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book: "PG ECON 232 Gender Economics"
category: "PG ECON"
publisher: "Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd."
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RATAN
TEXT BOOK
GENDER ECONOMICS
M.A.Economics
Sem-III
Dr. Kalyan Singh
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Preamble to the Constitution of India
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, Having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
and to secure to all its citizens :
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual
and the unity and integrity of the Nation;
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
SUCCESS
Success is not permanent and failure is not final. Never stop working after success and, never stop trying after failure.
A.P.J. ABDUL KALAM
UNIT-01
GENDER AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
STRUCTURE

1.1    Introduction

1.2  Learning Objectives

1.3  Gender and Human Development


1.3.1    Gender

1.3.2    Human Development
Self-Check Exercise-1.1

1.4    Gender on International Agenda
Self-Check Exercise-1.2

1.5    Major Theoretical Frameworks
Self-Check Exercise-1.3

1.6    Gender Disaggregated Data and Gender Statistics
Self-Check Exercise-1.4

1.7    Summary

1.8    Glossary

1.9    Answers to Self-Check Exercise

1.10    References/Suggested Readings

1.11    Terminal Questions

1.1    INTRODUCTION
Gender plays a significant role in shaping individuals' access to resources, opportunities, and outcomes across societies. It affects how social norms and power structures influence the lives of both men and women. Gender inequality is evident in many aspects, including education, employment, and political participation. Women, in particular, face barriers to achieving equal rights and opportunities. Therefore, addressing gender disparities is crucial for attaining broader human development goals, as highlighted by various global reports and initiatives. In this unit, we will explore the role of gender in human development. The key concepts discussed include the definition of gender, human development, and gender’s presence on the international agenda. We will also examine major theoretical frameworks such as Women in Development (WID), Women and Development (WAD), and Gender and Development (GAD).

1.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:

•    Understand how gender shapes human development and societal outcomes.

•    Examine key frameworks: WID, WAD, and GAD in gender development.

•    Analyze global efforts and initiatives for gender equality and empowerment.

1.3    GENDER AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Gender plays a crucial role in the development process, shaping the opportunities, resources and outcomes available to individuals in various societies. It is a way of looking at how social norms and power structures impact the lives and opportunities available to different groups of men and women (Kangas et al., 2014). According to UN Women (2024), 1 in every 10 women in the world lives in extreme poverty. At prime working age, only 61 per cent of women are in the labour force versus 90 per cent of men. Women are also less likely than men to receive basic education and to be appointed to a political position nationally and internationally (Kangas et al., 2014). However, women's education has increased in every country in the world and in the vast majority of countries, it still lags behind that of men (David et al., 2021). Therefore, men and women and boys and girls face different barriers in shaping the opportunities, resources and outcomes available to them differently.

1.3.1    Gender
According to the World Development Report (2012), gender refers to socially constructed and learned female and male roles, behaviours, and expectations. This includes norms, behaviours and roles associated with being a woman, man, girl or boy, as well as relationships with each other. According to the World Health Organization, gender refers to the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially constructed. As a social construct, gender varies from society to society and can change over time. It is a prerequisite to understand the relationship of gender with roles, behaviour and expectations in the way it affects the decision-making power of individuals, and the way men and women and girls and boys are affected by political processes and socioeconomic development.
Women have fewer political and economic resources than men, such as land, employment, and authority, making it crucial to address gender inequalities in programs and analyses for human rights and development (Kangas et al., 2014). The World Development Report (2012) emphasizes targeting obstacles to women's equality in areas like economic empowerment, education, societal voice, and violence to boost productivity and development. Gender equality is also linked to sustainable peace, with evidence showing that higher gender inequality increases the risk of internal conflict.

1.3.2    Human Development
The concept of human development, which emerged in the late 1980s, focuses on placing people at the core of development efforts, viewing economic growth and wealth as tools for development rather than the ultimate goal (MoSPI). According to the Human Development Report (1990), Human development is a process of enlarging people's choices. The most critical ones are to lead a long and healthy life, to be educated and to enjoy a decent standard of living. Additional choices include political freedom, guaranteed human rights and self-respect - what Adam Smith called the ability to mix with others without being "ashamed to appear in publik".
The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite measure that captures progress in three essential areas of human development: a long and healthy life, access to education, and a decent standard of living. It is calculated as the geometric mean of the normalized indices for each of these dimensions.
Source: Human Development Report (2024), Technical Notes
Self-Check Exercise-1.1
Q1. Define gender.
Q2. How do socially constructed gender roles impact opportunities for men and women differently?
Q3. List three essential areas measured by the Human Development Index (HDI).

1.4    GENDER ON THE INTERNATIONAL AGENDA
The concept of gender emerged with Ester Boserup’s influential work in the early 1970s which challenged the notion of women as passive beneficiaries of development (Kangas et al., 2014). Boserup’s work in 1970 represented a comprehensive and pioneering effort to provide an overview of women’s role in the development process (Benería and Sen, 1981). After Boserup’s work on women's role in development, this issue got attention in this context. Boserup’s book, along with the work of feminists writing at the same time, heralded in a wide range of activities: conferences, a framework of international agreements, set-up of women’s machineries and bureaux, statistical data collection, design of development planning aids and implementation of projects focused on women (Okali, 2011).
The Women in Development (WID) approach emerged in the 1970s, driven by two movements: the UN Commission on the Status of Women and the US women’s movement. The Commission focused on legal equality and education, while US activists advocated for equal employment opportunities, viewing income as crucial to women's equal status. During the Second Development Decade (1970s), women’s integration into development gained recognition. Boserup’s book was pivotal in shaping policies advocating women's inclusion. The Percy Amendment (1973) mandated gendersensitive impact studies for development projects. WID offices worldwide promoted equal opportunities for women, emphasizing access to resources and policy influence. This section explores various feminist and development frameworks and their intersections over time. Scholars have examined women’s roles in development, proposing solutions for empowerment. Historically, development ignored women’s contributions, but Boserup’s 1970 book highlighted how modern projects marginalized them. This led to the Women in Development (WID) framework, advocating women’s integration into national economies. Liberal feminism also pushed for equal opportunities, shaping development policies focused on education, employment, and economic inclusion for women. Countries have pushed for gender equality through global agreements and meetings. In 1995, at the Beijing Conference, governments promised to promote women’s rights through action plans and legal changes. In 2000, gender equality became part of the Millennium Development Goals, focusing on education, employment, and politics. Despite progress, efforts remain inconsistent, underfunded, and fail to fully address unequal power dynamics. Gender equality continues to be a global concern.
SDG 5: Achieve Gender Equality and Empower All Women and Girls
Women and girls everywhere deserve equal rights and opportunities, and the chance to live free from violence and discrimination. Gender equality is key to achieving all 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially Goal 5, which focuses on empowering women. According to the United Nations for Women, sadly, 49 countries still lack laws to protect women from domestic violence, and 39 don’t allow equal inheritance for daughters and sons. Women do more unpaid work than men, limiting
their income and free time. To ensure progress by 2030, we need to end harmful practices, promote equal rights, and increase women’s participation in decision-making at all levels.
Sustainable Development Goal 5: Achieve Gender Equality and Empower All Women and Girls Targets

•    End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere.

•    Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation.

•    Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation.

•    Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion of shared responsibility within the household and the family as nationally appropriate.

•    Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life.

•    Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences.

•    Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and other forms of property, financial services, inheritance and natural resources, in accordance with national laws. Enhance the use  of enabling technology, in particular  information and
communications technology, to promote the empowerment of women.

•    Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls at all levels.
Self-Check Exercise-1.2
Q1. Who is credited with bringing attention to women’s roles in development in the 1970s?
Q2. Briefly explain the main aim of the Women in Development (WID) approach.
Q3. Identify two global initiatives that have focused on gender equality.

1.5    MAJOR THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
To understand women's role in development, it's essential to track how their significance has evolved. Eva Rathgeber (1990) identified three key frameworks: Women in Development (WID), Women and Development (WAD), and Gender and Development (GAD).

1.5.1    Women in Development (WID)
The term "Women in Development" (WID) was introduced by the Women’s Committee in Washington, DC, after Boserup’s 1970 study highlighted how development negatively impacted women. In the early 1970s, WID became a key approach to involve women in development programs. It aimed to integrate women into broader development policies, focusing on economic growth and modernization. Liberal feminists supported this idea, emphasizing women’s roles as producers and workers. The WID approach was driven by both the UN Commission on the Status of Women, which pushed for legal equality, and the US women’s movement, advocating for equal employment opportunities.

1.5.2    Woman and Development (WAD)
The Women and Development (WAD) approach highlights that women are already part of the development process, but in an exploitative manner. It criticizes planners for ignoring women’s real needs and overusing their labor. WAD activists, mainly from the Global South, argue that true gender equality cannot happen without addressing patriarchy and global inequality. This perspective calls for recognizing women’s contributions and redistributing development benefits and responsibilities between men and women.

1.5.3    Gender and Development (GAD)
The Gender and Development (GAD) approach, which became popular in the 1980s, addresses the flaws of Women in Development (WID). Unlike WID, GAD views women’s issues in relation to social, economic, and cultural factors that shape societies. It highlights the need to examine gender roles and how society influences them. GAD emphasizes women’s legal rights, equality in the household, and the role of the State in
ensuring social services for their empowerment, positioning women as active agents of change.
Self-Check Exercise-1.3
Q1. What does the Women and Development (WAD) framework emphasize about women’s role in development?
Q2. Contrast the focus of GAD (Gender and Development) with that of WID.

1.6    GENDER DISAGGREGATED DATA AND GENDER STATISTICS
The United Nations has set one of its key goals as bridging the divide between men and women to achieve gender equity and equality. In pursuing this mission, it has recognized the importance of evaluating and quantifying the disparities between genders across various areas of life. To this end, researchers are engaged in gathering data to determine the scope, magnitude, and specific nature of these gender differences. The development of "gender-disaggregated data" serves as a tool to clearly identify and analyze the gender gap, allowing for a more accurate understanding of inequalities between men and women across different sectors. Quality gender statistics and sex-disaggregated data are essential for promoting gender equality, as they provide insights into gender disparities across various sectors. UN Women plays a critical role in enhancing the collection and analysis of these statistics, ensuring that the data is reliable, comprehensive, and accessible. By expanding the use of this information, policymakers can better understand the challenges faced by different genders and implement more effective, evidence-based policies. This data-driven approach helps to ensure that gender equality initiatives are informed by accurate information, leading to more impactful social, economic, and political outcomes.

1.6.1    Importance of Gender Disaggregated Data
According to the World Bank Group, the absence of sex-disaggregated data has created an incomplete understanding of the lives of both women and men, as well as the persistent disparities between them. This type of data is critical in identifying challenges and opportunities to drive progress toward the World Bank Group’s twin objectives of eradicating extreme poverty and boosting shared prosperity in a sustainable manner. The World Bank Group is enhancing its efforts and expanding collaborations, especially with the United Nations and other partners, to collect and distribute more comprehensive sex-disaggregated data, focusing particularly on economic empowerment, such as employment, asset ownership, and financial inclusion. However, the UN for Women highlighted the importance of gender data in the following context;

1)    Sex, age, and disability disaggregated data (SADDD) measure social and economic differences between women and men: This data is crucial as it helps evaluate whether an initiative effectively reaches and benefits women, men, girls, and
boys, while also revealing the varying impacts of disasters on different genders. Gathering sex, age, and disability disaggregated data (SADDD) is essential for conducting a thorough gender analysis.

2)    The most successful disaster risk reduction initiatives are informed by sex-and age-disaggregated data: The most effective disaster risk reduction efforts are guided by sex- and age-disaggregated data, which can be obtained from secondary sources like population censuses, socio-economic data analysis, or collected during the implementation phases of disaster risk reduction projects, post-disaster, or through routine monitoring and evaluation of community programs.

3)    Data collection, however, needs to move beyond SADDD and consider gender evidence:

i.    data collected and disaggregated by sex;

ii.    qualitative data on gender issues (e.g. gender roles, relationships, causes of inequalities, women’s participation and leadership); and

iii.    data to adequately reflect diversity within subgroups and capture all aspects of their lives.
Gender evidence considers prevailing stereotypes, as well as social and cultural influences that contribute to gender bias. It forms the foundation for conducting gender analysis in disaster risk reduction efforts.
Therefore, collecting socio-economic gender data and conducting gender analysis is vital for understanding vulnerabilities like inequality and resource access. This supports inclusive outcomes, tracks progress in disaster resilience, and evaluates gender inequalities in DRR policies. It aligns with UN Women's Women Count initiative on gender data for the Sustainable Development Goals.
Self-Check Exercise-1.4
Q1. Why is gender-disaggregated data important in understanding gender disparities?
Q2. List two types of data highlighted by UN Women for improving gender equality.

1.7    Summary
This unit explores the importance of gender in human development, emphasizing the disparities between men and women in areas such as education, employment, and political participation. Gender, a social construct, varies across societies and affects decision-making, opportunities, and resource distribution. Human development, as defined by the Human Development Report, focuses on expanding people's choices, including health, education, and a decent standard of living. Gender equality has become a key international agenda, with frameworks like WID, WAD, and GAD highlighting different approaches to gender inclusion in development. While WID integrates women into economic growth, WAD critiques the exploitative nature of development for women. GAD offers a more comprehensive approach by analyzing
gender roles within broader socio-economic contexts, emphasizing women's empowerment and active participation in societal change.

1.7    GLOSSARY

•    Gender: Socially constructed roles, behaviors, and expectations for men and women.

•    Human Development: Process aimed at expanding people's choices, including health, education, and living standards.

•    Gender Disparity: Differences in treatment and opportunities available to men and women due to social norms.

•    Women in Development (WID): Approach focusing on integrating women into development policies to achieve equality.

•    Gender and Development (GAD): Framework emphasizing social and cultural factors that shape gender roles and opportunities.

•    Human Development Index (HDI): Composite index measuring health, education, and income for evaluating human development.

•    Sex-Disaggregated Data: Data separated by gender to provide insights into different experiences and outcomes for men and women.

1.8    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISE
Self- Check Exercise-1.1
Ans.1. Refer to Section 1.3.1.
Ans.2. Refer to Section 1.3.
Ans. 3. Refer to Section 1.3.2.
Self-Check Exercise-1.2
Ans.1. Refer to Section 1.4.
Ans.2. Refer to Section 1.4.
Ans.3. Refer to Section 1.4.
Self- Check Exercise-1.3
Ans.1. Refer to Section 1.5.1.
Ans.2. Refer to Section 1.5.1.
Self-Check Exercise-1.4
Ans.1. Refer to Section 1.6.
Ans.2. Refer to Section 1.6.

1.9    REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

•    Sustainable Development Goals. (n.d.). Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and
empower all women and   girls.   United Nations. Retrieved from
https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal5

•    UN Women. (2024, March). 1 in every 10 women in the world lives in extreme poverty.   Retrieved from https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/press-
release/2024/03/1-in-every-10-women-in-the-world-lives-in-extreme-poverty

•    UN Women. (n.d.-a). Brief history of CSW. Retrieved from https://www.unwomen.org/en/csw/brief-history

•    UN Women. (n.d.-b). Topics on data. Women's Rights Data Hub. Retrieved from https://wrd.unwomen.org/practice/topics/data

•   UN Women. (n.d.-c). World Bank report: Gender equality and development.
Retrieved from https://www.unwomen.org/en/node/36060

•   World Bank. (2012). World development report 2012: Gender equality and
development. https://hdl.handle.net/10986/4391

1.10    TERMINAL QUESTIONS

Q1.    Discuss the evolution of international frameworks that address gender inequality and their significance in achieving sustainable development goals.

Q2.    Explain the importance of gender-disaggregated data in policy-making and how it can support efforts to bridge gender gaps in development outcomes.
UNIT-02
WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT
STRUCTURE

2.1    Introduction

2.2    Learning Objectives

2.3    Women in Development Approach (WID)
Self-Check Exercise-2.1

2.4    Features of WID
Self-Check Exercise-2.2

2.5    Major WID Approaches
Self-Check Exercise-2.3

2.6    World Conferences on Women
Self-Check Exercise-2.4

2.6    Summary

2.7    Glossary

2.8    Answers to Self-Check Exercise

2.9    References/Suggested Readings

2.10    Terminal Questions

2.1    INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will discuss the Women in Development (WID) approach and its significance in highlighting the overlooked contributions of women to the development process. We will explore the key features of WID, analyze the global efforts to address gender inequality through the World Conference on Women and examine the steps taken towards empowering women in development strategies.

2.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:

•    Understand the Women in Development (WID) approach and its relevance in addressing gender inequality.

•    Identify the key features of the WID approach and its impact on development policies.

•    Discuss the importance of global initiatives like the World Conference on Women in promoting gender equality.

2.3    WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT (WID)
The United Nations' dedication to promoting women's advancement began in 1945 with the signing of the United Nations Charter in San Francisco. Its Preamble affirmed belief in "fundamental human rights, the dignity and worth of every individual, and the equal rights of men and women, as well as nations, regardless of size…" (United Nations, n.d.). The Commission on the Status of Women (1946) was established to promote the advancement of women throughout the world. The commission's first meeting was held at Lake Success, New York, in February 1947. Initially, the Commission addressed legal rights and awareness of women's status, later focusing on economic roles. Global conferences, including the 1975 Mexico City conference, propelled significant advancements for women (United Nations, n.d.). Under pressure from the American Women’s Movement, the U.N. declared 1975 as the International Women’s Year and 1975-1985 as the International Decade for Women, which promoted awareness of women's issues globally.
The term "Women in Development" emerged in the early 1970s, following the publication of Ester Boserup's book Women's Role in Economic Development. Boserup's work was remarkable, although the data and evidence she used had been available to social scientists and development planners for some time, she was the first to incorporate gender as a variable in her analysis systematically (Rathgeber, 1990). According to The Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) “A Women in Development (WID) approach is based on the concept that women are marginalized in development-oriented interventions, with the result that women are often excluded from the benefits of development. Hence, the overall objective is to ensure that resources and interventions for development are used to improve the condition and position of women. The WID approach, however, does not necessarily result in changing male-female hierarchal gender relations. Rather, it intends to support women-specific practical needs, such as women’s skills development for income generation. The fact that WID approaches do not analyse and address power differentials in the relationship between women and men is seen as a major shortcoming of this approach. WID-oriented programmes are often contrasted to Gender and Development (GAD)-oriented programmes.” Although Boserup's research faced criticism for oversimplification, it was crucial in shedding light on the gendered division of labour. The term "WID" followed, with American feminists pushing for gender equality in economic participation.
Rathgeber (1990) reported that the Women in Development (WID) approach was closely linked with the modernization paradigm that dominated development thinking in the mid-20th century. It was believed that industrialization and education would raise living standards for all, including women However, by the 1970s, researchers began questioning this, as evidence showed women were often excluded from the benefits of modernization, particularly in the industrial and agricultural sectors. The WID perspective institutionalized the recognition that women’s developmental experiences differed from men’s, though some of its assumptions conflicted with newer social
science trends. Therefore, the WID approach highlights that policymakers overlooked women's role in development, viewing them as passive recipients rather than active participants. Men were seen as the primary breadwinners, while women were seen mainly as homemakers. As a result, development efforts focused on men, sidelining women into welfare programs.
According to Eva. M. Rothgber (1990), the WID approach was based on several assumptions which are the following:

1)    The Women in Development approach, rooted in modernization theory, emerged as a response to evidence showing women benefited less from 1960s development efforts, leading to intervention programs focused on technology and resource access in the 1970s.

