistance policies are health schemes and education schemes implemented by government bodies.

• Self-Check Exercise 2
Q1. Explain the major types of public policies?

19.5    Public Policy Cycle
In the realm of public policy, several key components play a vital role in forming the tapestry of governance. These aspects encompass the entirety of a policy's lifecycle, beginning with its inception, progressing through its development, and culminating in its effect on society.
Problem Identification: The genesis of any public policy lies in the identification of a societal problem or issue. This recognition could be the result of a significant event, academic research, or vocal public opinion. Here, policymakers pinpoint what needs changing and who is affected, essentially setting the stage for the formulation of the policy.
Agenda Setting: Once a problem is identified, it needs to be placed on the government's agenda for it to receive attention. Agenda setting involves prioritizing the myriad of societal issues identified; essentially deciding which problems will be addressed by public policy.
Policy Formulation: This stage marks the transition from recognizing and prioritizing the problem to generating solutions. Here, policymakers, researchers, and interest groups engage in drafting potential policy options, bearing in mind their feasibility, potential effectiveness, and acceptability to stakeholders.
Decision Making and Policy Adoption: The policy formulation stage culminates in decision making, where the best course of action is selected from the proposed solutions. This stage may
involve negotiation, compromise, and political manoeuvring. Once a decision is reached, the policy is formally adopted and becomes part of the government's action plan.
Policy Implementation: At this stage, the adopted policy is put into action. Government agencies, alongside other involved organizations, are tasked with executing the policy directives. The success of a policy greatly depends on the effectiveness of its implementation.
Policy Evaluation: The final aspect of public policy is evaluation. It is the assessment of a policy's outcomes and impact. Policymakers analyse whether the policy has achieved its intended objectives and the extent of its success or failure. This information is valuable for future policymaking, offering lessons for improvement.

• Self-Check Exercise 3
Q1. Explain the steps involved in public policy cycle?

19.6    Models of Public Policy
A model, in general terms, is a representation of a person, concept, or system. In the context of public policy, models serve as simplified abstractions of real-world political and administrative processes, helping to highlight key aspects of policy-making. When analysing political systems or elitism in public policy, models assist in organizing and categorizing ideas, making complex governance structures more comprehensible. By providing a structured framework, they enable policymakers and researchers to better understand, evaluate, and predict policy outcomes.
System Model: David Easton conceptualized the policy-making process as a "black box" that transforms societal demands into policies. In his analysis of political systems (1965), he described the political system as the segment of society responsible for the authoritative allocation of values. Inputs into this system include physical, social, economic, and political factors from the environment, which manifest as both demands and support. The support structure of a political system comprises rules, laws, and customs that uphold the legitimacy of political institutions and authorities, ensuring the stability and functioning of governance. Support for a political system is demonstrated when individuals or groups accept its decisions, laws, and policies. It consists of symbolic or material inputs, such as obeying laws, paying taxes, or respecting national symbols, which serve as the psychological and material foundations of governance. At the core of the political system are key institutions and actors
involved in policymaking, including the chief executive, legislators, judges, and bureaucrats. These entities process societal demands (inputs) and transform them into policies (outputs), which represent authoritative value allocations within the system. The systems theory views public policy as the outcome of this process, emphasizing a cyclical flow of information through feedback mechanisms, inputs, and outputs. This dynamic interaction ensures the continuous evolution and adaptation of policies in response to societal needs.
Institutional model: It centres on the government as a key institution for policy analysis, encompassing major governmental bodies such as Parliament, the Executive (including government departments), and the Judiciary. In essence, a policy only materializes when it is adopted and put into action by these governmental institutions. These institutions impart three defining features to public policy. First, the government grants legal authority to policies. Second, public policies are universally applicable, extending to all citizens within the state. Third, public policy inherently involves coercion, as it reflects the government's actions in enforcing its decisions. Policies carry the potential for imposing penalties, using coercion if required, and only the government has the legal authority to enforce such sanctions on those who violate its policies. Thus, there is a strong connection between public policy and governmental institutions. The institutional approach to public policy, which focuses on the interactions among institutions established by the constitution, legislature, or government, has gained considerable importance.
Rational Policy Making: The idea of ‘rationality’ has an important place in the study of policy and decision making in the post-World War II era. Two sources are mainly responsible for this rational approach: (i) the idea of economic ‘rationality’ as it grew in economic theory, and (ii) the idea of ‘bureaucratic’, rationality, as advocated in sociological theories of organisation. The idea of rationality in public policy originates from the concept of the "economic man," a selfinterested individual who makes calculated decisions. The Weberian model of rational action, which focuses on selecting the most effective means to achieve specific goals, has significantly influenced decision-making analysis. This perspective highlights that policy decisions are made by evaluating various alternatives based on logical reasoning, ultimately selecting the most optimal option. Thomas Dye equates rationality with efficiency. “A policy is considered rational when the net gain the difference between the values it achieves and the values it sacrifices is positive and greater than that of any other policy alternative”. He further emphasizes that efficiency entails assessing all social, political, and economic values gained or lost due to a public policy, not just those quantifiable in monetary terms. Additionally, he notes
that pursuing a purely rational model through analysis can often be undemocratic. Denhardt observes that policy analysts typically apply technical solutions to the immediate problems. Under such circumstances, Denhardt notes, “technical concerns would displace political and ethical concerns as the basis for public decision-making, thereby transforming normative issues into technical problems”.
Incremental Model: Charles Lindblom (1917–2018) was a prominent critic of the traditional rationality model. Challenging the views of Simon and others, he argued that decision-making is not merely about defining goals, selecting options, and comparing them. Lindblom contended that rational decision-making is impractical for addressing complex policy issues. According to him, factors such as time constraints, cognitive limitations, financial costs, and political influences hinder policymakers from fully identifying societal goals and their potential outcomes. He distinguished between Herbert Simon’s concept of comprehensive (or root) rationality and his own approach, known as ‘successive limited comparisons’ (or branch decision-making).
Elite model: The elite theory of the policy process asserts that power is concentrated in the hands of a small group of elites, who shape policy to serve their interests. According to this theory, society is divided into two groups: those in power at the top and the powerless masses at the bottom. The elites, who share common values and possess greater wealth, education, and influence, govern a largely passive and uninformed public. In a setting marked by apathy and distorted information, elites have a stronger impact on shaping public opinion on policy matters than the masses do on elite decision-making. Within this framework, policy decisions originate from the elite and flow downward to the public. As a result, public policy is seen as a reflection of the preferences and priorities of the ruling elite, while government officials and administrators are primarily responsible for implementing these decisions.
Public Choice Model: The terms public choice and political economy were introduced by scholars and gained prominence in social science literature from the early 1960s. Rooted in rational choice theory, this approach focuses on understanding decision-making within politics and bureaucracy. Key contributors to this perspective include Gordon Tullock, Anthony Downs, and William Niskanen. Public choice theory challenges the traditional notion that policymaking is driven by the pursuit of public welfare. Instead, it suggests that, much like private entrepreneurs seeking to maximize profits, politicians are primarily motivated by personal
interests when shaping public policy. Their decisions are influenced by the goal of maximizing electoral success, leading them to adopt policies that align with public expectations.