2)    The Women in Development (WID) approach accepted existing social structures, focusing on integrating women into development efforts rather than addressing the root causes of their subordination or considering more radical perspectives like Marxism or class exploitation.

3)    The Women in Development (WID) approach primarily emphasizes women's productive roles, often neglecting their reproductive responsibilities, and assumes that income-generating projects alone will empower women, without addressing underlying gender inequalities or market feasibility.
Self-Check Exercise-2.1
Q1. What was the primary focus of the Women in Development (WID) approach?
Q2. Why did the WID approach gain prominence during the 1970s?

2.4    FEATURES OF WID
The Women in Development (WID) approach emphasizes the integration of women into development processes, advocating for their active participation and highlighting the need to address women’s practical needs, improve data collection, and push for policy reform. The features of WID approach are followings:

1)    Integration of Women: The WID approach is recognized for highlighting the importance of understanding and addressing the development needs of women. A key recommendation from WID advocates was the active inclusion of women in development efforts to ensure effectiveness and efficiency. The exclusion of women from the economy and their limited access to resources were seen as primary reasons for their subordination. WID proponents argued for women's participation in development processes, where previously they were viewed as passive beneficiaries. However, this approach focused primarily on women's productive roles without pushing for major structural changes or emphasizing women's voices in their own development.

2)    Improved Data Collection: WID emphasized the need for better measurement of women's work to gain a clearer understanding of their development needs. For the first time, it pushed for the collection of sex-disaggregated data, allowing for a more precise assessment of women’s contributions and challenges in development.

3)    Focus on Practical Needs: One of the distinguishing aspects of WID was its attention to addressing the immediate, practical needs of women, such as access to paid work and economic opportunities. Various initiatives were launched to provide women with credit, jobs, and technology transfers. Additionally, WID emphasized the importance of enhancing women's skills in household management and family planning, viewing their role in development as essential to overall progress.

4)    Policy Advocacy: Policy reform was a key objective for WID advocates. They encouraged development planners to reconsider and reshape policies with women in mind, striving for improvements in areas such as legal equality, education, employment, and economic empowerment. While the WID approach succeeded in bringing women's concerns into the development agenda, it faced criticism for not addressing deeper structural inequalities, which later feminists and development theorists would challenge.
Self-Check Exercise-2.1
Q1. What are the main features of the Women in Development (WID) approach?

2.5    MAJOR WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES
Various approaches within the Women in Development (WID) paradigm, including welfare, anti-poverty, equity, efficiency, empowerment, and later gender mainstreaming, were developed by different thinkers to integrate women into development. However, these approaches are neither mutually exclusive nor chronological (Kabeer, 1994). The approaches developed by different thinkers are following:

1)    Welfare Approach: The welfare approach to women in development, prevalent until the 1970s, focused on women as mothers and wives, assuming economic benefits would trickle down from men while ignoring women as economic actors and treating them as reliant on welfare.

2)    The Equity Approach: This approach seeks to achieve equity by viewing women as active participants in the development process, recognizing their roles and contributions beyond traditional gender norms and expectations.

3)    The Anti-Poverty Approach: This approach focuses on increasing poor women's productivity, viewing their poverty as a result of underdevelopment rather than subordination, aiming to integrate women into development efforts to enhance economic outcomes and reduce poverty.
Table 2. Different policy approaches to Third World women
^ ■ ■ "Women in Development” (WID) —-->
| Issues | Welfare | Equity | Anti-poverty | Efficiency | Empowerment |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Origins | Earliest approach: — residual model ol social welfare under colonial administration — modernization/ accelerated growth economic development model. | Original W1D approach: — tailure of modernization development policy — influence of Hoserup and First World feminists on Percy Amendment ■— declaration of VIN Decade for Women | Secund WID approach: — toned down equity because of criticism linked to Redin ribul.uri with Growth and Basic Needs. | 3rd and now predominant WID approach:  - ■ deterioration tri world economy  -— policies of economic stabilization and adjustment rely «hi women’s economic contribution lodevelopment | Most recent approach: — arose out of failure ol equity approach Third World Women’* feminist writing and grassroot organizations |
| Period | 1930-70 hut Mill widely | 1975 K5- attempt* to | 1970* onward: still limited | Post I9H(K now most popular | 1975 onward: ;kw Ie ruled during |
| most popular | used. | adopt it during and since Women's Decade. | popularity. | approach. | 1 Wix, still limited pupuhrttiy. |
| Purpose | To bring women into development as better mothers: this is seen as their most important role in development. | To gain equity for women in the development process: women seen as active participants in development. | To ensure poor women increase their productivity; women’s poverty seen as problem ol underdeve fopmem not of subordination. | Io ensure development is more efficient and more effectivewomen's economic participation seen as associated with equity | ’Io empower women through grew ter wli-rcbuncc: women’« suliordination seen not only as problem ol men but also ol colonial and neocolomul oppression. |
| Needs of | To meet PGN* in | To meet SONt in terms | I o meet PGN” in productive | I o meet PGN* in context of | I o reach SGNT tri terms of triple |
| w* »men | reproductive role. | of triple role—directly | role, to earn an income. | declining social services, by | ode —indirectly through |
| met anil | relating particularly | through slate top-down | particularly in small-scale | relying on all three roles of | lM>iuun-up mobilization wound |
| roles recognized | to food aid. malnutrition and family planning. | inturveniion, giving political and economic autonomy by reducing inequality with men | income generating projects. | women amt elasticity of women’s lime. | PGN* as means to confront oppression. |
| Cnmcneni | Women seen an passive beneficiaries of development with focus on reproductive rule. Ni metal 1 Idiging 11 ier ch *r c Mill widely popular especially with government and traditional NG Ch | In identifying subordinate position of women in terms of relationship to men. challenging, criticized as Western tcrmnism. loiivideicd threatening anil not popular with government, | Poor women isolated as separate category with tendency only to recognize productive role; reluctance of government to give limited ahi to women mean«» popularity still at small-scale NGO level. | Women seen entirely in terms of delivery capacity and ability to extend working day. Most popular approach both with governments and inuhikitcial agency | Potentially challenging with cm pitasix on Thud World and women's sell-reliance. Lasgely unsupported by governments and agencies Avoidance of Western Irmmrsm criticitun. means stow significant growth of underfinanced voluntary organizations. |


•PGN — Practical gender needs. tSGN — Strategic-gender needs.
Source: Moser (1989)

4)    The Efficiency Approach: This approach prioritized women's roles as economic actors, emphasizing their participation in the productive sphere but was criticized for neglecting the impact of development on women's well-being.

5)    The Empowerment Approach: This approach empowers women by promoting self-reliance, recognizing their subordination as a result of both gender inequality and broader colonial and neocolonial oppression.
Self-Check Exercise-2.3
Q1. Briefly explain the Welfare Approach within the WID framework.
Q2. What is the main objective of the Equity Approach in WID?
Q3. How does the Empowerment Approach differ from other WID approaches?

2.6    WORLD CONFERENCES ON WOMEN
According to UN Women, the world conferences on women are the following:

1)    Mexico City (1975): The Commission on the Status of Women organized the first World Conference on Women to mark International Women's Year. At the World Conference of International Women’s Year held in Mexico City, 133 governments participated, and 6,000 NGO representatives attended a parallel event called the International Women’s Year Tribune. The conference created a World Plan of Action to guide women's advancement until 1985.

2)    Copenhagen (1980): In Copenhagen, 145 Member States gathered for the middecade World Conference on Women. It reviewed progress on employment, health, and education from the first conference. The Programme of Action urged stronger national laws for women’s property rights, inheritance, child custody, and nationality.

3)    Nairobi (1980): The Nairobi World Conference reviewed the UN Decade for Women's achievements. It aimed to remove obstacles to gender equality. With 1,900 delegates from 157 countries and 12,000 NGO participants, the conference resulted in the Nairobi Forward-Looking Strategies to promote women's equality and participation in peace and development.

4)    Beijing (1995): The 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing was a major milestone in advancing gender equality. During the conference, 189 countries unanimously adopted the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, a key global policy for empowering women. It outlined goals and actions in 12 critical areas:

1)    Women and poverty

2)    Education and training for women

3)    Women’s health

4)    Violence against women

5)    Women in armed conflict

6)    Women and the economy

7)    Women in leadership and decision-making

8)    Institutional support for women’s advancement

9)    Women’s human rights

10)    Women in the media

11)    Women and the environment

12)    The girl-child
Self-Check Exercise-2.4
Q1. Discuss the four World Conferences on Women held by the United Nations.
Q2. What was the key outcome of the 1995 Beijing Conference?

2.7    SUMMARY
This unit focuses on the Women in Development (WID) approach, which highlights the importance of integrating women into development efforts. It discusses the features of WID, such as addressing women's practical needs, improving data collection, and advocating for policy changes. The unit also covers major global initiatives, including the World Conferences on Women, which helped shape international policies promoting gender equality. The WID approach emphasizes women’s roles in economic development while recognizing challenges in addressing deeper gender inequalities.

2.8    GLOSSARY

•    Women in Development (WID): An approach focusing on integrating women into development processes by addressing their practical needs and improving their economic roles.

•    Gender Equality: The state in which access to rights, responsibilities, and opportunities is unaffected by gender.

•    Practical Needs: Immediate needs related to women’s economic participation, such as access to employment and resources.

•    Beijing Declaration: A global policy document adopted in 1995 outlining strategic objectives for the advancement of women in various areas.

2.9    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISE
Self-Check Exercise-2.1
Ans.1. Refer to Section 2.3.
Ans.2. Refer to Section 2.3.
Self-Check Exercise-2.2
Ans.1. Refer to Section 2.4.
Self-Check Exercise-2.3
Ans.1. Refer to Section 2.5.
Ans.2. Refer to Section 2.5.
Ans.3. Refer to Section 2.5.
Self-Check Exercise-2.4
Ans.1. Refer to Section 2.6.
Ans.2. Refer to Section 2.6.

2.10    REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

•    Moser, C.O. (1989). Gender planning in the third world: Meeting practical and strategic gender needs. World Development, 17(11), 1799-1825.

•    Rathgeber, E. M. (1990). WID, WAD, GAD: Trends in research and practice. The Journal of Developing Areas, 24(4), 489-502.

•  Kabeer, N. (1994). Reversed realities: Gender hierarchies in development
thought. Verso.

•  United Nations. (n.d.). 60 years of work on the advancement of women.
https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/CSW60YRS/index.htm

•    U.N. Women. (n.d.). World Conferences on Women. https://www.unwomen.org/en/ how-we-work/intergovernmental-support/world-conferences-on-women#copenhagen

2.11    TERMINAL QUESTIONS

Q1. Explain the significance of the Women in Development (WID) approach and its impact on development policies.

Q2. Discuss the outcomes of the major World Conferences on Women and their role in advancing gender equality globally.
UNIT-03
WAD and GAD
STRUCTURE

3.1   Introduction

3.2  Learning Objectives

3.3    Women and Development


3.3.1    Features of WAD

3.3.2    Criticism
Self-Check Exercise-3.1

3.4    Gender and Development


3.4.1    Features of GAD

3.4.2    Criticism
Self-Check Exercise-3.2

3.6    Summary

3.7    Glossary

3.8  Answers to Self-Check Exercise

3.9  References/Suggested Readings

3.10    Terminal Questions

3.1    INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will explore the transition from Women in Development (WID) to Women and Development (WAD) and Gender and Development (GAD) approaches. We will examine the origins, theoretical foundations, and key features of WAD and GAD, highlighting their different perspectives on addressing gender inequality. Additionally, the lesson will cover the criticisms of these approaches and provide a comprehensive understanding of their impact on development policies.

3.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to

•    Explain the transition from Women in Development (WID) to Women and Development (WAD) and Gender and Development (GAD).

•  Describe the theoretical approaches and key features of WAD and GAD in
addressing gender inequality.

•  Critically evaluate the strengths and criticisms of the WAD and GAD
approaches within development policies.

3.3    WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT (WAD)
Since its formation in 1946, the U.N. Commission on the Status of Women has advocated for a dedicated Women's Conference. Following pressure from the U.S. Women’s Movement, the U.N. declared 1975 as International Women’s Year and 19751985 as the Decade for Women, spotlighting equality, development, and peace in policy discussions worldwide. The 1975-85 International Decade for Women emphasized women’s crucial yet overlooked role in development. The Women in Development (WID) approach emerged challenging policies that saw women as passive beneficiaries, not active agents. The Women and Development (WAD) approach emerged as a response to limitations in the Women in Development (WID) model, using neo-Marxist and dependency theory perspectives. It emphasizes women’s longstanding roles in development, highlighting their overlooked contributions and exploitation. Advocates argue for addressing patriarchy and global inequality to ensure equitable development benefits.
Women and Development (WAD), also known as the neo-Marxist feminist approach, emerged in the latter half of the 1970s in response to concerns about the limitations of modernization theory. This theory promoted that women's exclusion from earlier development strategies had been inadvertent oversight (Rathgeber, 1990). The Women and Development (WAD) approach emerged in the 1970s as a critique of modernization theory and the Women in Development (WID) model. It highlighted how the development process integrated women into exploitative roles without addressing patriarchal structures or their true contributions. WAD advocates, primarily from the Global South, argued for women’s active involvement in development, demanding a redistribution of its benefits and burdens. This shift emphasized that equitable international structures and state-led affirmative actions were essential to truly enhance women’s status.

3.3.1    Features of Women and Development

1.    Emphasis on Women’s Power: WAD highlights women’s inherent societal power, acknowledging their continuous, yet often unrecognized, contributions in agriculture and development.

2.  Women-Centric Approach: Centered solely on women, WAD advocates for
women-only projects that protect their interests and mitigate patriarchal influence.

3.  Give Credits Where its due: This approach stresses the importance of
recognizing women’s contributions by placing their needs in development agendas and supporting autonomous women’s groups.

4.    Predominance in NGO Sector: WAD remains strong within NGOs, facilitating grassroots women’s organizations, connecting them to stakeholders, and pushing governments to address women’s issues.

3.3.2    Criticism
The WID approach has faced criticism for depicting women as valuable only for their economic contributions, linking their worth to cash income and neglecting deeper issues of gender inequality. While it aimed for greater gender equality, it failed to address the
unequal roles that contribute to women's marginalization and overlooked the expectations placed on men. Additionally, WID wrongly assumed that women were not already participating in the economy, ignoring their significant roles in household and informal work. It also suggested that women's status could only improve by moving from traditional roles to modern employment, implying that their traditional jobs hindered their self-development.
Self-Check Exercise-3.1
Q.1 What is the primary critique of the Women in Development (WID) approach that led to the development of the Women and Development (WAD) approach?
Q2. List two key features of the Women and Development (WAD) approach

3.4    GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT (GAD)
The Gender and Development (GAD) approach emerged in the 1980s as feminists and development experts realized that earlier methods, like Women in Development (WID) and Women and Development (WAD), didn't tackle the root causes of gender inequality. This approach is particularly relevant for countries in the Global South and was shaped by the experiences and writings of Third World feminists. A key moment for GAD was the 1985 Nairobi international NGO forum, organised by Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era (DAWN), where participants called for a new strategy that addressed both global and gender inequities—the UN Women’s Decade also highlighted how women's contributions were overlooked, pushing for this new focus. By 1990, the ideas from WID, GAD, and WAD began to merge, while discussions about gender and development continue to develop today.
The Gender and Development (GAD) approach emerged in the 1980s, as an alternative to earlier WID focus, grounded in socialist feminism. It examines the social construction of gender roles, questioning traditional roles assigned to women and men, and addresses women’s oppression by linking production and reproduction processes. Socialist feminists argue that women’s oppression stems from socially constructed roles in production and reproduction, focusing on how patriarchal and Marxist dynamics assign women to subordinate roles (Rathgeber, 1990). The Gender and Development (GAD) approach introduced a transformative view by recognizing that development impacts men and women differently, emphasizing the need for both to be involved in identifying issues and solutions. Unlike WID, which focused on how women could contribute to development, GAD shifted the focus to how development could better support women. It highlighted that women have often been subordinated to men, with their needs considered separately from broader social contexts.

3.4.1    Features of Gender and Development

1.    Shift from focus on women to focus on gender and social relations of gender: The GAD approach focuses on the social construction of gender and examines how gender roles shape women’s lower status in society, beyond just improving women’s integration. Drawing from Socialist Feminism, it views women’s status as influenced by economic roles, material conditions, and power dynamics, advocating for both men and women to contribute to a more gender- equal society.

2.    Shift in approach towards development: The GAD approach redefines development by examining how it reshapes power dynamics through gender relations, taking a broader view that includes both socio-political forces and social reproduction, beyond just production.

3.    Gender mainstreaming: Gender mainstreaming, a key strategy in the GAD approach, seeks to transform power structures within national and international agencies by embedding gender equality as a core focus in development planning. This approach challenges elite power dynamics, aiming to create development processes that consider and address gender inequalities, benefiting both women and men in society.

4.    Rejection of public-private dichotomy: The GAD approach rejects the publicprivate divide, recognizing both women's productive and reproductive roles, and views the family as a setting where gender-based inequalities often arise.

5.    Recognition of Women’s agency: A key feature of the GAD approach is recognizing women as active agents of change, encouraging them to self- organize and amplify their political voice rather than being passive recipients of aid.

6.    Recognition of differences among women: While earlier approaches valued women's collective organizing, the GAD approach uniquely recognizes the diverse experiences among women shaped by factors like class, age, and ethnicity. It emphasizes how patriarchy intersects with race, class, and other social categories, impacting women’s varied experiences and development outcomes.

7.    Focus on legal as well as customary rights: The GAD approach advances reforms in inheritance and land laws to strengthen women’s rights, acknowledging that the overlap of legal and customary rights often disadvantages women.

8.    Tools used in GAD: GAD recognizes the economic needs of women and stresses the importance of political activism, utilizing tools such as community organizing, public education, coalition building, and transformative forums to drive change.

9.    Practical gender needs and strategic gender interests: A key feature of the GAD framework is its comprehensive approach that differentiates between patriarchy, capitalism, and race, helping feminists identify gaps in development agency strategies. GAD tackles the fundamental inequalities of class and gender that hinder women's practical needs and strategic interests, emphasizing that addressing these strategic interests can empower women and transform gender relations. This transformation of practical needs into strategic interests is a unique aspect of the GAD perspective.

3.4.2    Criticism

1.    Effectiveness in Practice: GAD has been criticized for not delivering the promised results in real-world applications, raising concerns about its practical effectiveness.

2.    Focus on Differences: The approach emphasizes social differences between women and men but often neglects the connections and bonds they share.

3.    Inadequate Analysis of Social Relations: Critics point out that GAD does not
thoroughly analyze how social relationships influence development programs targeted at women.

4.    Overlooked Trade-offs: GAD fails to examine the various trade-offs women make regarding marriage and motherhood, which affects their development experiences.

5.    Implementation Challenges: In practice, GAD has not been fully adopted, with many development programs blending elements from GAD, WID, and WAD, often reducing gender equity to economic improvement.
Self-Check Exercise-3.2
Q1. How does the Gender and Development (GAD) approach differ from the Women and Development (WAD) approach?
Q2. Explain the concept of “gender mainstreaming” in the context of GAD.
Q3. Critically examine the Gender and Development (GAD) approach.

3.5    SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the transition from the Women in Development (WID) approach to Women and Development (WAD) and Gender and Development (GAD). WAD emerged in response to the limitations of WID, emphasizing women's roles and advocating for a redistribution of development benefits. It highlights women’s contributions while addressing patriarchal structures that affect their participation in development. The GAD approach, developed in the 1980s, further critiques earlier models by focusing on social relations of gender, rejecting the public-private divide, and recognizing women as active agents of change. Both WAD and GAD aim to address gender inequalities, but they face criticisms regarding their effectiveness and the depth of their analyses. Ultimately, this unit provides insights into how these approaches shape development policies and highlight the need for a comprehensive understanding of gender dynamics in development.

3.6    GLOSSARY

•    WID (Women in Development): An approach that focuses on integrating women into development processes, viewing them as important contributors to economic growth.

•    WAD (Women and Development): A critique of WID, emphasizing women's roles in development and advocating for equity in the distribution of resources and benefits.

•    GAD (Gender and Development): An approach that examines gender roles and social relations, highlighting women's agency and the need for both men and women to address gender inequality.

•    Patriarchy: A social system in which men hold primary power and dominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property.

•    Gender Mainstreaming: A strategy that aims to incorporate gender considerations into all levels of policy-making and development planning to promote gender equality.

•    Social Construction of Gender: The idea that gender roles and identities are created and reinforced by social practices and norms rather than being biologically predetermined.

•    Economic Empowerment: The process of increasing the economic status and opportunities for individuals, particularly women, to enhance their ability to participate fully in the economy.

3.7    ANSWER TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISE
Self-Check Exercise-3.1
Ans1. Refer to Section 3.3.
Ans2. Refer to Section 3.3.1.
Self-Check Exercise-3.2
Ans1. Refer to Sections 3.3 & 3.4.
Ans2. Refer to Section 3.4.1.
Ans3. Refer to Section 3.4.2.

3.8    REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

•    Kabeer, N. (1994). Reversed realities: Gender hierarchies in development thought. Verso.

•    Moser, C. O. (1989). Gender planning in the third world: Meeting practical and strategic gender needs. World Development, 17(11), 1799-1825.

•    Rathgeber, E. M. (1990). WID, WAD, GAD: Trends in research and practice.
The Journal of Developing Areas, 24(4), 489-502.

•    United Nations. (n.d.). 60 years of work on the advancement of women. https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/CSW60YRS/index.htm

•    UN Women. (n.d.).World Conferences            on            Women.
https://www.unwomen.org/en/how-we-work/intergovernmental-support/world-conferences-on-women#copenhagen

•  UN Women. (n.d.-c). World Bank report: Gender equality and development.
Retrieved from https://www.unwomen.org/en/node/36060

•  World Bank. (2012). World development report 2012: Gender equality and
development. https://hdl.handle.net/10986/4391

3.9    TERMINAL QUESTIONS

Q1.    Describe the main features of the Women and Development (WAD) approach and discuss its impact on development policies.

Q2.    Compare and contrast the WAD and GAD approaches in terms of their treatment of women’s roles in development and their criticisms.
UNIT-04
ECONOMIC GROWTH AND GENDER EQUALITY
STRUCTURE

4.1    Introduction

4.2    Learning Objectives

4.3    Economic Growth
Self-Check Exercise-4.1

4.4    Gender Equality
Self-Check Exercise-4.2

4.5    Economic Growth and Gender Equality
Self-Check Exercise-4.3

4.6    Capability Approach
Self-Check Exercise-4.4

4.7    Empowerment
Self-Check Exercise-4.5

4.8    Income Inequality


4.8.1    Causes of Income Inequality

4.8.2    Indicators of Economic Inequality
Self-Check Exercise-4.6

4.9    Summary

4.10    Glossary

4.11    Answers to Self-Check Exercise

4.12    References/Suggested Readings

4.13 Terminal Questions

4.1    INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will explore several important concepts related to economic growth, gender equality, and economic inequality. We will begin by understanding what economic growth means and how it affects societies. Following that, we will discuss gender equality and how it relates to economic progress. The unit will also highlight the
relationship between economic growth and gender equality, and introduce the Capability Approach, which focuses on improving individuals' opportunities. We will examine the concept of empowerment and its role in driving change. Finally, we will look into income inequality, its indicators, and how it impacts overall societal well-being.

4.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to

•    Understand the basic concepts of economic growth and gender equality.

•    Explain how economic growth and gender equality influence each other.

•    Identify key indicators of economic inequality and their impact on sustainable development.

4.3    ECONOMIC GROWTH
Economic growth is the sustained increase in a country's real national and per capita income over a long period of time. This process signifies an economy's ability to produce more goods and services, leading to higher standards of living and improved quality of life for its citizens. It involves not just the rise in overall national income, but also an increase in income per person, indicating that wealth and resources are expanding in a way that can benefit the entire population. Long-term economic growth is driven by factors such as capital investment, technological advancement, workforce expansion, and productivity improvements, all of which contribute to a nation’s prosperity and resilience.
According to Simon Kuznets in his Nobel Prize lecture, "Modern Economic Growth: Findings and Reflections," delivered on December 11, 1971:
"A country’s economic growth may be defined as a long-term rise in capacity to supply increasingly diverse economic goods to its population; this growing capacity based on advancing technology and the institutional and ideological adjustments that it demands."
In his Nobel Prize lecture, Simon Kuznets emphasized that three components define economic growth: a sustained rise in goods, technological advancement, and necessary institutional and ideological adaptations. Economic growth relies on advancing technology, yet technology alone is insufficient without the structures to support its widespread use. For instance, innovations like steam and electric power required social shifts away from traditional institutions like family-based enterprises and illiteracy. Kuznets also highlighted “epochal innovations” – major technological breakthroughs shaping economic epochs. Modern economic growth, which emerged in the late 18th century and has primarily affected developed nations, represents such an epoch.

4.3.1    Features of Economic Growth
The economic growth consists of the following features

1.    Increase in national income and per capita income.

2.    Increase in income over a long period.

3.    Economic growth is measured by an increase in real national income and not only by the increase in nominal national income.

4.    An increase in income should be based on an increase in productive capacity.
Self-Check Exercise-4.1
Q1. Explain the term economic growth.
Q2. What are the features of economic growth?

4.4    GENDER EQUALITY
According to UNICEF, gender equality refers to the concept that women and men, girls and boys have equal conditions, treatment and opportunities for realizing their full potential, human rights and dignity, and for contributing to (and benefitting from) economic, social, cultural and political development. Gender equality is, therefore, the equal valuing by society of the similarities and differences of men and women, and the roles they play. It is based on women and men being full partners in the home, community and society. Equality does not mean that women and men will become the same but that women’s and men’s rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether they are born male or female. Gender equality implies that the interests, needs and priorities of both women and men and girls and boys are taken into consideration, recognizing the diversity of different groups and that all human beings are free to develop their personal abilities and make choices without the limitations set by stereotypes and prejudices about gender roles. Gender equality is a matter of human rights and is considered a precondition for, and an indicator of, sustainable people-centred development. Sustainable Development Goal 5 focuses on achieving gender equality and empowering women and girls, recognizing it as a fundamental human right essential for the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda. UNICEF works to eliminate gender disparities, particularly for adolescent girls and monitors critical indicators related to child marriage and gender-based violence to promote equitable outcomes.
Self-Check Exercise-4.2
Q1. Define gender equality.
Q2. Why is gender equality considered crucial for economic growth?

4.5    ECONOMIC GROWTH AND GENDER EQUALITY
Economic growth and gender equality are closely interconnected. Gender equality enhances economic growth by boosting labour force participation, productivity, and income equality. When women have equal access to education, jobs, and resources, economies benefit from diverse talents and perspectives, fostering innovation, reducing poverty, and creating sustainable development opportunities for all.
Gender equality is essential not only for social justice but also for robust economic growth. Although considerable advancements have been made over recent decades, numerous barriers still hinder full equality for women. By addressing these barriers— such as unequal access to education, health services, and employment—countries can unlock substantial economic potential, supporting more resilient and inclusive growth. Studies indicate that gender equality can notably enhance productivity, especially in sectors dependent on female labour. Following the COVID-19 pandemic, which amplified economic and gender disparities, prioritizing gender-inclusive policies presents a crucial opportunity to drive recovery and long-term growth.
Source: UNDP SUPPORT TO THE INTEGRATION OF GENDER EQUALITY ACROSS THE SDGS INCLUDING
GOAL 5 (2016)
Self-Check Exercise-4.3
Q1. How does gender equality influence economic growth?
Q2. Describe barriers that limits gender equality and its effect on economic growth.

4.6    CAPABILITY APPROACH
Capability is something a person is able to do. Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach offers a fresh perspective on well-being, moving away from traditional measures based solely on utility or resources. Instead, it emphasizes individual freedom and the real choices people make. According to Sen, each person has unique abilities to convert resources into meaningful outcomes, influenced by personal, social, and locational factors. He identifies key issues with traditional development evaluations, such as overlooking individual capacities, internalized deprivation (adaptive preferences), and the need to recognize multidimensional aspects of human experience.
The Capability Approach thus provides a framework for assessing well-being through "functionings" (achievements) and "capabilities" (freedom to achieve desired outcomes). For example, two people facing food deprivation may appear similar in functioning, but considering their "capabilities
Self-Check Exercise-4.4
Q1. What is the central focus of Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach?
Q2. Define "functionings" and "capabilities" as they relate to well-being.

4.7    EMPOWERMENT
Empowerment is about enhancing the personal, social, political, or economic influence of individuals and communities, especially focusing on women and girls. It seeks to build their ability to take charge of their lives by increasing self-awareness, and confidence, and broadening access to resources and opportunities. True empowerment means transforming societal structures that uphold gender discrimination. Fundamentally, empowerment allows individuals to shape their future, which for women involves not only securing equal rights in areas like health, education, and employment but also having the autonomy to make strategic life choices, including leadership and involvement in political spheres, to enact meaningful change. Empowerment strengthens individuals to make and act on their own choices, benefiting themselves and society. It varies globally, shaped by local cultures and needs. Empowerment fosters self-confidence, equipping people to adapt to changes. Across sectors, it provides knowledge, skills, and resources to achieve personal and professional goals.
Empowerment involves several key elements: developing confidence and resilience, having the freedom to make decisions, gaining control over one’s life both at home and in society, and influencing social progress towards fairness. Empowerment can be viewed broadly for disadvantaged groups or specifically for women. Paulo Freire first introduced the concept through "conscientization," where the disadvantaged could challenge power dynamics. Feminists later broadened this idea by highlighting gender as a significant factor in empowerment.
Self-Check Exercise-4.5
Q1. What is meant by empowerment?
Q2. Describe two key elements of empowerment.

4.8    INCOME INEQUALITY
Income inequality refers to the uneven distribution of income within a population. A greater disparity in income levels signifies higher income inequality. This inequality can be examined through various lenses, such as gender, race, geographic location, and occupation, each revealing different patterns and forms. Income inequality often leads to limited opportunities for improved living standards and financial stability and can contribute to political and social unrest. Researchers analyze these disparities to understand how gender, ethnicity, and location influence income distribution and its broader social and economic impacts.

4.8.1    Cause of Income Inequality
According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) cause of income inequality can be categorised into global and domestic factors.

(i)    Global Factors

•    Technological Progress: Advances in technology have contributed to the skill premium, benefiting individuals with higher education who can leverage new technologies. This has also led to job polarization, especially in Western Europe and the United States, where middle-class jobs are diminishing due to automation and technological changes.

•    Globalization: The integration of global markets has influenced  income
distribution by providing access to a broader range of goods and services, but also by creating winners and losers, particularly between skilled and unskilled workers.

•    Commodity Price Cycles: Fluctuations in global commodity prices can
exacerbate income inequality, especially in resource-dependent economies, where the benefits of rising commodity prices often flow disproportionately to certain groups or sectors.

(ii)    Country-Specific Factors

•  Economic Developments and Stability:  Economic  growth patterns,
fluctuations, and stability within a country play a significant role in shaping income inequality. Economic booms may disproportionately benefit certain sectors, while recessions can widen income gaps.

•  Domestic Policies: The design of national policies, including financial
integration, redistributive fiscal policies, and labor market liberalization or
deregulation, affects how wealth and income are distributed. Policies that favor deregulation or reduced taxation for the wealthy often lead to increased inequality. Conversely, redistributive policies can reduce income disparities.

4.8.2    Indicators of Income Inequality
Indicators of income inequality are key measures used to assess how income and wealth are distributed across a population. These indicators provide insights into the disparities between different income groups and highlight the extent of economic inequality within a society. By analyzing these indicators, policymakers and researchers can identify the root causes of inequality, track changes over time, and design effective strategies to reduce disparities. Common indicators of income inequality include measures such as the Gini coefficient, income shares by quintiles or deciles, and the Palma ratio, each offering a unique perspective on the distribution of income and wealth.

1)    Gini Coefficient (Gini Index or Gini Ratio)
The Gini coefficient is a widely used measure of income or wealth inequality. It calculates the extent to which the distribution of income or wealth deviates from perfect equality. The Gini coefficient ranges from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (perfect inequality), with higher values indicating greater inequality.

2)    Income Quintile or Decile Shares
This indicator breaks down income distribution into quintiles (20% segments) or deciles (10% segments) to show how different segments of the population share in the total income. It reveals whether a particular group of the population receives a disproportionately large or small share of income.

3)    Palma Ratio
The Palma ratio is a measure of inequality that compares the income share of the richest 10% of the population to the income share of the poorest 40%. It focuses on the middle class and how they fare compared to the wealthiest and poorest segments.

4)    Wealth Inequality
Wealth inequality measures the distribution of assets and net worth among individuals or households. It can be assessed using similar indicators as income inequality, such as Gini coefficients and wealth quintiles or deciles.

5)    Poverty Rates
While not a direct measure of inequality, poverty rates can indicate disparities in income distribution. High poverty rates suggest that a significant portion of the population is earning very low incomes, contributing to overall economic inequality.

6)    Labor Market Inequality
Measures such as the gender pay gap, racial wage gap, and disparities in access to quality jobs can reveal inequalities within the labor market.

7)    Educational Attainment Disparities
Differences in educational attainment, particularly access to higher education, can contribute to economic inequality. Disparities in educational opportunities can lead to disparities in income and wealth.
Self-Check Exercise-4.6
Q1. Define income inequality and explain its potential impact on society.
Q2. Discuss the indicators of income inequality.

4.9    SUMMARY
This unit focuses on understanding key concepts such as economic growth, gender equality, and income inequality. It explores the relationship between economic growth and gender equality, the capability approach, and empowerment. The unit also delves into income inequality, its causes, and various indicators used to measure it, such as the Gini coefficient and the Palma ratio. These concepts help explain how disparities in income affect economic development and social well-being.

4.10    GLOSSARY

•    Economic Growth: A sustained increase in the production of goods and services within an economy, leading to higher living standards.

•    Gender Equality: The concept that individuals, regardless of gender, have equal opportunities, rights, and responsibilities.

•  Capability Approach: A perspective focusing on individual freedoms and
opportunities to achieve well-being, introduced by Amartya Sen.

•  Empowerment: The process of gaining control over one's life and decisions,
especially for marginalized groups.

•    Gini Coefficient: A measure of income inequality within a population, ranging from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (perfect inequality).

4.11    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISE
Self-Check Exercise-4.1
Ans 1. Refer to Section 4.3.
Ans 2. Refer to Section 4.3.
Self-Check Exercise-4.2
Ans 1. Refer to Section 4.4.
Ans 2. Refer to Sections 4.4 & 4.5.
Self-Check Exercise-4.3
Ans 1. Refer to Section 4.5.
Ans 2. Refer to Section 4.5
Self-Check Exercise-4.4
Ans 1. Refer to Section 4.6.
Ans 2. Refer to Section 4.6.
Self-Check Exercise-4.5
Ans 1. Refer to Section 4.7.
Ans 2. Refer to Section 4.7.
Self-Check Exercise-4.6
Ans 1. Refer to Section 4.8.
Ans 2. Refer to Section 4.8.2.

4.12    REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

•    International Monetary Fund. (2015, June 6). Human rights and the role of the IMF.https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2015/09/28/04/53/sp060614#:~:text=To night%2C%20the%20topic%20I%20want,obstacles%20to%20true%20human%2 Oflourishing.

•    International Monetary Fund. (2022, September 27). Gita Gopinath on gender equality in Korea. https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2022/09/27/sp092722-ggopinath-kgef-gender-korea

•    Kuznets, S. (1971, December 11). Modern economic growth: Findings and reflections.     Nobel     Prize.     https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/economic-
sciences/1971/kuznets/lecture/#:~:text=A%20country's%20economic%20growth %20may,ideological%20adjustments%20that%20it%20demands.