• Self-Check Exercise 4
Q1. Explain some of the models of public policy.

19.7    Importance of Public Policy
Some of the importance of public policy is mentioned below:
Facilitating Order: Public policies facilitate order within a society. Without these guidelines and rules, chaos would ensue. Policies provide a structured framework within which individuals, organizations, and governments can operate, ensuring societal stability and harmony.
Delivering Public Services: Public policies outline the delivery of essential public services. These policies determine who will receive services, how they will be delivered, and who is responsible for their provision. From healthcare and education to infrastructure and security, public policies facilitate the efficient delivery of public services.
Protecting Rights and Enforcing Responsibilities: Public policies play a crucial role in safeguarding rights and enforcing responsibilities. They establish what is permissible and what is not, ensuring that the rights of individuals are protected while also outlining their responsibilities towards society.
Resource Distribution: Public policies guide the distribution of resources. They help to determine how resources, both tangible and intangible, are allocated within society. In doing so, policies play a significant role in addressing disparities and promoting social justice.
Addressing Societal Issues: Public policies allow governments to address societal issues. Whether it's tackling poverty, promoting economic development, or conserving the environment, public policies provide a roadmap for addressing these complex challenges.
Providing a Platform for Public Participation: Lastly, public policies provide a platform for public participation. They are not just directives from the government, but also reflect the voice of the people. Public participation in policy-making promotes democratic principles and allows the needs of the public to be heard and addressed.

• Self-Check Exercise 5
Q1. Explain the importance of public policy in public administration.

19.8    Summary
The study of public administration has traditionally emphasized the structures and mechanisms involved in policy implementation. It explores the organization of public authorities, the conduct of public servants, and increasingly, the methods of resource allocation, administration, and evaluation. While this approach provides valuable insights, it often falls short of explaining how policies are formulated, though it is widely acknowledged that the experience of implementing policies significantly influences the policy-making process. However, public policy as a subject is inherently more political than public administration. It seeks to apply political science to public affairs while also engaging with the processes within public administration. In recent years, the field of public policy has been predominantly shaped by scholars specializing in policy analysis and public administration. Their work has largely focused on the content of policies, the processes through which they are formulated, and their implementation. Public policy is a vital area of both academic study and practical application. Since its emergence as a distinct field of inquiry, it has expanded significantly in both theoretical scope and real-world relevance. A key aspect of public policy studies involves developing scenarios and extrapolating contemporary trends to anticipate future challenges. The study of public policy helps us understand and address societal issues. Policies not only drive changes in social conditions but also play a crucial role in maintaining order and cohesion within a state. In democratic nations, public policies serve as essential tools for guiding social and economic systems from the past into the future, ensuring progress and stability.

19.9    Glossary
Black Box: This model of systems analysis, popularized by David Easton (1965), suggests that inputs are processed within a 'black box' to produce outputs or outcomes. Like other positivist thinkers, Easton assumes a definable cause-and-effect relationship between supports, demands, and outputs. However, critics argue that this approach is overly mechanical and rigid.
Incrementalism: A model of decision-making in which policy change is accomplished through small, incremental steps that allow decision makers to adjust policies as they learn from their successes and failures.
Policy sciences : Policy sciences is the discipline concerned with explaining the policy-making and policy-executing process; and with locating data and providing explanations that are relevant to policy analysis.