•    UNICEF.(n.d.). Gender glossary: Terms and concepts. https://www.unicef.org/ rosa/media/1761/file/Genderglossarytermsandconcepts.pdf

•    United Nations Development Programme. (2016). Gender equality across the SDGs, including Goal 5. https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/ files/publications/5_Gender_Equality_digital.pdf

4.13    TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q1. Discuss the relationship between economic growth and gender equality.
Q2. Examine the major causes of income inequality in developing countries. Also discuss the important indicators of income inequality.
UNIT-05
DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGES AND GENDER STATUS
STRUCTURE

5.1    Introduction

5.2    Learning Objectives

5.3    Demographic Changes and Gender Dynamics
Self-Check Exercise-5.1

5.4    Health and Gender Status


5.4.1    Gender Differences in Mortality
Self-Check Exercise-5.2

5.5    Summary

5.6    Glossary

5.7    Answers to Self-Check Exercise

5.8    References/Suggested Readings

5.9    Terminal Questions

5.1    INTRODUCTION
Demographic changes play an important role in shaping the social, economic and cultural status of gender in a society. Changes in demographic structure such as population structure, fertility, mortality and migration patterns influence gender roles, opportunities and inequalities. In this unit, we will explore the demographic changes and gender dynamics, highlighting the trends in demographic structure from gender perspective. Further, in this unit we will discuss the trends in gender differences in mortality i.e., Infant Mortality Rate, Maternal Mortality Rate and Life Expectancy at Birth.

5.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:

•    Understand demographic changes and gender status in India

•    Examine the gender differences in mortality

5.3    DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGES AND GENDER DYNAMICS
Demographic change refers to the changes in population size and structure due to variations in birth rates, death rates, and migration patterns. Demographic changes significantly impact gender dynamics, shaping the roles and opportunities for men and women in society. Shifts in population structure, such as age distribution and sex ratio, affect gender equality. Changes in fertility and mortality rates further influence gender-related health outcomes and societal participation. Understanding these dynamics is key to addressing gender disparities and promoting inclusive development. As per the Census (2011), India’s population was recorded at 121.1 crore, with females contributing to 48.5 per cent of the total population. However, as per the Women and Men in India report (2023), by 2036, the population is expected to reach 152.2 crore with the proportions of female slightly increasing 48.8 per cent. The proportion of individuals under 15 is expected to decrease from 2011 to 2036, likely due to falling fertility rates. On the other hand, the share of people aged 60 and above is projected to rise significantly. As a result, the population pyramid will shift, with the base narrowing and the middle expanding by 2036.
Age-wise Profile of Population by Sex (%)

2011

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5.3.1    Sex Ratio
The sex ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000 males. Sex ratio plays a vital role in the population analysis. The sex composition is affected by various factors
like differential in mortality, conditions of males and females, sex selective migration and sex ratio at birth.
Sex Ration in India: 1951-2036
Source: Report on the Technical Group on Population for India and States 2011-2036, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, July, 2020 P: Projected Figures
The Technical Group on Population Projections (2011-2036) reports that India's population will become more feminine by 2036, with the sex ratio rising from 943 in 2011 to 952. This indicates a positive shift towards gender equality.
Self-Chek Exercise-5.1
Q1. What do you mean by demographic changes?
Q2. Define sex ratio.

5.4    HEALTH AND GENDER STATUS
According to Women and Men in India (2023), health is vital for well-being and economic growth, but gender impacts access to healthcare and the quality of services received. Women and girls face unique health challenges and barriers due to systemic inequalities, as discussed in this section. Fertility data is crucial for assessing population programs and understanding health impacts like child mortality and maternal health. Key measures such as Age-specific Fertility Rates (ASFR), Total Fertility Rate (TFR), General Fertility Rate (GFR), and Gross reproduction Rate (GRR) help guide population policies and programs. The ASFR is defined as the number of live births in a specific age group of women per thousand female populations of that age group. The TFR
represents the average number of children a woman is expected to have during her reproductive years, assuming constant fertility rates and no mortality.

5.4.1    Gender Differences in Mortality
Gender differences in mortality refers to difference in death rates and causes of death between men and women due to biological, environment, social and cultural factors. These difference in mortality between men and women are affected by access to healthcare facilities, lifestyle and other factors. The gender differences in mortality can be represented through following indicators.

I.    Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)
The infant mortality rate measures the number of children who die before reaching their first birthday per 1,000 live births in a given year. It serves as a crucial indicator of a population's overall health, as the factors influencing infant mortality often reflect broader health conditions within the community. If we look at the Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), the chart shows that the Infant Mortality Rate has declined over the years for both males and females. While female IMR was consistently higher, it equalized with male IMR in 2020 at 28 deaths per 1,000 live births.
II. Life Expectancy at Birth
The Life expectancy at birth is the average number of years a person is likely to live, based on prevailing mortality conditions. According to Man and Women in India (2023), the government efforts have helped lower child mortality and significantly improve life expectancy. As shown in the chart, since 1990, life expectancy has steadily risen, reaching 68.6 years for men and 71.4 years for women by 2016-20, and is projected to climb to 71.2 years for men and 74.7 years for women by 2031-36.
Figure 3.2 : Life Expectancy at birth by sex
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Male Female
Source: Sample Registration System, RGI     * Projected figures

III.    Maternal Mortality Ratio
According to World Health Organization (WHO), The maternal mortality ratio (MMR) is defined as the number of maternal deaths during a given time period per 100,000 live births during the same time period. It depicts the risk of maternal death relative to the number of live births and essentially captures the risk of death in a single pregnancy or a single live birth.
Source: Sample Registration System, RGI
According to Women and Men in India (2023), maternal mortality reflects the reproductive health of women and remains a key health indicator. Through sustained government efforts, India has reduced its Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) to 97 per lakh live births in 2018-20, ahead of the SDG target of 70 by 2030. Eight states have already achieved this milestone, showcasing significant progress in improving maternal health.

5.4.2 Factors Affecting Gender Differences in Mortality
The factors which affect the gender differences in mortality are:

•  Biological Factors: Differences in genetic makeup, hormones, and physical
health predispose men and women to varying life expectancy and health risks.

•  Healthcare Access: Women and men may have different levels of access to
healthcare, with women sometimes facing more barriers to services, especially in reproductive health.

•    Socioeconomic Status: Socioeconomic disparities, such as income, education, and employment, can influence both men’s and women’s health outcomes, affecting mortality rates differently.

•    Cultural and Social Norms: Gender-based expectations can affect behavior, such as women’s roles in caregiving and men’s higher risk-taking behaviors, influencing their health and mortality.

•    Lifestyle Factors: Men and women may have different lifestyle habits, such as smoking, diet, and physical activity, which contribute to variations in mortality rates.
Self-Check Exercsie-5.2
Q1. What do you mean by gender differences in mortality.
Q2. Define

i.    Infant Mortality Rate

ii.   Maternal Mortality Rate

5.5    SUMMARY
This unit examines the demographic changes and gender dynamics, focusing on the key issues like sex ratio, fertility, mortality and life expectancy at birth from gender perspective. In this unit, we also discussed about gender differences in mortality, particularly in terms of maternal and infant mortality. Therefore, this unit highlights India’s progress in improving gender equality and health outcomes through various government initiatives.

5.6    GLOSSARY

•    Demographic Changes: Shifts in the population structure, including factors such as fertility, mortality, and migration patterns.

•    Sex Ratio: The number of females per 1000 males in a population.

•    Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): The number of infant deaths per 1,000 live births within the first year of life.

•    Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR): The number of maternal deaths per 100,000 live births, reflecting the risk of death during pregnancy or childbirth.

•    Life Expectancy at Birth: The average number of years a person is expected to live, based on current mortality rates.

5.7    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISE
Self-Check Exercise-5.1
Ans.1. Refer to Section 5.3
Ans.2. Refer to Section 5.3.1
Self-Check Exercise-5.2
Ans.1. Refer to Section 5.4
Ans.2. Refer to Section 5.4.1

5.8    REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

•    Government of India, Ministry of Statistics & Programme Implementation, National Statistical Office, Social Statistics Division. (2023). Women and men in India 2023. https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/reports_and_publication/ statistical_publication/Women_Men/mw23/CompetePublication_WM2023.pdf

•    World Health Organization. (n.d.). Infant mortality rate (IMR). Global Health Observatory (GHO).    Retrieved    December    19,    2024,    from
https://www.who.int/data/gho/indicator-metadata-registry/imr-details/26#:~:text =Definition:,or%20the%20placenta%20is%20attached.%20(

5.9    TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q1. Discuss the gander dynamics of demographic changes in India.
Q2. What do you mean by gender differences in mortality. What are the factors affecting gender differences in mortality?
UNIT-06
FEMINIST ECONOMICS
STRUCTURE

6.1.    Introduction

6.2.    Learning Objectives

6.3.    Feminist Economics
Self-Check Exercise-6.1

6.4.    Key Issues in Feminist Economics
Self-Check Exercise-6.2

6.5.    Feminist Economic Critique of Mainstream Economics
Self-Check Exercise-6.3

6.6.    Summary

6.7.    Glossary

6.8.    Answers to Self-Check Exercise

6.9.    References/Suggested Readings

6.10.    Terminal Questions

6.1    INTRODUCTION
Feminist economics highlights gender’s role in shaping economic systems, addressing inequalities and biases overlooked by mainstream economics. It emphasizes issues like education, health, nutrition, drinking water, sanitation, housing, and environmental sustainability, which disproportionately impact women. This unit explores these key issues and critiques the neglect of unpaid labor, care work, and resource inequalities in traditional economic theories, advocating for inclusive approaches to achieve gender equity and sustainable development.

6.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to

•    Understand the key issues in feminist economics, including education, health, nutrition, sanitation, housing, and the environment, and their gendered implications.

•  Analyze the limitations of mainstream economics in addressing gender
inequalities and the role of unpaid labor and care work.

•  Evaluate feminist economic critiques and propose inclusive approaches to
achieve equity and sustainable development.

6.3    FEMINIST ECONOMICS
Feminist economics examines gender biases in societal practices and development policies, focusing on women’s economic roles, contributions, and inequalities. It addresses issues like gendered labor markets, decision-making, women’s work valuation, and social security. By promoting gender-sensitive policies, it seeks to empower women and enhance their capabilities for equitable economic development. Traditional economics often overlooks or undervalues women’s roles and contributions. Therefore, feminist economics aims to challenge gender biases, promote gender equality, and enhance women’s capabilities and entitlements. By addressing these issues, feminist economics contributes to more inclusive and equitable development, ensuring that women’s perspectives and needs are integrated into economic planning and decision-making. The objectives of feminist economics are

1)    To foster an understanding and appreciation of the economic contributions made by both women and men, ensuring equal recognition of their roles.

2)    To explore the underlying causes of women's subordination and male dominance within economic and social systems.

3)    To empower women by promoting gender justice and strengthening their participation in decision-making at all levels.

4)    To design and implement development strategies that actively involve women and address their specific needs.

5)    To highlight the role of women as catalysts for social change, aiming to improve their status in society.

6)    To investigate and address the roots of inequality that lead to the invisibility, marginalization, and exclusion of women from intellectual and economic spheres.

7)    To encourage social initiatives that promote gender equality, women's development, peace, access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities.
Self-Check Ecercise-6.1
Q1. Define Feminist Economics.
Q2. What are the objectives of feminist economics?

6.4    KEY ISSUES IN FEMINIST ECONOMICS
Feminist economics focuses on the entitlements and social empowerment of women, aiming to ensure their social security and protection. It advocates for welfare schemes, economic opportunities, and social safeguards designed to enhance women’s wellbeing and rights. These priorities align with the Women Empowerment Policy, 2001, which emphasizes creating a supportive environment for women's welfare, economic independence, and social defense through targeted initiatives and programs.

1)    Education: Equal access to education for women and girls will be prioritized by eliminating discrimination, promoting universal education, and improving quality to support lifelong learning and skill development. Special efforts will focus on
reducing the gender gap in secondary and higher education through targeted measures.

2)    Health: A comprehensive approach to women’s health, addressing nutrition and health services throughout the life cycle, is essential. Reducing infant and maternal mortality, key indicators of human development, remains a priority in line with the goals of the National Population Policy 2000. Accurate micro-level data on sex ratios, births, deaths, and marriages, alongside education and government initiatives are vital for addressing early marriage and improving health outcomes.

3)    Nutrition: Focused attention will be given to women’s nutritional needs at all life stages to address the risks of malnutrition and disease, especially during adolescence, pregnancy, and lactation. Efforts will target nutrient deficiencies, intra-household nutritional discrimination, and promote nutrition education, ensuring women’s active involvement in planning and delivery systems.

4)    Drinking Water and Sanitation: Priority will be given to providing women with safe water, sanitation, and sewage facilities, ensuring their active involvement in planning and maintenance, especially in rural and urban slum areas.

5)    Housing and Shelter: Housing policies will prioritize women's perspectives, ensuring safe and adequate accommodation for single women, female-headed households, working women, students, and trainees in both rural and urban areas.

6)    Environment: Women’s perspectives will be integrated into environmental policies and programs, ensuring their active participation in conservation and sustainable resource management. Initiatives will promote eco-friendly energy sources like solar energy, biogas, and smokeless chulhas, improving rural women’s livelihoods while addressing environmental challenges.

7)    Science and Technology: Programs will encourage women’s participation in science and technology, promoting education, training in areas like IT, and developing technologies tailored to their needs while reducing their drudgery.

8)    Women in Difficult Circumstances: Special measures will be implemented to support disadvantaged women, including those in poverty, conflict, calamities, or facing challenges like disability, violence, or displacement.
Self-Check Exercise-6.2
Q1. What are the key issues in feminist economics?

6.5    FEMINIST ECONOMIC CRITIQUE OF MAINSTREAM ECONOMICS
Feminist economics critiques traditional economic frameworks by highlighting the role of gender and unpaid labor in shaping economies. It seeks to address biases and inequalities, ensuring women’s contributions and experiences are recognized in economic analysis. Below are the key aspects of the feminist economic critique of mainstream economics:

1.    Neglect of Unpaid Labor and Care Work
Mainstream economics primarily focuses on market-based activities, sidelining unpaid labor such as childcare, eldercare, and housework, which are fundamental to societal
functioning. Feminist economists emphasize that these activities contribute significantly to the economy and must be acknowledged. For instance, the value of unpaid care work often amounts to a considerable percentage of a country’s GDP, demonstrating its economic importance despite its invisibility in conventional analyses.

2.    Overlooking the Gender Wage Gap
Mainstream economic models fail to fully address the persistent wage disparities between men and women. These gaps result from occupational segregation, discrimination, and variations in work experience. Feminist critiques argue that traditional theories often downplay the systemic barriers women face, such as unequal access to higher-paying jobs or promotions. For example, recent statistics show that women earn only 82 cents for every dollar earned by men in the U.S., highlighting enduring inequalities.

3.    Insufficient Analysis of Economic Inequality and Poverty
Feminist economics underscores how economic policies disproportionately impact women, particularly marginalized groups like single mothers and women of color. Traditional economic frameworks often overlook the unique challenges these groups face, such as inadequate welfare policies that can exacerbate poverty. For instance, welfare systems that do not consider the caregiving responsibilities of single mothers may leave them with limited resources and opportunities.

4.    Gendered Impacts of Macroeconomic Policies
Macroeconomic policies, such as fiscal austerity or monetary adjustments, frequently affect men and women differently. Feminist critiques point out that austerity measures, which reduce public services, disproportionately burden women as they rely more heavily on such services for healthcare, childcare, and other needs. Ignoring these dynamics in policy formulation perpetuates economic disparities and places additional strain on women.

5.    Lack of Intersectionality in Economic Analysis
Traditional economics often treats gender in isolation, neglecting its intersection with other social categories such as race, class, and sexuality. Feminist economists argue for an intersectional approach to better understand the compounded disadvantages faced by marginalized groups. For example, Black women in the U.S. experience both racial and gender wage gaps, highlighting the need for policies that address these overlapping inequalities.
The feminist critique of mainstream economics challenges the discipline to become more inclusive, equitable, and socially relevant. By addressing the limitations and biases of traditional economic frameworks, feminist economics provides a more comprehensive understanding of economic systems and their impact on diverse populations. This approach emphasizes the importance of integrating unpaid labor, care work, and intersectional inequalities into economic analyses, ultimately advocating for policies that prioritize human well-being, equity, and sustainability.
Self-Check Exercise-6.3
Q1. Define

i.   Unpaid work

ii.   Care Economy
Q2. Discuss the feminist critique of mainstream economics.

6.6    SUMMARY
In this unit, we explored the feminist critique of mainstream economics, highlighting its focus on gender inequalities, unpaid labor, and care work often ignored in traditional frameworks. Key issues include gender-blind models, undervaluation of caregiving, exclusion of women’s voices, and the need for intersectional approaches. Feminist economics challenges conventional theories to promote inclusivity, equity, and social justice by integrating women’s contributions, addressing resource disparities, and emphasizing human well-being. This critique advocates for transformative policies fostering sustainable and equitable development.

6.7    GLOSSARY

•    Feminist Economics: A branch of economics that critiques traditional economic theories and emphasizes gender inequalities, unpaid labor, care work, and the integration of women’s perspectives into economic analyses and policies.

•    Unpaid Labor: Non-monetary work, such as caregiving and domestic activities, typically performed within households, which is crucial for societal well-being but excluded from mainstream economic measurements like GDP.

•    Gender-Blind Models: Economic frameworks that ignore gender differences, treating individuals as homogeneous agents, thereby overlooking disparities in access to resources, employment, and opportunities.

•    Care Economy: The economic activities related to caregiving and social reproduction, vital for maintaining the labor force, often undervalued and disproportionately undertaken by women.

•    Intersectionality: A concept recognizing the interconnected nature of social categorizations like gender, race, and class, which create overlapping systems of discrimination or disadvantage in economic and social contexts.

6.8    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISE
Self-Check Exercise-6.1
Ans. 1. Refer to Section 6.3.
Ans. 2. Refer to Section 6.3.
Self-Check Exercise-6.2
Ans.1. Refer to Section 6.4.
Self-Check Exercise-6.3
Ans. 1. Refer to Section 6.5.
Ans. 2. Refer to Section 6.5.