19.10    Answers to Self-Check Exercises
| Self-Check Exercise 1: | Ans 1. Refer 19.3 |
|---|---|
| Self-Check Exercise 2: | Ans 1. Refer 19.4 |
| Self-Check Exercise 3: | Ans 1. Refer 19.5 |
| Self-Check Exercise 4: | Ans 1. Refer 19.6 |
| Self-Check Exercise 5: | Ans 1. Refer 19.7 |



19.11    References/Suggested Readings
Dror, Y. (1968). Public Policy Making Re-examined. Pennsylvania: Scranton.
Dye, T.R. (1978). Understanding Public Policy. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Easton, D. (1957). An approach to the analysis of political systems. World Politics. 9(1).
Lowi, T.J. (1972). Four Systems of policy, politics and choice. Public Administrative Review. 32(4)
Wildavsky, A. (1979). Speaking Truth to Power: The Art and Craft of Policy Analysis. Boston: Little, Brown & Company.

19.12    Terminal Questions

1.    Explain the types and cycle of public policies.

2.    Briefly discuss models of public policies.
Unit 20
Ethics in Public Administration
Structure

20.1         Introduction

20.2         Learning Objectives

20.3        Ethics and its Dimensions
Self-Check Exercise - 1

20.4        Ethics in Public Life
Self-Check Exercise - 2

20.5        Civil Services Values
Self-Check Exercise - 3

20.6        Law, Rule, Regulations and Conscience
Self-Check Exercise - 4

20.7    Code of Ethics, Codes of Conduct
Self-Check Exercise - 5

20.8       Summary

20.9         Glossary

20.10    Answers to Self-Check Exercises

20.11       References/Suggested Readings

20.12      Terminal Questions

20.1    Introduction
Etymologically the term “Ethics” correspond to the Greek word “Ethos” which mean Character, Habit, Customs or Way of behaviour, etc. Hence, Ethics, defined as Systematic study of human actions from the point of view of their rightfulness or wrongfulness. Simply it’s “A set of principles which guides us what to do and what not to do the way acceptable to the society.”
Ethics, as a philosophical discipline, examines the values and principles that guide human behaviour while also seeking to justify them. It goes beyond merely following traditions or customs, requiring critical analysis and evaluation based on universal principles. As moral philosophy, ethics involves philosophical reflection on morality, ethical dilemmas, and moral judgments. It is considered a science because it consists of logically organized, reasoned truths with defined material and formal aspects. Ethics explores what humans ought to be based on their nature and is a rational science, as its principles are derived through reason in relation to free will. Additionally, it serves as a normative or regulative science, providing guidance on leading a morally upright life in accordance with reason.
Ethics is more than just a collection of moral codes. While it does involve moral guidelines, it is not limited to them. Rather than simply restricting behaviour, ethics serves to help individuals identify what is good and how to achieve it. The binding nature of ethical norms arises from the core purpose of ethical inquiry: to uncover the fundamental principles that explain why one ought to act in a certain way. The relationship between ethics and human experience is complex, involving moral principles, the factors influencing ethical decisions, and the significant consequences of ethical or unethical actions. As a branch of philosophy, ethics explores moral values and principles, guiding individuals on how to act fairly, honestly, and with respect for others. In today’s interconnected world, ethical considerations are more crucial than ever. From the ethical implications of technology and artificial intelligence to matters of social justice, environmental sustainability, and human rights, many contemporary challenges require thoughtful ethical reflection.
The concept of human interface in ethics refers to the connection between individuals and the ethical decision-making process. It involves how people engage with moral principles, norms, and values, shaping their beliefs and influencing their behaviour. In today’s world, this interaction has become more intricate due to rapid technological advancements, globalization, and cultural diversity. Consequently, individuals often encounter complex ethical dilemmas
that demand thoughtful analysis and sound judgment. To effectively address these challenges, it is crucial to establish a strong ethical foundation that fosters critical thinking, empathy, and respect for others. Ethical decision-making involves acknowledging and addressing personal biases and prejudices while considering the broader social, economic, and political context. At its core, the human interface in ethics is about understanding the complexities of human behavior and recognizing the vital role of ethical choices in fostering social justice, fairness, and overall well-being. By building a strong ethical foundation, individuals can approach the challenges of contemporary society with greater confidence, empathy, and compassion, ensuring that their decisions contribute positively to the world around them.
A useful way to deal with ethics is seeing it as an active process of design, an ongoing process that occurs whenever circumstances force us to deal with conflict, tension, uncertainty and risk. As individuals define the boundaries and content of their responsibility in resolving specific ethical dilemmas both great and small, we create for ourselves an ethical identity and form character traits. Often this is done without consistent, intentional and systematic reflection, but that need not always be the case. Skill in addressing ethical issues can be learned and cultivated if we recognize the importance of doing so. The requirement is that we view our treatment of ethical problems as an ongoing process of designing the best courses of action for specific situations we face. This demands that we are able to establish a framework for understanding ethics in dynamic rather than static terms. It means an essential part and unchanging nature of a thing or person, a vital part of some idea or immaterial entity, or the predominant qualities or central meaning of someone or something. Ethics fundamentally involves concern for something or someone beyond oneself, extending beyond personal desires and self-interest. It encompasses consideration for others well-being, societal interests, and the concept of the ultimate good. Thinking ethically, therefore, requires individuals to look beyond their own perspectives and take broader responsibilities into account.

20.2    Learning Objectives
After going through this lesson the students will be able to know

•    Ethics and its dimensions

•    Civil Services Values

•    Laws, Rules, Regulations and Conscience

20.3    Ethics and its Dimensions
Ethics is divided into four main branches. They are:

1.    Meta-Ethics (Ethics about Ethics)

2.    Prescriptive Ethics (Normative Ethics) – which is again divided into Deontological Ethics, Teleological Ethics, and Virtue Ethics.

3.    Descriptive Ethics (Comparative Ethics)

4.    Applied Ethics – again divided into Bio-ethics, Cyber Ethics, Environmental Ethics, Personal Ethics, Professional Ethics, Public Ethics, International Ethics and so on.
Meta-Ethics: Meta-ethics explores the fundamental nature of moral judgments, examining how we determine whether something is morally right or wrong. It delves into our understanding of ethical concepts, questioning how we perceive the goodness or negativity of decisions, actions, or intentions. Unlike applied ethics, which focuses on specific moral dilemmas, meta-ethics analyses the meaning and justification of moral principles themselves. Rather than evaluating the rightness or wrongness of particular actions, it investigates the nature of morality, including its objectivity and origin. The three primary theories within metaethics are naturalism, non-naturalism, and prescriptivism, each offering different perspectives on the foundations of moral reasoning.
Normative or Prescriptive Ethics: It is the study of ethical principles that guide how individuals should act and behave within society. Additionally, it examines the standards that determine the moral rightness or wrongness of actions. When established norms are violated, there are justified reasons for consequences, along with explanations for enforcing them. The following are some of the dimensions of normative ethics:

•    Deontology Ethics: It asserts that the ideal ethical action upholds and respects the moral rights of those affected. The core belief is that individuals possess inherent dignity, either due to their human nature or their ability to make free choices. This dignity grants them the right to be treated as ends in themselves rather than merely as means to achieve other goals.

•    Contractarianism- From this perspective, moral rules are those that are universally acceptable within society, but their moral value must be assessed objectively. This approach is reflected in concepts such as John Rawls’ Veil of Ignorance and Thomas
Hobbes’ Social Contract, which emphasize fairness and impartiality in moral reasoning.

•    Natural rights theory- This perspective upholds the existence of absolute, inherent rights that individuals possess simply by virtue of being human. Thinkers such as John Locke and Thomas Aquinas, through the Natural Rights Theory, advocate this view, asserting that fundamental rights such as life, liberty, and property are unalienable and must be protected.
Descriptive Ethics: This branch of ethics lies on the less analytical end of the ethical spectrum, focusing on the observation and documentation of how people behave and make moral choices. It gathers knowledge about human actions, identifies recurring patterns, and draws general conclusions based on empirical observations. As an empirical study of moral beliefs shaped by laws and societal conventions, it explores the historical development of ethical thought and records specific taboos, norms, and traditions. Descriptive ethics is exemplified in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, offering a value-neutral perspective that aligns more with social science than moral philosophy. Unlike normative ethics, it does not begin with predefined theories or assumptions but instead carefully examines real-world ethical decisions, analyzing how individuals and societies navigate moral choices in practice.
Applied Ethics: This branch of ethics applies ethical principles to real-world situations across various professional fields and aspects of daily life. It involves the philosophical analysis of specific moral dilemmas in both private and public spheres, requiring ethical judgments on complex issues. Drawing from meta-ethics and normative ethics, it addresses challenging topics such as abortion, infanticide, animal rights, environmental sustainability, LGBTQ+ rights, capital punishment, and nuclear weapons This practical approach to ethics helps navigate contemporary moral debates by providing structured reasoning and ethical guidance.
These are the factors that determine or shape the ethical standards in an individual and society. Some of the important determinants of ethics are:
Social Rules or Customs: Social rules and customs are shaped by a combination of religious or philosophical beliefs, personal intuition, and common sense. They evolve over time due to various influences, such as prominent thinkers, spiritual leaders, economic conditions, disease, war, migration, and cultural expression. As a result, morality often takes on a relativist nature, with its subjectivity clearly evident. For instance, one society may consider having multiple children immoral, while another may view contraception as unethical. Despite this inherent
relativism, people often attempt to impose their moral perspectives on others, sometimes even resorting to violence in the name of their beliefs.
Nature/Object of the Act: One approach to evaluating the morality of human actions is by analyzing their inherent nature or essence. Each action carries a unique character that distinguishes it from others, making it intrinsically good, bad, or neutral. For instance, helping a blind person cross the street is inherently good, blasphemy is often regarded as inherently bad, and learning to shoot is neutral in itself, as its morality depends on the context in which it is applied. However, some actions are considered intrinsically immoral due to their fundamental moral implications. These actions are deemed wrong regardless of the intentions behind them or the circumstances in which they occur. Examples often cited include rape, the murder of innocent children, and blasphemy. Such acts are viewed as fundamentally incompatible with the principles of goodness and morality, as they inherently violate ethical and human values. This perspective emphasizes that certain actions are universally condemned because they contradict the very essence of moral integrity and human dignity. Additionally, some societies or religions classify specific actions such as abortion, embryonic stem cell research, same-sex marriage, and euthanasia as intrinsically immoral based on their moral codes. While individuals may have good intentions or difficult circumstances, these acts are often considered non-negotiable and subject to punishment within such frameworks. However, the universal applicability of labelling an act as evil or sinful without considering context and intention remains a topic of debate, as moral perspectives vary across different cultures and belief systems.
Intention/Purpose of the Action: The morality of an action is often determined by the intention behind it. According to Aristotle and teleological theorists, every human action, no matter how small, has a purpose, motive, or intention. Individuals hold moral responsibility for their actions, whether they involve deliberate acts, omissions, attempts, or decisions to refrain from acting. This responsibility also applies to actions driven by foresight, causation, desire, or motivation. Thus, intention plays a crucial role in shaping the ethical significance of an action and assessing its moral value. The manner in which purpose/intention affects the ethics of an action is outlined below:

•    For a human act to be morally good the agent or doer must have good intentions.