6.9    REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

•    Nelson, J. A. (1995). Feminism and economics. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 9(2), 131-148. https://doi.Org/10.1257/jep.9.2.131

•    Nelson, J. A. (2008). Feminist economics. In The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics.   Palgrave Macmillan.   https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95121-
5_2210-1

6.10    TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q1. Define the feminist economics. What are the key issues in feminist economics?
Q2. Critically examine the feminist economic critique of mainstream economics.
UNIT-07
GLOBALIZATION AND WOMEN
STRUCTURE

7.1    Introduction

7.2    Learning Objectives

7.3    Gender Perspective


7.3.1    Women’s Positive Experience

7.3.2    Women’s Negative Experience
Self-Check Exercise 7.1

7.4    SEZ, EPZ, EOU and FTZ


7.4.1    Special Economic Zones: Their Impact on Women Labour

7.4.2 . Business Process Outsourcing (BPOS) and Knowledge Process Outsourcing (KPOS)
Self-Check Exercise 7.2

7.5    Summary

7.6    Glossary

7.7    Answers to Self-check Exercise

7.8    References/Suggested Readings

7.9    Terminal Questions

7.1    INTRODUCTION
Globalization in economics refers to the growing interconnection of markets, countries, and technologies on a scale never experienced before. This process allows individuals, companies, and governments to interact, trade, and collaborate across borders more quickly, efficiently, and at lower costs. As globalization advances, the world has seen the rise of a new international division of labor. This has led to significant changes in how goods and services are produced, with production becoming more decentralized, informal, and contract-based. These shifts have reshaped labor markets and working conditions in both developed and developing nations. In many cases, this transformation has weakened traditional forms of job security and reduced legal protections for workers.
In a globalized economy, businesses are expected to operate with fewer restrictions from the government. This means greater openness to international trade and investment, along with the removal of price controls. Companies should have the freedom to move capital, goods, and services across borders without limitations.
Additionally, globalization encourages reducing public spending on essential services like education, healthcare, and welfare programs. Services such as road maintenance, water supply, and bridge construction are often privatized to improve efficiency. Governments are expected to step back from regulating industries, even in areas like environmental protection and workplace safety, if such rules interfere with business profits.
State-owned enterprises, including banks, utilities, transportation systems, schools, and even healthcare facilities, are frequently sold to private investors. This shift aims to boost economic efficiency by relying on the profit-driven nature of private businesses. The broader idea of serving the public good or focusing on community welfare is replaced by an emphasis on personal responsibility and individual self-reliance.

7.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:

•    to study the economic status of women in a globalized society, and

•    to understand why globalization has more adversely affected women engaged in economic activities.

7.4    GENDER PERSPECTIVE
From a gender perspective, the theory of globalization suggests that women’s involvement in the labor market is often limited due to their roles as mothers and caregivers. These responsibilities are seen as naturally intermittent, meaning women may need to leave or reduce their participation in the workforce at various times due to childrearing duties. As a result, women often face significant challenges when competing in the labor and product markets.
The forces of a free-market economy tend to make women more vulnerable in these markets, as they are frequently overlooked or underrepresented. Their work, especially in informal or unpaid roles, often goes unnoticed or unacknowledged. This lack of visibility creates additional barriers, making it harder for women to achieve economic security and career advancement.
Moreover, the effects of globalization are not the same for everyone. Men and women experience its impact in different ways due to gender-specific expectations and societal norms. According to Chineze J. Onyejekwe (2004), women’s encounters with globalization are highly complex and varied. While some women may benefit from increased employment opportunities or empowerment through economic participation, others may face negative consequences, such as job insecurity, wage gaps, and exploitation. Thus, the experiences of women in a globalized economy are diverse, reflecting both positive and negative outcomes.

7.3.1    Women’s Positive Experience
The process of globalization has had a positive impact on women, particularly in terms of employment and economic empowerment. Over the years, increased trade liberalization and the expansion of global markets have created job opportunities for millions of women worldwide, especially in labor-intensive industries such as textiles, garments, electronics, and food processing.

1.    Employment Opportunities in Labor-Intensive Sectors
According to the Oxfam report (2004), trade liberalization has enabled women to secure jobs in industries that form the backbone of global supply chains. Women now occupy 60% to 90% of positions in the most labor-intensive stages of the clothing and food production industries. For example:

•  In Kenya, 75% of factory workers are women.

•  In Sri Lanka, 85% of the workforce in garment factories consists of women.

•  In Cambodia, women represent up to 90% of workers in the textile sector.

•  In China's Guangdong Province, where there are 26 million migrant workers,
four out of five people employed in the garment industry are young women under the age of 25.
Similarly, empirical data from recent labor surveys indicate that in countries like India, 48% of the garment industry workforce consists of women, while the numbers rise to 74% in the Philippines and 80% in China. These statistics highlight the pivotal role of women in driving industrial growth in developing economies.

2.    Opportunities in the IT Industry
Globalization has also revolutionized the Information Technology (IT) sector, creating new avenues for women’s employment. With the rise of digital technology, many women have been able to access jobs offering flexible work arrangements, such as working from home and flexible hours. The IT industry is often characterized by:

•    Remote Work Options: Enabling women to balance professional and personal responsibilities.

•    Reduced Physical Strain: Unlike traditional factory jobs, IT roles are less physically demanding.

•    Improved Work Environment: The industry often provides modern office spaces with better working conditions and equal pay policies.

3.    Economic Empowerment and Livelihood Creation
Through these expanded employment avenues, globalization has provided women with financial independence and improved their socio-economic status. Access to paid work has allowed many women to invest in education, healthcare, and better living conditions for themselves and their families. Moreover, the growth of microfinance institutions and entrepreneurial programs has empowered women to start their own businesses, further contributing to economic development.
In conclusion, globalization has played a crucial role in advancing women’s economic participation by creating new job markets and improving living standards. However, ongoing efforts are required to address challenges such as wage disparities, job security, and fair labor practices to ensure that the benefits of globalization reach all women equitably.
According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), women's global labor force participation rate reached 47% in 2023, with significant improvements in emerging
economies due to globalization-driven job creation. In South Asia, women's participation in the manufacturing and IT sectors grew by 15% in the last decade. Globalization has thus opened new doors for women, providing job opportunities, financial independence, and social empowerment, despite the challenges that remain in terms of wage parity and job security.

7.3.2    Women’s Negative Experience
Globalization has had a profound impact on women, particularly in the labor market. While globalization has created new economic opportunities and increased access to jobs in some sectors, it has also led to significant negative consequences for women, especially in developing countries. This is largely due to the neo-liberal economic policies that prioritize free-market competition, minimal government regulation, and cost-cutting measures. These policies have intensified gender inequalities in the world of work.

1.    Economic Marginalization of Women
Under globalization, women have often been the first to experience job losses due to corporate downsizing, rationalization, and technological automation. Companies, driven by profit maximization, frequently resort to retrenchment and casual employment, disproportionately affecting women. Women are often employed in temporary, contractbased, or part-time jobs, which provide little job security, minimal wages, and no social benefits. This is evident from declining female labor force participation rates, particularly in South Asian countries such as India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.
According to the International Labour Organization (ILO) data from recent years, women’s global labor force participation fell from 52% in 1990 to 47% in 2023, with the gap widening in regions facing economic instability. In India, the female labor force participation rate has dropped from about 30% in 2005 to below 20% in 2022, reflecting worsening job prospects for women despite economic growth.

2.    Expansion of the Informal Sector
Globalization has expanded the informal sector, where working conditions are unregulated, wages are low, and exploitation is rampant. This sector includes domestic work, garment manufacturing, and agricultural labor, where women are heavily concentrated. Sweatshops employing women and children have become common in countries like Bangladesh, Vietnam, and Cambodia, often under hazardous conditions.
In South and Southeast Asia, millions of women work in export-driven industries such as textiles and electronics assembly. While these jobs contribute to national economies, they often pay below living wages and expose women to workplace abuse and unsafe environments. For instance, the 2013 Rana Plaza collapse in Bangladesh, which killed over 1,100 garment workers, highlighted the harsh reality of women’s exploitation in global supply chains.

3.    Girl Child Labor and Vulnerability
The pressure of economic survival has led to a rise in child labor, especially among girls, in many developing countries. These girls are frequently employed as domestic workers, street vendors, and factory laborers, often missing out on education and being
trapped in the cycle of poverty. The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) estimates that over 70 million girls globally are engaged in child labor, with South Asia being a hotspot due to widespread poverty and lack of social protections.

4.    Feminization of Poverty
The combined effects of job insecurity, low wages, and the lack of social safety nets have resulted in the “feminization of poverty.” This term refers to the increasing proportion of women among the world’s poor. Single mothers, widows, and women-headed households are particularly vulnerable. A World Bank report (2022) estimated that women are 25% more likely than men to live in extreme poverty due to limited access to education, healthcare, and property ownership.
Self-check Exercise 7.1
Q1. What impact does globalization have on women's participation in the labor market?
Q2. What are the challenges faced by women in labor-intensive sectors under globalization?
Q3. What is the "feminization of poverty," and how does it affect women?

7.4    SEZ, EPZ, EOU and FTZ
Special Economic Zones (SEZ), Export Processing Zones (EPZ), Export Oriented Units (EOU), and Free Trade Zones (FTZ) are areas where production is focused on exports. These zones benefit from more relaxed economic rules compared to the regular laws of the country. A Special Economic Zone (SEZ) is essentially a cluster of different industries or businesses. While the idea of creating areas with good infrastructure and simpler procedures to promote industrialization isn’t new, modern SEZs go further by offering tax breaks, affordable land, and minimal worker protections to attract private investment. These zones are often promoted as key tools for driving rapid industrial growth through exports.
In April 2000, the Government of India introduced the SEZ policy to boost foreign investment, promote exports, and help local businesses compete globally. The SEZ Act of 2005 gave legal backing to this policy, which came into effect in February 2006. Since then, many SEZs have been set up, alongside existing EPZs and EOUs, contributing to an increase in international trade and employment. SEZs are essentially tax havens: they are exempt from income tax for the first five years and pay only half of their tax obligations for the next two years. Additionally, they receive a ten-year tax holiday. However, critics argue that the incentives offered to these zones help industries profit at the expense of local communities, food security, the environment, and the country’s overall development.

7.4.2    Special Economic Zones: Their Impact on Women Labour
In many countries, SEZs face a significant issue: they often relax or eliminate labor protection laws to attract investment. This creates a competitive race between developing countries to secure more foreign investment and export share to developed nations. However, the competition isn't just between countries—it's against the local workforce. The country that can exploit its workers the most benefits economically.
Unfortunately, this often results in severe hardships for workers, particularly in terms of labor rights violations.
SEZs and Export Processing Zones (EPZs) commonly have weak or no labor laws. When laws do apply, they are usually bent to favor business owners. Worldwide, export zones have a history of violating workers' rights, and India is no exception. Before the SEZ Act of 2005, labor laws applied to EPZs in India, but union activities were effectively shut down, and workers faced harsh consequences like job loss or physical attacks for trying to organize. After the SEZ Act, the government attempted to free SEZs from labor laws, which limited union activities further.
Studies show that a significant portion of the workforce in SEZs are women. These women often face exploitation such as forced night shifts, no transport, no maternity leave, job termination during pregnancy, sexual harassment, lack of rights to organize, and low wages. The wages in SEZs, for both men and women, are lower than those outside the zones due to the lack of regulations.
Shalini Sinha (2008) highlights that since SEZs are focused on export and minimizing production costs, women workers—who make up 70-90% of the workforce—bear the brunt of this cost-cutting. While export-led growth has increased employment for women in many countries, it hasn't led to better wages or benefits. Poor working conditions also pose risks to women's health and safety, while restrictions on unionizing reduce their bargaining power.
The feminization of the workforce is a common trend in SEZs and EPZs worldwide. Employers prefer unmarried women, though they face a high risk of sexual exploitation. These women are often new to the workforce and may hesitate to engage in union activities. Many workers are casual or contract laborers with no job security, making them reluctant to support unions. Workers in SEZs are mostly young, aged between 1628, working 10-12 hours a day with little or no pay, and the job conditions are such that only young people can manage the workload. In some zones, child labor is also reported.
In the 1990s, there was a decline in the employment of adult women, with a rise in the employment of young girls and child labor. Women are often given underpaid, less-skilled jobs in these zones, which rely on the exploitation of young women workers. Employers frequently ignore health risks associated with these jobs. The focus on profit-driven growth in SEZs has deprived workers of their right to fair wages and decent working conditions, leading to super-exploitation of the labor force.

7.4.2 . Business Process Outsourcing (BPOs) and Knowledge Process Outsourcing (KPOs)
It's widely recognized that women have always worked, but their contributions have often been overlooked or undervalued, both in the past and in present-day discussions. This applies to roles in the care economy, agriculture, and the modern workforce. By the 1990s, the situation for women in the workforce had begun to change, with increasing challenges and opportunities for women across various sectors of society and the economy. (Gothoskar, 2006)
Globalization has deepened existing gender-based job segregation. While women with education and English language skills have found new job opportunities in the Information Technology (IT) and IT-enabled services sectors, these opportunities are largely limited to a small group of urban women. (Ghadially, 2007)
Sujata Gothoskar (2006) also discusses the role and status of women in the information and communication technology (ICT) sector. With the rise of ICT in the 1990s and 2000s, the sector gained significant attention. Research has shown that technology can enable women to enter public spaces since it reduces the need for manual labor in paid work. Earlier beliefs about women's inability to handle technology or fields like mathematics are increasingly being proven wrong.
The IT industry's reliance on different time zones has led to more women working at night, especially in call centers. There's no doubt that the IT sector has created job opportunities, particularly for young women in some developing countries. While few sectors are offering jobs, the IT industry has been one of the few that provides employment. However, the labor market in this sector is specific: it largely benefits educated, urban, English-speaking women from privileged classes and castes. The impact of the IT industry on gender equality varies based on class, caste, and country.
The IT sector, as part of the formal economy, is well-organized in terms of capital. After 1990, the focus shifted to capital over labor in a market-driven system, leading to a decline in workers' organizations. Workers were hired on individual contracts, bypassing collective bargaining. This trend has been part of the IT industry from its beginning, making it harder for workers to organize. Today, the IT labor market is a "sellers' market," where companies compete for workers. History shows that organizing as just workers hasn't been enough to protect women's interests in the workforce. The IT industry includes diverse roles, from self-employed individuals to workers in call centers in countries like India, Malaysia, and the Philippines, as well as ICT users and creators of virtual communities, like the women’s university in Germany. Given the rapid changes in the IT industry, more research and engagement are needed to understand its impact. The IT sector is still in its early stages. (Gothoskar, 2006).
Self-Check Exercise 7.2
Q1. What are Special Economic Zones (SEZs) designed to promote?
Q2. What sector has created job opportunities for women through IT and IT-enabled services?

7.5    SUMMARY
It is clear that the current trend of globalization goes against the idea of the subsistence approach. Development can only be sustained if people feel ownership and are actively involved. According to Kuznet’s U-turn hypothesis, women’s participation in the workforce may increase, but in reality, employment opportunities for women remain poor. Due to structural reforms, women are often working in dangerous conditions with job insecurity, low wages, and unstable contracts. Empowering women can be achieved by focusing on building entrepreneurial skills. There is also a need to create ways for women to access credit, markets, information, and training. Information and
Communication Technologies (ICT) should be a priority for women in developing countries because they can help integrate women into the development process.
While neo-liberal economics promotes efficiency and growth, it has often failed to benefit large parts of the population, especially women, who have experienced the negative effects of these policies. Therefore, it is important to create regulations and structures that support women’s welfare and empowerment.

7.5 GLOSSARY

•    Globalization: is the process of increasing interdependence between countries and their economies, cultures, and populations. It is characterized by the flow of goods, technology, financial products, information, and jobs across national borders.

•    Special Economic Zone (SEZ): is a region within a country that has different business and trade laws than the rest of the country. SEZs are designed to encourage investment and economic growth, and to increase trade, employment, and job creation.

•    Kuznets' Inverted U-curve hypothesis: describes the relationship between income inequality and economic development. The hypothesis states that as a country develops, income inequality will increase until a certain point, and then start to decrease. This relationship is often depicted as an inverted U-curve

7.7    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISE
Self-Check Exercise 7.1
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 7.3
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 7.3
Ans. Q3. Refer to Section 7.3
Self-Check Exercise 7.2
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 7.4
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 7.4

7.8    REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

•    Dictaan, Eleanor P., (2008) “Glimpses of Neoliberal Economic Globalization And Development Aggression Against Indigenous Women In Asia”, (Draft) Presented at the Asia Pacific Regional NGO Consultation with the UNSRAVAW, 15-16 October 2008, New Delhi, India.

•    Dietrich, Gabriele, “Globalization and Women in India in the nineties”, Published in “Urban Women in contemporary India: A reader” (ed.) Ghadially, Rehana. (2007), Sage Publication, New Delhi.

•    Editorial, (2008) “Special Economic Zones: Their Impact on Labour”, Labour File, Vol 6, Nos 4-5, July - October 2008.

•    Ghadially, Rehana. (ed.) (2007), “Urban Women in contemporary India: A reader”, Sage Publication, New Delhi.

•    Ghosh, Jayati, (2008) “Special Economic Zones: Their Impact on Labour”, Labour File, Vol 6, Nos 4-5, July - October 2008, pages 19-21.

•   Gothoskar, Sujata, (2006)“Gender and Work in the ʻDigital Economy”, Economic
and Political Weekly April 22, 2006 1517-1520

•    Government of India, “Information Technology: Annual Report-2007-08”,
Department of Information Technology, Ministry of communications and Information Technology,.

•   Onyejekwe, Chineze J., (2004) “Economic Globalization and the Free Market
Ethos: A Gender Perspective”, Nebula.

•    Patel, Vibhuti, (2003), “Impact of Economic Globalization on Women”, Discussion
Paper, The women Development Cell, University of Mumbai, March 7, 2003.

•    Patel, Vibhuti (2007), “Impact of globalisation on women”, InfoChange News &
Features, September 2007.

•   Pratap, Surendra, (2008)“SEZs: The New War Zones of the Working Class”
Labour File, Vol 6, Nos 4-5, July - October 2008 ( pages 5-9).

•   Sinha, Shalini, (2008)“At What Cost, For Whose Benefit? Women Workers in
SEZs” Labour File, Vol 6, Nos 4 -5, July - October 2008.

•    Swamy, Gurushri, (2004), “International Trade and Women”, Economic and Political Weekly, Nov. 6, 2004, 4885-89.