•    The motive of an agent can change an act morally good by nature into a morally evil act.

•    A good intention, no matter how good, does not make something essentially immoral into something morally good.

•    An action that has a good object can become more or less good because of its purpose.

•    An action which is inherently wrong may become a greater or lesser wrong depending on the purpose of the moral agent.
Circumstances of the Action: Every human action takes place within a specific context, and these circumstances can influence its moral significance. Circumstances add to the moral quality of an act by shaping its impact and ethical evaluation. Factors such as the timing, location, the person performing the act, and the manner in which it is carried out all contribute to determining whether an action is morally acceptable or not. While an act may be inherently good or bad, the surrounding circumstances can either enhance or diminish its ethical weight.

•    Self-Check Exercise 1
Q1. Define ethics and morality. Brief about its dimensions.

20.4    Ethics in Public Life
Ethics is a branch of philosophy that focuses on systematizing, defending, and recommending principles of right and wrong behavior. Morality can be a body of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct from a particular philosophy, religion, or culture. It can also derive from a standard that a person believes in. Ethics refers to the principles and values that govern the behaviour of individuals and organizations. It is the branch of philosophy that deals with moral principles and values and how they should guide behaviour. Ethics is concerned with questions of right and wrong conduct, good and bad, and fairness and justice. It provides a framework for decision-making and guides individuals and organizations on how to act in certain situations. Ethics can be influenced by religious teachings, philosophical principles, cultural and societal norms, legal and regulatory frameworks, and professional codes of conduct. It can also change over time and vary across different contexts and cultures.
Morals, also known as moral values, refer to the personal beliefs and values that guide an individual’s actions and moral behaviour. These beliefs and values are unique to each person, shaped by their experiences, upbringing, and personal perspectives. They can include principles such as honesty, compassion, fairness, and respect. Morals are the foundation of an individual’s
personal code of conduct and shape their understanding of what is right and wrong, good and bad, and fair and unfair. Unlike ethics, which are often more formalized and universal, morals can vary widely among individuals and cultures. They are not always based on rational principles, but rather on an individual’s personal beliefs and experiences. For example, one person may have a strong moral belief in nonviolence, while another may believe in the right to self-defence. These differing moral beliefs can lead to different actions and decisions even when faced with similar situations. Morals are self-enforced by individuals; they are not enforced by external institutions like laws or regulations, although they can be influenced by cultural, religious, or philosophical teachings. Furthermore, morals can change over time as an individual’s beliefs and values evolve, and they can also be affected by new experiences and perspectives.
At its core, ethics is about considering the well-being of others beyond our own desires and self-interest. It involves concern for other individuals, society as a whole, spiritual or religious principles, and broader notions of ultimate good. Ethical thinking requires looking beyond personal gain and acknowledging the impact of our actions on others. However, a challenge in ethics arises when moral principles are weaponized. When a group deems a particular action as wrong, they may use morality as a justification to condemn or attack those who engage in it. This can lead to the dehumanization of those perceived as immoral, making them seem less deserving of respect or dignity. In extreme cases, this has resulted in serious harm and tragic consequences, highlighting the need for ethical discourse to be guided by compassion, open-mindedness, and respect for differing perspectives.
Ethics extends beyond evaluating the morality of specific actions; it also encompasses the goodness of individuals and the essence of living a meaningful life. Virtue Ethics, in particular, focuses on the moral character of human beings. However, contemporary philosophers have grown increasingly uncertain about the possibility of developing a comprehensive and satisfactory theory of ethics—one that can definitively lead to clear conclusions. Modern thought often suggests that ethics does not necessarily guide people to conclusions but rather to decisions. From this perspective, the primary role of ethics is to clarify what is at stake in specific ethical dilemmas. Philosophy can assist in identifying the range of ethical approaches, discussions, and value systems that may be relevant to a particular issue. Yet, once these aspects have been clarified, individuals must make their own personal decisions about how to act and then take responsibility for the consequences that follow. In this way, ethics serves as a tool for reflection and deliberation, empowering
individuals to navigate complex moral landscapes while acknowledging the inherent subjectivity of ethical decision-making.
Relationship management has become the focus of research in recent years. While some scholars conceive of relationships as subjective realities, others view them as objective. Still others see relationships as a combination of subjective perceptions and objective qualities of relationships independent of participants. It has been pointed out that relationships should be a multidimensional notion. Further, six dimensions of relationship state have been proposed by some: reciprocity, trust, mutual legitimacy, openness, mutual satisfaction, and mutual understanding. Others have presented five dimensions: trust, openness, involvement, investment, and commitment. However, at least four dimensions have been widely supported: trust, commitment, satisfaction, and control mutuality.
Professional ethics is mostly played out in the daily interactions that one has with other people. What matters most to people is the honesty of the person standing right in front of them; rather than that of Satyam Computers or Enron. How you treat the people during your regular workday sets the stage for whether or not you will crash when the inevitable personal ethical crisis comes. Your core values must match what you say to others. Here, we're not just talking about the ethical no-brainers such as lying to co-workers or stealing company funds. We’re talking about whether your everyday treatment of people, from poorest person to the richest reflects the ethical values that you hold dear. In a nutshell, do you treat people right? Why don’t you sexually harass your co-worker? Because you respect him or her as a person and it would be unthinkable to drag that person through the pain and torment that harassment brings. What's stopping you from taking credit for someone else's work? Because you would not want the same thing to happen to you. Why don't you take advantage of a customer's ignorance to cash in on a sale? It’s because you understand that this destroys relationships and trust, which is what true success in business is built upon.
The distinction between private and public ethics is dubious because, in public and private lives, a person lives by the same ethical values in general. Moreover, no sharp line can be drawn between where private life starts, and public life ends for a Civil Servant. The very philosophy of Civil Service says that when a person becomes Civil Servant, he loses his individuality and becomes part of larger order. Furthermore, one cannot expect someone who lacks moral character in public life to be ethical in their private life and vice versa. How a civil servant treats women in his family is reflected in how he handles female co-workers. There should be
no conflict between personal and professional ethics as it may lead to frustration, guilt, confusion & dissonance in the mind of some persons. But at the same time, Ethics in public life places a greater responsibility & a person cannot always follow his personal ethics. For example, personally, one may feel abortion is morally wrong, but as a doctor, he needs to do an abortion according to professional ethics. When performing a role in public, one must separate his personal life and strictly follow a professional code of conduct. A person’s private life can act as a motivating factor but many times can be depressing. The environment from which a person comes to the office daily certainly influences his behaviour for the rest of the day. His personal affiliations, the ideology of his family and his convictions can stop him from taking rational decisions. Ethics in Private Relationships: It refers to the ethical principles that a person adheres to when dealing with other people and situations in daily life. It primarily involves relations with family & friends. They are informal in nature since they are built on emotional ties rather than any formal procedures that govern them.

• Self-Check Exercise 2
Q1. Explain the difference between ethics in public and private life.

20.5    Civil Service Values
Professional ethics of a public administrator encompass standards of behaviour and conduct that are crucial for performance of his/her public duties. These include ideas and actions to make things right and a behaviour that reflects a sense of public administration. The object of ethics in public administration is to instil a sense of professional morality in the administrator to perform his duty in a manner that conforms to the highest ethical standards. Ethics and values are often used interchangeably, particularly in discussions about combating corruption and poor governance, but this conflation can be misleading. While both concepts guide human behaviour, they serve distinct roles. Values are deeply held beliefs that shape an individual's or society's worldview, whereas ethics refers to the principles and standards that govern right and wrong conduct. For example, Canada established an Office for Public Service Values and Ethics, recognizing this distinction in governance. Similarly, in India, a clear differentiation between ethics and values is essential to ensure a more structured and effective approach to public administration, fostering integrity while respecting diverse moral and cultural perspectives.
Values, on their own, do not have the power to drive actions; it is the application of ethical principles to these values that shapes behaviour. For instance, while government officials may value honesty, it is their actions that determine whether this principle is truly upheld in practice. Ethics, therefore, serve as the framework that translates values into real-world conduct. Values influence all aspects of ethical decision-making, judgment, choices, and actions. However, labelling values as inherently "positive" or "negative" is misleading, as their impact depends on how they are applied. For example, confidentiality can be seen as a positive value when protecting national security, yet it may be viewed negatively when it limits transparency. In public service, ethical governance rooted in the right values fosters public trust and confidence. Conversely, the misapplication of values or the promotion of inappropriate ones can erode trust, weakening the fundamental pillars of democratic administration. Several core values are important in public service and public administration, including:

•    Service to the public: Public servants are committed to serving the needs and interests of the public. This involves providing high-quality services that meet the needs of the people and working to improve the lives of citizens.

•    Integrity: Public servants must be honest, transparent, and accountable in their actions and decision-making. This means acting with integrity, honesty, and fairness in all aspects of their work.

•    Impartiality: Public servants must be impartial and objective in their decision-making, free from personal or political bias. This means treating all citizens equally and impartially, regardless of their characteristics or beliefs.

•    Professionalism: Public servants must be competent, skilled, and dedicated to their work. This involves upholding professional standards and being committed to continuous learning and development.

•    Respect for diversity: Public servants must respect and value the diversity of the communities they serve. This includes valuing diversity in terms of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, religion, and other personal characteristics.

•    Responsibility: Public servants must be responsible and accountable for their actions and decisions. This means taking ownership of their work and being accountable to the public for their actions.