7.9    TERMINAL QUESTIONS REFERENCES
Q1. Discuss the positive and negative impacts of globalization on women in the labour market.
Q2. Analyze the role of globalization in the expansion of the informal sector and the feminization of poverty, highlighting the specific challenges faced by women in developing countries.
Q3. Discuss the role of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) in promoting industrial growth and their impact on women labor. Include the advantages and challenges faced by women working in SEZs.
UNIT-08
FEMINIZATION OF POVERTY
STRUCTURE

8.1    Introduction

8.2    Learning Objectives

8.3    Causes of ‘Feminization of Poverty’
Self-Check Exercise 8.1

8.4    Measuring Poverty


8.4.1    Cross-Country Empirical Evidence

8.4.2    India – Facts and Figures
Self-Check Exercise 8.2

8.5    Policy Prescriptions
Self-Check Exercise 8.3

8.6    Summary

8.7    Glossary

8.8    Answers to Self-Check Exercise

8.9    References/Suggested Readings

8.10    Terminal Questions

8.1    INTRODUCTION
“Women do two-thirds of the worlds’ work... Yet they earn only one-tenth of the worlds’ income and own less than one percent of the world’s property. They are among the poorest of the world’s poor.” – Barber B. Conable Jr., President of the World Bank (1986)
“The feminization of poverty is the term given to the phenomenon in which women experience poverty at far higher rates than men.” – (Thibos, Lavin-Loucks and Martin 2007), The J. McDonalds William Institute.
The term "feminization of poverty" refers to the phenomenon where women are disproportionately affected by poverty compared to men. This concept highlights the fact that women, especially female heading households, experience higher rates of poverty due to various socio-economic and structural factors. First introduced by Diana Pearce in the 1970s, the term underscores the concentration of poverty among women, particularly in contexts where gender-based inequalities are deeply entrenched.
Globally and within India, women face economic hardships at a much higher rate than men. This disparity arises from institutionalized gender-based exclusion that limits women's access to essential resources, opportunities, and social support systems. Factors contributing to women's economic vulnerability include limited access to education, healthcare, secure housing, employment opportunities, and political representation. In India, poverty among women is further exacerbated by issues such as food insecurity, lack of clean water and sanitation, inadequate healthcare, and restricted access to literacy and skill development programs.
Moreover, socio-cultural norms and traditional gender roles reinforce women's marginalization, limiting their ability to participate fully in the labor market or exercise control over economic resources. This exclusion leads to isolation, powerlessness, and a diminished capacity to escape the cycle of poverty. Therefore, addressing the feminization of poverty requires a comprehensive approach that tackles the root causes of gender inequality while ensuring equal access to basic needs, social services, and economic opportunities.

8.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:

•    study the economic status of women in society and

•    understand why there is higher poverty among women headed households as compared to male headed households.

8.3    CAUSES OF ‘FEMINIZATION OF POVERTY’
The poverty experienced by women is caused by a range of interconnected social, economic, and cultural factors. The United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNWOMEN) has highlighted several key dimensions that help explain why women face higher rates of poverty than men. These factors are rooted in systemic inequalities, societal norms, and structural barriers that limit women’s access to economic resources and opportunities.

1.    Unpaid Household and Family Care Work
A major cause of women’s poverty is the type of labor they are typically engaged in. Much of women’s work involves caregiving and household tasks, responsibilities for which they receive no monetary compensation. In developing countries, women are also frequently expected to participate in agricultural labor on family-owned farms to support their families’ livelihoods. Despite often contributing more labor than men, women receive less recognition and fewer financial rewards because their work is considered part of their domestic obligations rather than formal employment. Consequently, they have limited opportunities to engage in paid work that would enhance their economic standing.

2.    Restricted Access to Employment Opportunities
When job opportunities are scarce, women may be compelled to migrate in search of work. However, for mothers with young children, relocating is often not feasible due to caregiving responsibilities. This lack of mobility further restricts their employment options. Limited access to stable jobs can result in inadequate income, which negatively affects their ability to provide education, healthcare, and proper nutrition for their children. In such circumstances, the cycle of poverty often continues from one generation to the next.

3.    Prevalence of Informal Employment
Women are disproportionately represented in informal employment sectors such as domestic service, caregiving, and small-scale businesses. These jobs are typically not protected by labor laws or government regulations, leaving women vulnerable to exploitation. They often work without employment benefits, job security, or opportunities for career advancement. Due to fear of losing even these precarious jobs, women may accept poor working conditions and inadequate wages, further deepening their economic insecurity.

4.    Devaluation of Unpaid Labor
The unpaid labor that women perform, including caring for children, the elderly, and managing household chores, is frequently undervalued by society. Economically, such labor is often considered less important than jobs requiring formal education or specialized training. This societal perception reinforces women’s limited access to high-paying jobs. When women do enter the labor market, they often lack family support in managing household responsibilities, making it harder for them to advance professionally.

5.    Single-Mother Households
Single-mother families are another significant factor contributing to women’s poverty. Historically, wars and conflicts led to increased male mortality rates, leaving women to raise children alone. In modern Western societies, rising divorce rates and the growing number of women choosing not to marry have increased the number of single mothers who must support households on a single income. This financial burden often places such families at greater risk of poverty.

6.    Barriers to Education and Skill Development
In many countries where education is not compulsory or where girls face social, cultural, or financial obstacles to schooling, women are unable to acquire the skills needed for higher-paying jobs. The lack of educational opportunities significantly hampers their potential for economic advancement, restricting them to low-wage jobs with limited career prospects. This deprivation perpetuates the cycle of poverty across generations.

7.    Gender-Based Discrimination
Gender inequality in wages, property rights, and employment benefits continues to disadvantage women in many societies. The "feminization of poverty" results not only from lower incomes but also from entrenched gender biases in social, economic, and political systems. Structural barriers in both societal norms and government policies reinforce women's economic vulnerability.
Poverty is a complex, multidimensional issue that extends beyond economics into disciplines such as sociology, anthropology, history, and demography. Addressing women's poverty requires comprehensive strategies that challenge the structural inequalities causing these disparities. Without significant reforms aimed at reducing gender-based discrimination and expanding women's access to economic resources, the wealth gap between rich and poor will only continue to widen.
Self-Check Exercise 8.1
Q1. How does unpaid household and family care work contribute to women's poverty?
Q2. What challenges do women face due to limited access to stable employment opportunities?
Q3. Why are women in informal jobs more vulnerable to exploitation?

8.4    MEASURING POVERTY
Poverty is measured through several markers. The general tendency to give primacy to monetary status as the measurement of poverty does not provide a holistic picture. This is a multidimensional issue and hence needs to be measured similarly.
Gender-related Development Index (GDI), and Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) are two commonly used indices. The Gender–related Development Index measures, besides their monetary status, standards of living, levels of education and life-expectancy of men and women. The Gender Empowerment Index assesses women’s incomes, their representation in jobs government and management positions . Besides these there is also the Human Development Index which is considered an important and basic assessment.
Households that are headed by women and where there are no male earning members are counted as single mother households. Even those families where the men have migrated to other places in search of jobs, or have fallen sick and are not in a position to earn or have passed away come within this category. These are among the most susceptible to growing poverty due to several reasons. The women in these households are under familial constraints that prevent them from seeking better paid jobs away from their homes. Single women- headed households are a growing phenomenon in the world today and account significantly to the feminization of poverty .

8.4.1    Cross-Country Empirical Evidence
The first study identifying a feminization of income poverty was about the USA, covering a period from the 1950s to the 1970s. Other studies followed, some of them arguing that such a feminization did not happen in the USA in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. Likewise, studies of the UK found no evidence of a relative increase in the poverty among women or female- headed households between the 70s and 80s. In Canada, a worsening of the gender gap in poverty indicators was found for the period 1973-90 if one compares female- headed households with male-headed households but not if the focus turns to an overall women- men comparison..
Studies across developing countries show greater poverty among women- headed households in Brazil and in urban India as compared to six sub-Saharan African countries, three Asian countries and 13 other Latin American countries. A review study comparing 61 country studies revealed that in 38 of them there was an over representation of women- headed households among the poor and in 15 of them some kind of relationship between certain types of female headship and poverty. However, in 8 of these countries it did not find any such links. The conclusion of another review, based on more than 100 country studies is that only in certain countries do female-headed households consistently present worse poverty indicators.

8.4.2    India – Facts and Figures
Apart from reasons of possible feminization of poverty highlighted earlier in the paper, there are some others which are more specific to Indian society.
With ideologies of patriarchy deeply entrenched in Indian society, women’s access to family inheritance and productive assets is limited or absent. In addition, several practices and customs are still prevalent in India that symbolize the subordination of women to men, making gender-bias against women an intrinsic social issue as well. These practices deprive women of empowering information that could lead them to better their individual situations. Family support is frequently lacking as far as the aspects of improving female status is concerned since these would be in opposition to generally held patriarchal values. Thus with the overall bias against women and deeply ingrained prejudices overtly prevalent, female- headed households in India
where women are the primary earners are at a greater risk of poverty, Consequently, it is no surprise that female-headed households are poorer compared to maleheaded households. Many studies conducted on the subject in India reinforce this fact.
In India, lack of access to family property and assets, and deficient micro-credit facilities contribute to the poor economic conditions of female-headed households. Several studies have pointed out that intra- household discrimination in education against girls, which results in girls possessing less skill than boys, contributes to fewer economic opportunities for women resulting in higher poverty rates among female-headed households.
Households with single women as the head can potentially face even a higher risk of poverty because of the cultural and social stigmas attached to their marital status. For instance, a widow or a divorcee does not participate in many social functions and festivals because people perceive her presence as inauspicious. Moreover, if an employer is particularly orthodox in his or her values and beliefs, which is likely to be the case in rural India, then widows and divorcees could have fewer economic opportunities compared to married women, other things being equal. The interplay of such attitudes with socio-economic structures result in demographic indicators for females that are substantially below men in India.
Table 1: Population of India (2001 and 2011) – segregated into Males/Females and Rural/Urban
| Population | 2001 |
|---|---|
| Total | Rural | Urban |
| Males | 532,156,772 | 381,602,674 | 150,554,098 |
| (51.7) | (51.4) | (52.6) |
| Females | 496,453,556 | 360,887,965 | 135,565,591 |
| (48.3) | (48.6) | (47.4) |
| Population | 2011 |
| Total | Rural | Urban |
| Males | 632,121,843 | 427,632,643 | 195,489,200 |
| (51.5) | (51.3) | (51.8) |
| Females | 587,447,730 | 405,830,805 | 181,616,925 |
| (48.5) | (48.7) | (48.2) |


*percentages in parentheses
Population of males and females as per Census of India of 2001 and 2011 are presented in Table 1. The percentage of females has consistently been less than males in both rural and urban areas. Preference for male child emanating into greater female foeticide, infanticide can be the possible reasons for this trend. Comparison between the percentages in 2001 and 2011, however, reveal a shift to a more equal sex ratio at least in urban areas.
Figure 1: Sex Ratio – 2001 and 2011
Sex Ratio (Female per 1000 Male)
The above figure shows an overall improvement in the sex ratio between 2001 and 2011. This improvement can be attributed to significant improvement in the sex ratio in urban settlements from 900 females per 1000 males in the year 2001, to 929 in 2011.
Gender Inequality Index includes the education level and labour force participation rate for men and women. Hence, for understanding gender inequalities in the Indian context we compare female and male literacy rates, wage differentials and labourforce, workforce participation rates.
Figure 2: Total Literacy Rate (in %) – segregated into males/females
Literacy Rate
Figure 2 reveals an overall improvement in literacy rate between 2001 and 2011. The 8 percentage point improvement in total literacy rate from 65% to 73% is brought about by a rise in literacy rate among males from 75% to 81% (6 percentage points) and among females from 54% to 65% (11 percentage points) over the period 2001 to 2011.
Figure 3(a): Literacy Rate in Rural areas – Males/Females
Literacy Rate (Rural)
s 2001 s 2011
Female literacy rate improved tremendously by 12 percent points (46% to 58%) between 2001 and 2011. Male literacy rate rose by only 7 percent points and consequently, the gap between female and male literacy rates declined. However, In absolute terms, male literacy rate still remains much higher than the female literacy rate.
Figure 3(b): Literacy Rates in Urban Areas – Males/Females
Literacy Rate (Urban)
0 2001 s 2011
In urban areas, female literacy rate rose by 6 percentage points from 73% in 2001 to 79% in 2011, whereas male literacy rate increased by only 3 percentage points but was still significantly higher than female literacy rate in both 2001 (86%) and 2011 (89%).
Table 2: Labour Force Participation Rate (in %) as per Labour Bureau Survey
| Year | Male | Female |
|---|---|---|
| 2011-12 | 77.9 | 30.0 |
| 2012-13 | 77.2 | 26.5 |
| 2013-14 | 75.7 | 31.1 |
| 2015-16 | 75.5 | 27.4 |
| 2016-17 | 76.8 | 26.9 |
| 2017-18 | 75.8 | 23.3 |
| 2018-19 | 75.5 | 24.5 |
| 2020-21 | 76.8 | 30.0 |
| 2021-22 | 77.0 | 32.5 |


Source: Annual report, Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), M/o Statistics and Programme Implementation
There is a huge difference between male and female labour- force participation rates. The rates are more than double for males as those for females during the period of 2011-12.
Figure 4: Labour Force Participation Rate (in %)- Male and Female
Overall, we can see that women perform poorly compared on men on the socioeconomic indicators such as workforce participation, level of wages, as well as demographics like sex ratio, percentage of total population. Such revelations may mean greater incidence of poverty among women. Feminization of poverty, however, is a process of change in the poverty trend over time which is biased against women. To gauge an understanding of whether feminization of poverty is actually happening will require time-series data on poverty levels over a long period, since this is not a fleeting phenomenon.
Self-Check Exercise 8.2
Q1. What does the Gender-related Development Index (GDI) measure besides monetary status?
Q2. How did the sex ratio in India change between 2001 and 2011 in urban areas?
Q3. What factor contributes to the lower female literacy rate in rural India?

8.5    POLICY PRESCRIPTIONS
The Policy prescribes following actions to be taken by the government to ensure empowerment of women:

i)    Judicial Legal Systems
Legal judicial system will be made more responsive and gender sensitive to women’s needs, especially in cases of domestic violence and personal assault. New laws will be enacted and existing laws reviewed to ensure that justice is quick and the punishment meted out to the culprits is commensurate with the severity of the offence.

ii)    Decision Making
Women’s equality in power sharing and active participation in decision making, including decision making in political process at all levels will be ensured for the achievement of the goals of empowerment. All measures will be taken to guarantee women equal access to and full participation in decision making bodies at every level. Women friendly personnel policieswill also be drawn up to encourage women to participate effectively in the development process.
Policies, programmes and systems will be established to ensure mainstreaming of women’s perspectives in all developmental processes, as catalysts, participants and receipts. Wherever there are gaps in policies and programmes, women specific interventions would be undertakento bridge these.

iii)    Economic Empowerment of Women

1.    Since women comprise the majority of the population below the poverty line and are very often in situations of extreme poverty, given the harsh realities of intrahousehold and social discrimination, macroeconomic policies and poverty eradication programmes will specifically address the needs and problems of such women.

2.    In order to enhance women’s access to credit for consumption and production, the establishment of new, and strengthening of existing micro-credit mechanisms and micro finance institution will be undertaken so that the outreach of credit is enhanced.

3.    Women’s perspectives will be included in designing and implementing macroeconomic and social policies by institutionalizing their participation in such processes.

4.    Globalization has presented new challenges for the realization of the goal of women’s equality, the gender impact of which has not been systematically evaluated fully.

5.    In view of the critical role of women in the agriculture and allied sectors, as producers, concentrated efforts will be made to ensure that benefits of training,
extension and various programmes will reach them in proportion to their numbers.

6.    The important role played by women in electronics, information technology, food processing, agro industry and textiles has been crucial to the development of these sectors.

7.    The provision of support services for women, like child care facilities, including crèches at work places and educational institutions, homes for the aged and the disabled will be expanded and improved to create an enabling environment and to ensure their full cooperation in social, political and economic life.

iv)    Social Empowerment of Women

1.    Equal access to education for women and girls will be ensured. Special measures will be taken to eliminate discrimination, universalize education, eradicate illiteracy, create a gender-sensitive educational system, increase enrolment and retention rates of girls and improve the quality of education to facilitate     life-long     learning     as well     as development of
occupation/vocational/technical skills by women.

2.    A holistic approach to women’s health which includes both nutrition and health services will be adopted and special attention will be given to the needs of women and the girls at all stages of the life cycle. The reduction of infant mortality and maternal mortality, which are sensitive indicators of human development, is a priority concern.

3.    In view of the high risk of malnutrition and disease that women face at all the three critical stages viz., infancy and childhood, adolescent and reproductive phase, focused attention would be paid to meeting the nutritional needs of women at all stages of the life cycle.

4.    Special attention will be given to the needs of women in the provision of safe drinking water, sewage disposal, toilet facilities and sanitation within accessible reach of households, especially in rural areas and urban slums.

5.    Women’s perspectives will be included in housing policies, planning of housing colonies and provision of shelter both in rural and urban areas.

6.    Women will be involved and their perspectives reflected in the policies and programmes for environment, conservation and restoration. Considering the impact of environmental factors on their livelihoods, women’s participation will be ensured in the conservation of the environment and control of environmental degradation.