•    Transparency: Public servants must be open and transparent in their actions and decision-making processes. This involves making information about government policies, programs, and decisions available to the public.
Civil service neutrality is a fundamental principle in public administration, especially in a diverse and democratic country like India. It signifies the impartiality and non-partisanship of civil servants, ensuring they perform their duties with objectivity, fairness, and independence, regardless of their personal beliefs or political affiliations. As the backbone of public administration, civil servants are responsible for implementing government policies and delivering essential public services. Their neutrality is crucial in maintaining public trust, as it guarantees that decisions and actions are based on merit, law, and the greater good of society, rather than personal biases or external influences. Upholding this principle strengthens democratic governance and ensures effective and equitable service delivery to all citizens.
Impartiality implies that decisions should be made without regard to bias, prejudice, or an unfair favour for one individual, group, or organization over another. Impartiality implies that a bureaucrat’s behaviour and treatment towards any person or organization must solely be based on merit. Absolute impartiality is required to make decisions that are fair, just, equitable, effective, and efficient and leads to inclusive growth. A public servant who possesses this value will not face controversy during his or her tenure in office. The work’s objectivity will keep problems out of the public eye. For instance, it will cause a stir if a public official approves the organizing of a rally for one political party but not for another. It is possible to prevent this by being impartial. It will help in maintaining harmony between social groups. Tension between groups can occur when there are several difficulties between them, especially in multi-religious and multicultural societies like India. To ensure peace, the officials must carry out their duties while keeping a safe distance from both groups.
Civil Service Anonymity refers to the principle that a civil servant should perform their functions behind the curtains, away from the public view and as political masters are directly responsible to the people, all the credit for success and blame for failure of any action of the government should be awarded to the political masters as against civil servant. Anonymity has been a hallmark of Westminster bureaucracies, including in India. Public service anonymity is the convention that ministers answer to Parliament and to the public for government actions without naming the public servants who provided advice or who carried out the administrative
action. In a world where public governance has become the norm, remaining habitually anonymous is counterproductive.

•    Self-Check Exercise 3
Q1. Elaborate some of the core civil services values.

20.6    Law, Rule, Regulations and Conscience
Laws are only rules in a legal form. For lack of a better term, the definition of law is a rule that has been legally made to apply to every member of society. A law is a sentence that has been enacted by a legislature in a democratic system. A law can be considered to be much more formal than a regulation. A higher level of government, typically the police and prosecutor’s office, sets the laws. Laws are codified in a certain manner so that they can be applied as necessary. Voting is one of the stages that laws must go through before becoming enacted.
Governments make and enforce laws based on society’s values to regulate our interactions with one another. Governments enact laws to safeguard the people who live within their borders. The three primary governmental entities tasked with making laws are the legislature, the judiciary, and public authorities. The concept of law as applied to ethics differs from that of law as applied to other subjects such as physics. Law has a moral connotation in ethics. Law, according to St. Thomas Aquinas, is defined as “An ordinance of reason for the common good, promulgated by the community's caretaker”. As a result, law establishes a course of action that must be followed. The legislator, according to St. Thomas Aquinas, must act reasonably when devising a course of action. The legislator's orders must be good, feasible, and equitable.
Similar to conventions, rules are norms of conduct that are created for certain situations. They are essential since there is typically a consequence associated with them. Both businesses and individuals create rules. Rules are more lenient and have fewer repercussions. Rules are strategies that are offered to maintain an organization’s efficient operation as well as peace and harmony among its members. Rules are individualized, and they are frequently adjusted as the circumstances in the home change. People can learn how to get ready for society by following the rules. Fundamentally, rules are judicial legal conclusions, much like the decisions a judge makes in a case. It is the rule of law or rules of law established in a legal dispute. Rules are a less formal set of guidelines that, depending on who is enforcing them, may have few or no repercussions. The person who makes the rules also applies them. The key distinction between
laws and rules is the penalties for breaching them. The law is more potent than a rule, even though both are intended to promote a sense of order, fair play, and safety. Laws resemble the formalized version of rules. Laws are codified in certain ways to allow for flexible interpretation. Rules can be bent. To be effective, laws must be passed after following the correct procedures. Rules are only established and changed as necessary. Society must establish specific rules and laws that aid in regulating its efficient operation. Everyone will be treated equally thanks to the laws and regulations that have been put in place. No matter their social standing or position, all people are required to abide by a set of regulations, and if they do breach any of those norms, they must face the repercussions. The laws and regulations kept society working smoothly and effectively.
A regulation is a set of legal requirements intended to reshape behaviour that results from flaws. A regulation can be used to encourage or forbid behaviour, to create uniform incentives, or to alter preferences. A written document with rules with laws on it and a procedure for monitoring and enforcing laws are the two components that make up regulations. The goal of regulation is to solve a situation by establishing it or changing it according to a set of laws or ideas. A regulation is a legal standard that has intention to shape conduct that is a by-product of imperfection. A regulation can be used to recommend or prohibit certain behaviors, standardize incentives, or influence preferences. It consists of two key elements: a process for monitoring and enforcing legislation and a written instrument containing legally binding rules. The essence of regulation lies in establishing, adjusting, or structuring actions according to rules, methods, or governing ideologies. Typically, regulations are formulated by the executive branch through various departments, such as state, agriculture, and treasury. Regulations are similar to rules in that they provide more specificity to a particular law passed by a legislative body. Regulation serves to create, limit, or constrain rights, establish or restrict duties, and allocate responsibilities. It can take various forms, including legal restrictions imposed by government authorities and contractual obligations binding multiple parties. Generally, regulations are set by the executive branch to ensure the smooth implementation of laws. While laws provide a broad framework for addressing a subject, regulations offer a detailed and structured mechanism to facilitate their effective enforcement.
Conscience is a capacity, intuition or decision that helps to distinguish right from wrong. In psychological terms, conscience is defined as leading to feelings of remorse when a human commits actions that go against his moral values and feelings of pleasure and well-being when our actions, thoughts and words are in conformity to value systems of people. Conscience is a
quality, instinct, or choice that aids in separating right from wrong. When a person acts in a way that violates their moral principles, the conscience causes feelings of regret. Conversely, when our actions, thoughts, and words are in line with other people’s value systems, the conscience causes feelings of pleasure and well-being. The “voice inside” and the “inner light” are two frequent metaphors for conscience. It denotes both awareness of one’s conduct and a person’s moral sense of right and evil. Conscience is frequently used in connection with phrases like “gut feeling” and “guilt.” In this view, conscience is something that can be impacted by the indoctrination of one’s family, socioeconomic status, religion, or culture rather than something that is fundamentally the result of a reasonable inference. Throughout much of the history of philosophy, there has been debate about the extent to which conscience influences moral judgment before an action and whether such moral judgments should or should not be rooted in reason. Conscience can act as a source of ethical guidance for bureaucrats, politicians, and citizens in a democratic system. The innate intuitive ability to distinguish between right and wrong is known as conscience. The “Inner Voice” is crucial, especially in democracies when there are many participants, including citizens, NGOs, and corporations, who are all managed by politicians who are chosen by them alone. However, everyone has a conscience that helps them make crucial decisions on a personal basis. As a result, it can be a powerful tool for preventing individual self-centred thinking.

• Self-Check Exercise 4
Q1. Define law, rules and regulations.

20.7    Code of Ethics and Code of Conduct
To fully grasp the principles of the Code of Conduct and the Code of Ethics, it is essential to examine the ongoing discourse surrounding ethics. Ethics cannot be confined to a single definition or perspective. Understanding these codes requires an exploration of ethical and moral principles, branches of ethics, and their impact on society, governance, and particularly public relations administrators. Conduct laws distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable actions. Both the Code of Ethics and the Code of Conduct serve to promote desirable behaviour among employees. While the Code of Ethics establishes fundamental standards and behavioural expectations without detailing specific actions, the Code of Conduct focuses on preventing misconduct such as conflicts of interest, self-dealing, bribery, and other unethical practices. Despite their differences, both frameworks aim to guide employees toward ethical behaviour in professional settings. Ethical guidelines aim to offer
direction on values and choices to influence decision-making. Conduct regulations define specific actions as either appropriate or inappropriate, ensuring ethical standards are upheld.
A code of ethics is primarily intended to provide direction for all decision-making and to establish a shared ethical foundation for all decisions. Additionally, it aids experts in understanding the steps that need to be taken by them. It is a set of rules intended to promote proper conduct among members of a certain group, association, or profession. The code is developed based on actions that the organizations want to prevent from occurring and happening rather than just based on the actions of past organizational and individual experiences. A Code of Conduct for Civil Servants is a set of guidelines that outline the expected behaviour, ethics, and standards for individuals in public service. Its primary aim is to uphold integrity, professionalism, and accountability among government officials who hold positions of public trust and responsibility. This code serves as a framework of rules and principles that civil servants must follow to ensure ethical and effective governance. The Civil Service Code specifies the Civil Service’s underlying ideals as well as the standards of behaviour required of all public workers in preserving these values. The current set of ethical requirements in India are the Conduct Rules, which are included in the Central Services (Conduct) Rules, 1964, and comparable rules applying to members of the All India Services or workers of various State Governments. The conduct rules include broad criteria such as “maintaining integrity and absolute devotion to duty.”

• Self-Check Exercise 5
Q1. Differentiate between Code of Ethics and Code of Conduct.

20.8    Summary
Ethical values in politics play a crucial role in shaping public discourse. While expecting absolute perfection in politics may be unrealistic in an ethically imperfect environment, the standards upheld in political spheres significantly influence governance. Ethics is fundamentally tied to responsibility and accountability. In a democracy, public officeholders are ultimately answerable to the people. Ethical principles serve as the foundation for laws and regulations, as our legal system is built upon a collective understanding of justice and fairness. The relationship between public officials and citizens is based on trusteeship, meaning that the power entrusted to officials must be exercised in a manner that prioritizes the public’s best interests.

20.9    Glossary
Aptitude: Aptitude is a natural ability or innate potential to learn or acquire a skill
Confidentiality: the state of keeping or being kept secret or private.
Ethics: Ethics is a set of standards that society places on itself and which helps guide behaviours, choices and actions
Honesty: Quality of being free of deceit; truthful and sincere.
Morals: These are the learned values of an individual under the influence of society and surroundings

20.10    Answers to Self-Check Exercises
| Self-Check Exercise 1: | Ans 1. Refer 20.3 |
|---|---|
| Self-Check Exercise 2: | Ans 1. Refer 20.4 |
| Self-Check Exercise 3: | Ans 1. Refer 20.5 |
| Self-Check Exercise 4: | Ans 1. Refer 20.6 |
| Self-Check Exercise 5: | Ans 1. Refer 20.7 |



20.11    References/Suggested Readings
Arora, Ramesh K. (ed.) (2014) Ethics, Integrity and values in Public Service. New Delhi: New age International.
Bhargva, R. (2006) Politics and Ethics of Indian Constitution. New Delhi: OUP.
Chaturvedi, T. N. (eds.) (1996) Ethics in Public life. New Delhi IIPA.
Fox, W. (2009) a Theory of General Ethics – Human Relationships, Nature and the Built Environment. New Delhi: PHI Learning.
Sawshilya, A. (2012) Ethics and governance. New Delhi: Pearson Education.

20.12    Terminal Questions

1.    What is Ethics and define its various dimensions.

2.    What are the core civil services values?
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