7.    Programmes will be strengthened to bring about a greater involvement of women in science and technology.

8.    In recognition of the diversity of women’s situations and in acknowledgement of the needs of specially disadvantaged groups,. measures and programmes will be undertaken to provide them with special assistance.

v)    Violence Against Women
All forms of violence against women, physical and mental, whether at domestic or societal levels, including those arising from customs, traditions or accepted practices shall be dealt with effectively with a view to eliminate its incidence.

vi)    Rights of the Girl Child
All forms of discrimination against the girl child and violation of her rights shall be eliminated by undertaking strong measures both preventive and punitive within and outside the family. These would relate specifically to strict enforcement of laws against prenatal sex selection and the practices of female foeticide, female infanticide, child marriage, child abuse and child prostitution etc.
vii) Mass Media
Media will be used to portray images consistent with human dignity of girls and women. The Policy will specifically strive to remove demeaning, degrading and negative conventional stereotypical images of women and violence against women.
The Policy records that the causes of gender in equality are related to social and economic structure, which is based on informal and formal norms and practices. Consequently the access of women particularly those belonging to the weaker sections including SC/ST/Other Backward Classes and minorities, majority of whom are in rural areas and in the informal, unorganized sector to education, health and productive resources is inadequate. Therefore, they remain largely marginalized, poor and socially excluded.
Self-Check Exercise 8.3

1.    What measures are proposed to make the judicial legal system more responsive to women's needs?

2.    What is meant by "mainstreaming a gender perspective in the development process"?

3.    How does the policy address the challenges posed by globalization concerning women’s equality?

8.6    SUMMARY
The concept of the feminization of poverty has long been recognized as a global issue and is commonly linked to three widely accepted notions. First, it is believed that women experience higher levels of poverty compared to men. Second, there is a perception that the proportion of women living in poverty is increasing relative to men over time. Third, this trend is often associated with the rising number of femaleheaded households, which are thought to be more vulnerable to poverty. However, empirical evidence supporting the widespread feminization of poverty remains inconclusive. Although instances of higher poverty rates among women or femaleheaded households are frequently observed, the presence of a consistent genderbased disparity in poverty trends over time is far from universal.
Researchers typically assess poverty by examining total family income or consumption and measuring whether basic needs are met within households. This aggregate figure is then divided by the number of household members to determine per capita estimates, making the household the primary unit of analysis. However, this method overlooks critical gender-based disparities, as it assumes equal resource distribution among all household members. Such an assumption is problematic from a gender perspective, as it fails to account for potential inequalities
within households. Most poverty studies rely on household-level surveys, which often ignore how income and consumption are distributed among individuals within families. Given the social and economic factors that contribute to gender inequality, there is little reason to assume that these dynamics cease to operate within the domestic sphere. Therefore, a deeper analysis that moves beyond the household level is essential to understanding the true extent of gender-based poverty.

8.7    GLOSSARY

•  “Feminisation of Poverty” means that women have a higher incidence of
poverty than men, that their poverty is more severe than that of men.

•    Gender Inequality: The unequal treatment or perception of individuals based on their gender, often manifesting in disparities in education, employment, healthcare, and political representation.

•  Patriarchy: A social system where men hold primary power, often leading to
the marginalization of women and perpetuating gender inequality.

•    Economic Empowerment: Efforts to provide women equal access to financial resources, employment, and entrepreneurship opportunities, crucial for reducing economic gender disparities.

8.8    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISE
Self-Check Exercise 8.1
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 8.3
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 8.3
Ans. Q3. Refer to Section 8.3
Self-Check Exercise 8.2
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 8.4
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 8.4
Ans. Q3. Refer to Section 8.4
Self-Check Exercise 8.3
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 8.5
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 8.5
Ans. Q3. Refer to Section 8.5

8.9    REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

•   Banarjee, S. (2005). Role of Women in Development Sector. Mangal
Publication, Jaipur.

•   Chandra, S. (2001). Women and Economic Development. B.R. Publication,
Delhi.

•    Elango, K., Perumal, A. and Raj, M. (2008). Emerging Issues in Gender and Women Development. Abhijeet Publication, New Delhi.

•    Government of India (2001). National Policy for the Empowerment of Women.

•    Jain, D. (2006). Women, Development and the UN. Orient Longman, Hyderabad.

•   Jayasuriya, S. and Jayasuriya, D.C. (1999). Women and Development- The
Road from Beijing. Har Anand Publication, New Delhi.

•   Kalpagam, U. (2011). Gender and Development in India – Current Issues.
Rawat Publication, Jaipur.

•   Ministry of Women and Child Development (MWCD), Government of India
(2020). National Gender Policy.

•   Narayana, E.A. and Lakshmi, E.V. (2011). Women development in India.
Regal Publication, New Delhi.

•   Roy, S.M. (2008). The Gender Politics of  Development. Zubaan
Publication, New Delhi.

•    Rustagi, P. (2000). Gender Development Indicators : Issues, Debates and
Ranking of Districts. CWDS, New Delhi.

•    Seth, M. (2001). Women Development. Sage Publication, New Delhi.

•    Sinha, R. (2004). Status of Women and Economic Development. RBSA Publication, Jaipur.

•    Thakur, S. (2012). Women Empowerment in Rural India. Abhijeet Publication, New Delhi.

•    United Nations (1995). Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action.

•    United Nations Development Programme (2021). Gender Inequality Index.

•    World Economic Forum (2023). Global Gender Gap Report.

8.10    TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q1. Define feminization of poverty in the context of socio-economic studies.
Q2. Discuss the key policy prescriptions for women's empowerment outlined in the policy document
Unit-09
CONCEPTUALIZING WOMEN’S WORK
STRUCTURE

9.1    Introduction

9.2   Learning Objectives

9.3   Meaning of a Worker


9.3.1    Types of worker
Self-Check Exercise-9.1

9.4    Gender Roles: Sexual Division of Labour
Self-Check Exercise-9.2

9.5    Types of Work Women Perform


9.5.1    Enumeration of Women’s Work

9.5.2    Importance of Visibility of Women’s Work

9.5.3    Situation in Context of India

9.5.4    Feminist Debates
Self-Check Exercise-9.3

9.6  Summary

9.7   Glossary

9.8   Answers to Self Check Exercises

9.9   References/ Suggested Readings

9.10  Terminal Question

9.1   INTRODUCTION
Women’s lives are unavoidably connected to their households. There are two dimensions within which they work – within households and outside them. Therefore, women’s work cannot be understood in isolation from the larger social and economic structures within which households and economies are located.
We must first of all define what constitutes ‘work’. Generally, it covers only those activities which are undertaken outside the home, and is paid for, and fall under the purview of ‘economic activity’
When one looks at work from a gender perspective, the very definition of what constitutes work becomes a contested domain. It is now widely accepted that realm of work is not a ‘gender neutral’ sphere where only qualifications, skills, performance determines a person’s entry or progression in any occupation/profession. Gender is a
valid determining factor with regards to available options and choices a person makes, wages earned and availing opportunities or upward mobility.
United Nations Organization estimates that women constitute half of the world’s population, perform two-third of the world’s work, earn one-tenth of the world’s income and own one-hundredth of world’s property. This UN statistics make it very evident that gender inequality with respect to women’s work and its valuation is grossly under enumerated.

9.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to

•    Understand the meaning of a worker.

•    explain the types of worker.

•    understand sexual division of labour.

•    explain types of work women perform.

•    estimate enumeration of women’s work.

•    explain the importance of Visibility of Women’s Work.

9.3    MEANING OF A WORKER
In 1951, Census classified ‘worker’ on the basis of income as ‘self-supporting persons’ with sufficient income for maintenance and ‘earning dependents’ with income ‘not sufficient for maintenance’.
In 1961 census, the definition of worker was changed and it was based on duration of work with/without remuneration. This ‘duration of work’ was considered more than one hour per day throughout the greater part of the working season for seasonal agricultural and household industry workers. For, ‘other workers’, the bench mark was, the duration of employment during any of the 15 days preceding the enumeration.
In 1971 census, ‘worker’ was defined as someone whose main activity was participation in productive work. All those whose main activity was domestic work were categorized as ‘non-workers’, even if these people were engaged in some productive work. From 1981 census, enumeration of ‘marginal workers’ were also recorded.
Thus, as a result of changes in definition of work/ worker, we see change in work scenario of the country. In 1961 census there was a surge in number of women workers which nosedived in 1971 census as it under reported women workers due to conceptual bias in definition of work that did not include unpaid family worker’s as workers. Census in 1981 again plumated as a much larger and more variable number of marginal women workers could be incorporated in WPR.
‘Work’ is defined as participation, which can be physical or mental in nature, in any economically productive activity, with or without receiving any kind of compensation/ wage in cash or kind. Any person engaged in ‘work’ as stated above is categorized as a ‘worker’ but mainly undertaken by women, can comprise of any of activity like unpaid
work on farm, family enterprise, cultivation, milk production even for domestic consumption or some kind of part time work, all fall under the purview of work. Work also includes effective supervision and providing direction of work. (MGSE-009, Book 1 Unit 2). Census of India categorises ‘workers’ as main workers, marginal workers, cultivators, agricultural labourers, household industry workers, and other workers. These categories are defined as follows:

9.3.1    Types of Worker:

•    Main Worker: Those who worked for major part (six months or more) of the year preceding the date of enumeration (referred to as reference period).

•    Marginal Worker: Persons who worked for less than six months of the reference period are termed as marginal workers.

•    Cultivator: A person who is engaged in cultivation of land owned by government, private institutions or persons as landlords for wages or payment in cash or kind, will fall under the category of ‘cultivator’. For a person to fall under this category, the person should be involved in activities like ploughing, sowing, harvesting and post harvesting activities of crops other than plantation crops.

•    Agriculture Laborer: A person working on somebody’s land for wages in money or kind, share basis and has no risk sharing in cultivation. This category of worker share no right in leasing, owning of the land on which s/he works.

•    Household Industry Worker: A worker who is working for an industry at home and within the precincts of the house where the household lives, in urban areas or within the village. The industry is not run at the scale of registered factory under the Indian Factories Act.

•    Other Workers: All workers who have been engaged in some economic activity during the last one year but do not fall under any of the above mentioned categories are called ‘other workers’. Other workers may be employed as government servants, municipal employees, teachers, factory workers, plantation workers, those engaged in trade/ commerce/ business, mining, construction, political or social work, priest; all fall under the category of ‘other worker’.
Self-Check Exercise-9.1
Q.1 Discuss meaning of a worker.
Q.2 Discuss various types of worker.

9.4    GENDER ROLES: SEXUAL DIVISION OF LABOUR
Different societies and cultures assign different roles and responsibilities to men and women. However, in the developed nations, today the boundary between these perceived roles and responsibilities for men and women is becoming thinner and faint. But, in not so developed and developing nations, men have more visible and recognized roles because of their association with productive and paid work than women who are engaged more in invisible work and therefore, not economically accounted for.
Men’s roles are located in public sphere whereas women’s roles relegate them to the
private space of household. However, household is the centre of the production of human resources. It is within the household that human resources are primarily reproduced and maintained. By and large, human beings are ‘privately’ produced within the household. Further, the women play an important role in production. Due to biological reasons, the onus of reproduction lies with the woman. And, due to a sexual division of household labour along gender lines, the maintenance of human resources also becomes their prime responsibility.
Women work and they have always worked. However, the larger and common understanding of work which relates it to the labour market and to remuneration, excludes both women and their contribution to society. It is the conceptualization of what constitutes ‘work’ that determines the value and worth attributed to women. Issues related to women’s work relate to women’s activities both within and outside the household. However, several issues originate from structures that are set within households. Hence, it becomes imminent to begin with analysis of women’s role in the household, that closely shapes the discrimination they face in the labour market at home.
The ideology of patriarchy, determines a sexual division of labour which assigns to women the prime responsibility of care of all the members of the household – men, children, the aged and the ill. In an extended family, hierarchy allocates a different status to each member and the work-burden is determined accordingly. There is also a hierarchical placing among women of extended families. This placing operates at levels different from those that are found in the world of only men and those of all the members, men and women together. The extent to which women’s work will extend to geographical locations outside the household is determined by caste, class, ethnicity, age and religion.
Self-Check Exercise-9.2
Q.1 Write a short Note on sexual division of Labour.

9.5    TYPES OF WORK WOMEN PERFORM
Women have always contributed to a nation’s social-economic development, both in direct manner by taking up work outside of home and indirectly by facilitating supply of labour and its maintenance. But, both in developed and developing nations, women are laden with cumulative inequalities that result from discriminatory cultural and socioeconomic practices that regulate the status of women in society.
The chores and activities that women generally carry out do not fetch any income to the family. These tasks, perceived as their natural roles, are related to their reproductive and community resource management roles which are not economically productive, thus, not recognized and valued. In many societies women also carry out productive work but are not paid for it remain confined to family activities. Therefore, women’s contributions to national economies do not qualify for accounting, making it invisible.
Work performed by women can be placed under the following categories;

•   Productive/unproductive work

•   Visible/invisible work

•  Paid/unpaid work

•   Economically/socially productive work
Unpaid work can be defined as work that does not receive any direct remuneration. It can be of two categories:

•    Unpaid work falling within the production boundary of UN System of National Accounting (SNA). That is to say, unpaid work that is covered under the purview of national income accounts. It is also referred to as unpaid SNA work’ which includes subsistence production, work performed by unpaid family workers employed in family enterprise and work such as collection of fuel and fodder.

•    Unpaid work lying outside the production boundary but falling within the general production boundary is referred to as unpaid non-SNA work that includes household management, care related activities and unpaid community services.
Feminists question women’s association with housework as oppressing as it remains unpaid and thus, invisible. But, debate on household labour hang on the precincts of drawing a line between ‘work’ and ‘nature’, where roles and activities like rearing children, housekeeping, educating children when performed by women in the family are called her ‘nurturing roles’ and not ‘work’. Since, nonmarket activity does not have a clear criterion to distinguish work from non-work, nor ‘necessary’ from ‘non-necessary’ social labour, an arbitrary element seems to creep in that makes standards of fairness difficult to apply to gendered bargains between men and women dividing up waged and non waged work. (Barret, 1980, c.f.MGSE-009, Book 1, p.39)

9.5.1    Enumeration of Women’s Work
As per ILO’s (2008) estimation, worldwide, there are only 66.9 economically active women for every 100 economically active men. The report further indicates that a large share of work (excluding house work) undertaken by women throughout the world, does not directly contribute to family income. It has been seen that while sexual division of labour was a basic feature within the home, it also extend outside into the market as well. When women move into the market for employment, they face discrimination on three accounts:

•  income differentials for the same work done as men;

•  overcrowding into certain jobs that are seen as suited to women; and

•    Innate biases of employers against hiring women as employees.
In India, housework came into focus as a problem first with studies that drew attention to the ‘double burden’ that women face in housework and market-related work. The care of the aged, the disabled and the sick is also the responsibility of women within households. In economies which are governed by the market, social security being
minimal or even non-existent, women’s contribution in the care economy becomes critical. The connection between the care economy and the market economy is the missing link and since this is not recognized, it hides from view the contribution of women’s work.
Attempts were made to capture empirically what exactly women’s work is and how it contributes to the economy. Gaps in data, data gathering processes and data presentation, reflect the inherent male bias in viewing women’s work as supplementary and secondary. In a pioneering work, in 1976-77, Devaki Jain and Malini Chand discussed the implications of domestic work for the enumeration of workers in data collection processes. Micro time-use studies were conducted to ascertain women’s domestic work. You have read in the earlier section that at the national level, the two major sources of data for employment figures are the Census surveys carried out every ten years and the National Sample Surveys (NSS). Over the period of time, definitions, reference periods and procedures for counting ‘workers’ has differed. Hence, the employment rate of women has been found to be highly sensitive to the definition and method of data collection.
The major cause for under-enumeration has been located in the ideology of the ‘man’ as the breadwinner and ‘head of the household’ with the implication that women’s work is secondary and supplementary. In particular, attention has been drawn to the role of women in the informal sector of the economy. The process of strengthening the information base on women is however far from complete. Gaps result from various sources, decisions taken at the stage of planning and designing the data collection effort, as also from decisions taken at the stage of processing, tabulation and enumeration. Census provides profile of whole population while NSSO provides exhaustive data set on large samples.
Let us now read why it is important to make women’s work more visible. But before reading further, attempt the following exercise to assess your understanding of the last couple of sections. The following section focuses on why it is important that the work women perform should become visible.

9.5.2    Importance of Visibility of Women’s Work
To account for visibility of women’s work is important from the perspective of their rights and also for actuality and correctness of estimation. The invisibility, unproductivity and unpaid nature of women’s work push them to a marginalized position in a capitalist society and accord lower status. Thus, on one hand, invisibility of women’s work leads to lapse in policy implications where their contribution is marginalized, making her a ‘dependent’ economic entity. On the other hand, women face oppression as a result of performing work that is not directly adding to family income. Thus, women face ‘double whammy’ as a consequence of her invisibility of work due to conceptual as well as operational biases. Even when they take up work outside of the private space, they are abundantly absorbed in those sectors/ services where the benefit of economic activity is not accrued to women employees.

9.5.3    Situation in context of India
In India, to understand why and where women get employment, one has to account for
the growth pattern of the Indian economy. In India, planning emerged soon after Independence and the model adopted was that of a mixed economy. The state and the market emerged as the two strongest institutions against which the household was pitted. Over time, the trajectory of planning led to growth that did not absorb women into mainstream employment channels. They were instead crowed into the informal sector, into household-based traditional sectors and into subsistence agricultural activities. Ironically, all these sectors of our economy remain marginalized in our national accounting system. Reasons of ‘statistical invisibility’ of women in labour force, can be listed as:

•    Cultural bias of a respondent who is generally the male head of the household and regarding women working outside of home a shame for the formerly, resulting in under reporting.

•    Biased data collection where interviewer’s bias creeps in or it can be faulty construction of the questionnaire.

•    Dominance of domestic work leading to under reporting of other types of work.

•    Invisibility of women’s contribution in income generating activities at premarketing and non-monetized stage as in case of agriculture, poultry, animal husbandry, weaving cottage industry and other such activities.

•    Merger of production for self-consumption and production for sale.

9.5.4    Feminist Debates
Feminists, over time, have made attempts through several paradigms to attribute worth to the work that women do. Various methods have been tried to measure this value. Data systems have been challenged and data collection processes have been altered to incorporate women’s work. Beginning with the classical economists, one finds that both political economists and their critiques shared a deep prejudice against the labour performed by women. Both schools of thoughts tend to consider wage labour as the only true yardstick of all labour performed under capitalism.
Karl Marx went beyond the classical political economists but he also did not realize the other unpaid component of labour which was in housework. Marxian analysis of women’s work closely linked it to the capitalistic mode of production. Some of the questions raised were:

•    Is housework productive or unproductive?

•    How should we understand the production of labour, both biological and social?

•    Do women produce a surplus through housework?
Feminists connected this ideology to the Marxian framework and showed how sexual division of labour extended from within the house to outside it. They showed that when women began working outside the house, there were income differentials for the same work, there was overcrowding of women within certain low paying sectors, women often found themselves doing jobs akin to those they did within the house and employers were biased against women labour.
Heidi Hartman and Ann R. Marusen (1980) provide a feminist critique of contemporary
Marxist theory and practice. Such critique produces a model of power, production and exchange within the family, with consequences for capitalist social relations, contributing towards an understanding of patriarchy.
Reformist feminism brought out a number of situational analyses of the working conditions of rural women, whereas socialist feminists focused upon the conditions of women’s wage labour, decentralization of production and informalisation of the labour market. There have also been alternative framework’s to analyse women’s work.
Amartya Sen (1990) presented the bargaining and entitlement theses and concept of ‘cooperative conflict’. With a theory of entitlements, Sen shows a woman’s opportunity to get employment outside the home as one of the crucial variables that give her a better fall back position, a better ability to use and deal with threats and a higher ‘perceived contribution’ to the family’s economics position.
Self-Check Exercise-9.3
Q.1 Discuss various types of work that women perform.
Q.2 Discuss importance of women’s work.

9.6    SUMMARY
Women’s work may be for the market or for the consumption of members of the household. Work for the market may be located within the premises of the household or outside of it. Their work may receive economic remuneration or else it may generate goods and services which would otherwise have had to be bought from the market. Their work contributes towards the production and maintenance of human beings within the household in immense measure. It is important to recognize and value not only the economic contributions of women, but also their social contributions like care of children, sick and elderly people and other activities women undertake for the family and the community.

9.7    GLOSSARY

•    Main Worker: A person who has worked for the major part (six months or more) of the year preceding the census reference period. These workers are engaged in productive activities regularly for most of the year.

•    Marginal Worker: A worker who was employed for less than six months during the reference period. Their contribution to economic activities is considered sporadic or part-time.

•  Cultivator: A person involved in cultivating land, either owned or leased, and
engaged in agricultural activities like plowing, sowing, and harvesting. This category also includes those working for wages or payment in kind.

•    Agricultural Laborer: An individual working on someone else's land for wages or in-kind payments, without any stake in the land’s ownership or leasing. They do not share risks in cultivation.

•    Household Industry Worker: A worker involved in small-scale production within the household premises, not covered by formal industry laws like the Indian Factories Act. This category often includes traditional crafts and home-based industries.

9.8    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISES
Self-Check Exercise 9.1
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 9.3
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 9.3.1
Self-Check Exercise 9.2
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 9.4
Self-Check Exercise 9.3
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 9.5
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 9.5.2

9.9    REFERENCES/ SUGGESTED READINGS

•    Abraham, V. (2013) Missing Labour or Consistent ‘De-Feminisation’? Economic and Political Weekly, 48 (31).

•    Deshmukh, R.J. (2002). Women’s Work and Family Strategies in South and South-East Asia. New Delhi: Center for Women’s Development Studies and Rainbow.

•    Hartmann, H.I. and Markusen, A.R. (1980). Women as a Reserve Army of Labour: A Critique. Review of Radical Political Economics, 15(1), Spring.

•    Himanshu. (2011). Employment Trend in India: A Re-examination. Economic and Political Weekly, 46(37).

•    IGNOU (2014).Gender Issues in Work, MGSE-009, Block 1 Unit 2

•    Jain, D. (1985). The Household Trap. A Report on a Field Survey of Female Activity Patterns, in Devaki J. and Nirmala B. (Eds), The Tyranny of the Household. Investigative Essays on Women’s Work. New Delhi: Shakti Books.

•    Krishnaraj, Maithreyi (2000) Women’s Perspectives on Public Policy in India. Gender, Technology and Development. May- August.

•    Mazumdar, I. and Neetha, N. (2011). Gender Dimensions Employment Trends in India, 1993-94 to 2009-10, EPW, XLVI, 43

•    National Sample Survey Office. (2006). Employment and Unemployment Situation in India 2004-05, Part 1, 61st Round.

•  National Sample Survey Office. (2011). Key Indicators of Employment and
Unemployment in India 2009- 10, 66th Round.

•  National Sample Survey Office. (2013). Key Indicators of Employment and
Unemployment in India 2011- 12, 68th Round.

•    Patel, V. (2014). Economics of Gender and Development, Mumbai: Centre for Distance Education, SNDT Women’s University.

•    Quick, P. (1977). The Class Nature of Women’s Oppression. Review of Radical Political Economics, 9 (3), Fall.

•    Sen, A. (1999). Development as Freedom. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

•    Shaw, A. (2013). Comparing NSSO’s Employment Surveys-A Methodological Note, Economic and Political Weekly, 48(30).

9.10    TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q.1 Discuss the meaning and types of a worker. Also discus types of work that women perform.
Q.2 Discuss the importance of women’s work. Discuss situation in context of India.
UNIT-10
PRODUCTIVE AND REPRODUCTIVE WORK
Structure

10.1    Introduction

10.2    Learning Objectives

10.3    Traditional Discourses- Women and Work
Self-Check Exercise-10.1

10.4    Contemporary Discourses- Feminist Economics Self-Check Exercise-10.2

10.5    Productive and Unproductive Work


10.5.1    Productive work of Women

10.5.2    Reproductive Work
Self-Check Exercise-10.3

10.6    Paid Work and Unpaid Work: Feminist Discourses
Self-Check Exercise-10.4

10.7    Necessity of Measurement and Valuation of Productive and Reproductive work Self-Check Exercise-10.5

10.8    International Measurement


10.8.1    Unpaid Economic Work

10.8.2    Satellite Accounts of Unpaid Work

10.8.3    Methods of Valuation of Unpaid Work

10.8.4    Input Method

10.8.5    Output Method

10.8.6    Data Sources

10.8.7    Time Use Surveys
Self-Check Exercise-10.6

10.9    Interpreting Time Use Data in India

10.10    Implications of Time Use Statistics for Public Investment

10.11    Link between Public Infrastructure and Time Allocation
Self-Check Exercise-10.7

10.12    Government Employment Guarantee Programmes and Time Allocation of Women

10.13    Summary

10.14    Glossary

10.15    Answers to Self-Check Exercises

10.16    References/Suggested Readings

10.17    Terminal Questions

10.1    INTRODUCTION
Students, this Unit starts with traditional and contemporary discussion with regards to women’s work followed by a section on what constitutes productive work of women and how reproductive function performed by women contribute to market activities and production process. In the next section you will read feminist discourses on paid and unpaid care work that is mostly performed by women, especially in developing economies and Third World countries. In the last part of this unit you will read about importance and necessity of measurement and valuation of productive and reproductive work followed by international methods to measure women’s work. Before reading further, read the objectives of studying this Unit.

10.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you will be able to:

•    Describe importance of productive and reproductive work carried out by women;

•    Explain feminist perspective to evaluation of work done by women; and

•    Discuss importance methods of ascertaining value of women’s work and contribution to national economy.

10.3    TRADITIONAL DISCOURSES — WOMEN AND WORK
Early discourses on women and work can be traced by unraveling the discipline of economics and its theoretical background. Traditional economic theories are based on the assumption that family is the basic economic unit. Individuals are free agents and they have rational choices. There can be two spheres of work economic realm and household realm. The economic realm focused on buyers, sellers, market whereas the household realm positions itself on the range of unpaid work that is necessary for the functioning of economic realm. Items that are sold in market are only counted as production and hence household realm was outside the purview of economic realm. A rational man makes maximum profit as a producer and maximises utility as a consumer.
In economic realm, work is any activity or expenditure of energy, that produces services and products of value to other people. Although Work can be performed without wages, salaries, or income. Economically speaking, labor market work is strictly work performed for a wage. These terms are then tied to the term production. Work is productive, if and only if, profits are produced. By that logic, if man marries his cook, national income will reduce as wife is not paid for cooking.
The capitalist system regard women merely as a convenient source of cheap labour and part of the ‘reserve army of labour’ to be drawn on when there is a shortage of labour in certain areas of production and discarded again when the need disappears. We saw this during both World Wars, when women were drafted into factories to replace men who had been called up into the army and then sent back home when the war ended. Women were again encouraged to enter the workplaces during the period of capitalist upswing of 1950s and 1960s, when their role was analogous to that of the immigrant workers as a reservoir of cheap labour.
Throughout its history, capitalism has proved adept at causing patterns of labour supply to change in accordance with demand, and this is particularly so in the case of female
labour. In all societies, and particularly in developing countries, there remain essential but usually unpaid activities such as cooking, cleaning and other housework, provisioning of basic household needs, child care, care of the sick and the elderly, as well as community-based activities. These are largely seen as the responsibility of women. This pattern of unpaid work tends to exist even when women are engaged in outside work for an income, whether as wage workers or self-employed workers. Women from poor families who are engaged in outside work as well, usually cannot afford to hire others to perform these tasks, so most often these are passed on to young girls and elderly women within the household, or become a ‘double burden’ of work for such women. These processes are also integral into capitalism. The production of both use value products and exchange value products by women is essential for the accumulation process, and if anything this reliance has become even more marked in recent years (Ghosh, 2013).
Women have been the traditional household producers and the traditional subsistence farmers but receive no pay for their work. It was quite simple for economists to leave them out of any economic analysis. A large amount of research has been conducted showing that ‘nonproductive’ and domestic work not only make a contribution to, but are a very necessary part of any nation’s economy. It has been estimated that if unpaid household work and subsistence agriculture were incorporated into an economic analysis, the amount of global production would increase by a third (United Nations Development Programme 1990, p. 32).
According to Carrasco (2001) the production of goods and services that takes place in the domestic sphere or that is channelled through unpaid work (for example, voluntary work) has been made invisible and, ultimately, has been considered as non-work, by confusing production with production for the market and work with employment.
Thus, the original definition of work is restricted to include only those activities that present the characteristics of the labour market. Gorz (1995) states that the notion of work as we understand it today is an invention of industrial capitalism(Cited in Celebriti and Misa 2009).
Self-Check Exercise-10.1
Q.1 Discuss the Traditional discourses on women and work.

10.4    CONTEMPORARY DISCOURSES — FEMINIST ECONOMICS
The assumptions of traditional economics had devastating consequences on women. Feminist economics grew in response to the restricted and inadequate view of ‘the economy’ offered by mainstream scholarship. The dissatisfaction stemmed from two key elements.

•    One was the fact that mainstream economics traditionally privileged the monetized aspects of the economy, while ignoring the sphere of ‘social reproduction’ or ‘unpaid work’, which included both subsistence production (particularly significant in much of the developing world) and unpaid care (for family, friends and neighbours) that kept the social fabric together.

•    The second element of dissatisfaction shared by other heterodox economists, whether from a structuralist, political economy or human development perspective—concerned the validity and usefulness, for rich countries as well as poor ones, of the ne-o classical assumption of ‘rational choice’ as a model of individual behaviour and of the broader macro economy and society.
One strand of thinking within economics that did not ignore the unpaid/ invisible sphere of social life, but that, nevertheless, analysed it with limited ne-oclassical analytical tools, was the ‘new home economics’ (NHE) pioneered by Gary Becker and colleagues. The result was a problematic view of family relations that was premised on heroic assumptions (altruism on the part of the head of household), ignored power relations and inequalities (in welfare outcomes and in access to income and assets) and produced circular arguments like, women specialize in homemaking because they earn less in the market, and they earn less in the market because of their household responsibilities. The main argument to take from this brief reference to the NHE is that, that feminist economics was not only critical of the fact that neo-classical economics ignored the invisible and unpaid sphere of social reproduction, and even when it did turn its gaze to this realm, its analytical tools effectively dissolved all differences between an idealized market sphere (found in textbooks) and the social sphere.
Self-Check Exercise-10.2
Q.1 Discuss contemporary discourses of feminist economics.

10.5    PRODUCTIVE AND REPRODUCTIVE WORK
In this context one of the key challenges for feminist economics was to make visible the so-called invisible or unpaid economy. Let us read how do the two labelled as productive and reproductive work affect women’s status in society.

10.5.1   Productive Work of Women
The tendency to highlight the unpaid economic work has a long-standing history within the debates on gender and development, going back to the Women in Development (WID) tradition and the work of the Danish economist Ester Boserup. From the perspective of the WID advocates, the importance of Boserup’s book (Women’s Role in Economic Development in 1970) was that, it challenged the assumptions of the ‘welfare approach’ and highlighted women’s importance to the agricultural economy. SubSaharan Africa, in particular, was singled out as the great global area of ‘female farming systems’ in which women using traditional hoe technology assumed a substantial responsibility for food production.
Moreover, Boserup posited a positive correlation between the role women played in agricultural production and their status vis-à-vis men. One reason why Boserup’s research was picked up so enthusiastically by WID advocates was that it helped to reject the narrow view of women’s roles as mothers and wives, which underpinned much of earlier development policy vis-à-vis women. In general, a great effort was made to distinguish WID from women’s programmes that were carried out under the rubric of health or social welfare. Instead of characterizing women as needy beneficiaries, WID arguments represented women as productive members of society.

10.5.2    Reproductive Work
One of the most pervasive themes of the present feminist movement is the emphasis placed on the role of reproduction as a determinant of women’s work, the sexual division of labor, and the subordinate/ dominant relationships between women and men.
The emphasis on reproduction and on analysis of the household sphere indicates that the traditional focus placed upon commodity production is insufficient to understand women’s work and its roots in patriarchal relations. In order to fully understand the nature of gender discrimination at work, women’s wages, their participation in the development process, and implications for political action, analysts must re-examine the two areas of production and reproduction as well as the inter linkage between them. An example here is the internal labour market model of gender differentials in the work force. This model represents a step forward from neo-classical explanations of women’s secondary status in the labor market. It focuses on the internal organization of the capitalist firm to explain sex segregation and wage differentials, rather than on factors of supply and demand developed by other models. The dynamics of this internal organization tend to foster the formation of job ladders and clusters that create hierarchies among workers. Sex is one factor by which workers can be separated. In this model, occupational segregation, wage differentials, and other types of discrimination by sex are viewed as resulting from the hierarchical and self- regulatory structure of production.
Two policy implications can be drawn from this model:

•    Radical policy would involve elimination of the hierarchical structure of production, perhaps by some form of workers’ control and equalization of wages. To the extent that this would eliminate or reduce differences among workers, it would tend to eliminate or reduce differences by sex.

•    A less radical policy would involve equal opportunity and affirmative action plans that take the structure of production and the labour hierarchy as given, but would make each job equally accessible to men and women.
Both of these policies have a major flaw. They focus only on the structure of production and do not take into consideration women’s role in the area of reproduction. If women face a double day and if child-care facilities are also not available to them, neither of the two policies are likely to fully solve the problem of women’s secondary status in the labor market.
Within the Marxist tradition, it is interesting to note that Engels thesis does contain an analysis of the interaction between reproduction and production. His view of the origins of women’s subordination links the productive sphere to the introduction of private property in the means of production and the need to pass it on from one generation to the next-through reproduction, that is, with the need to identify paternity of heirs through the institution of the family and the control of women’s sexuality and reproductive activities. The Engels thesis can be projected to situations, such as those prevalent in industrialized societies, where large segments of the population do not own the means of production, but where there still is a hierarchy and class differences within the property less classes. Engels himself did not extend the analysis in that direction. For
him, as for Marx, the production of means of subsistence and the reproduction of human beings are the two fundamental levels of human activity. However, both Engels and Marx assumed that the elimination of private property and women’s participation in commodity production, made possible by industrialization, would set the preconditions for their emancipation. Thus, the initial connection between production and reproduction found in Engel’s thesis became blurred with the assumption that transformation of productive structures would automatically erase women’s oppression.
Traditional Marxist thinking and traditional leftist and liberal politics have followed a similar pattern. The new emphasis on reproduction is the result of the questions posed by feminists. It can be viewed as an elaboration of the simplifications inherent in Engel’s initial formulation. A variety of recent studies on women in Third World countries have focused on the interaction between production and reproduction to analyze women’s work. Maria Mies’s (1981) study of Indian women lace makers in Narsapur, Andhra Pradesh, for example, shows how the seclusion of women has conditioned their participation in non-household production. Although lace making is a ‘producing’ industry geared toward the international market, it is highly compatible with seclusion and domestic work. Women are engaged in lace making as much as six to eight hours a day, in addition to their household chores. Their average daily earnings amount to less than a third of the official minimum wage for female agricultural laborers. This situation persists even though the industry has grown considerably since 1970 and represents a very high proportion of the foreign exchange earnings from handicrafts in the region. Many of the women are the actual breadwinners in their families. Mies argues that this highly exploitative system has in fact led to greater class differentiation within local communities as well as greater polarization between the sexes. The system is made possible by the ideology of seclusion that rigidly confines women to the home, eliminates their opportunities for outside work, and makes them willing to accept extremely low wages.
Self-Check Exercise-10.3
Q.1 Discuss Productive and Reproductive work of a woman.

10.6    PAID WORK AND UNPAID CARE WORK: FEMINIST DISCOURSES
There have been important debates within feminist economics on how to conceptualize the connections between the sphere of market-based capital accumulation (the commodity economy), on the one hand, and that of non- market based social reproduction (the unpaid care economy) (Razvi, 2007).
In the context of ‘fiscal restraint’ and the creeping commercialization of public welfare services (through the imposition of ‘user fees’ and other charges), it is argued that the cost of providing care was being increasingly shifted from the monetized public sector to the unpaid care sector. For example, changes in the organization of the health sector, which were leading to shorter stays of patients in hospitals—essentially cost- saving devices for the public sector, were being matched by longer periods of convalescence at home and greater expenditure of non-monetized resources on patient care.
At the same time, structural adjustment policies also favoured the production of ‘tradable’ goods, be it agricultural commodities or manufactured products. This too,
often translates into an intensified demand for female labour, especially in the context of economic crisis that was pushing large numbers of women into the paid work force (especially of the informal kind) as a way of countering the drop in real wages of other earners in the household. Women, it is argued, are the ones who take on a disproportionate share of the costs of ‘adjustment’ through the intensification of both their paid and unpaid work, with adverse implications on their physical and mental health.
The tensions between the commodity economy and the unpaid care economy become particularly stark during periods of economic crisis, with adverse implications for women. The process of capital accumulation even in successful development episodes such as in East Asia in the 1960s and 1970s, engenders a potential trade-off with levels of non-market output. Exports are needed as a way of generating foreign exchange (to avoid long- run aid dependency), through agriculture as well as diversification of exports toward manufactures and services. Countries that have grown rapidly (in East Asia, for example) have managed such diversification, typically by increasing exports of garments and electronic products, which are often produced by employing ‘cheap’ female labour. The basic problem here is that a sustainable capital accumulation process requires an increase in marketed output to generate tax revenue and foreign exchange. But this may be at the expense of production of non-marketed output. Also, extending the working day cuts into time for sleep, leisure and self-care, with adverse implications for human capabilities.
Self-Check Exercise-10.4
Q.1 Distinguish between paid and unpaid work.

10.7    NECESSITY OF MEASUREMENT AND VALUATION of PRODUCTIVE AND REPRODUCTIVE WORK
Though capitalist economies considered “the appropriation of time as a foundational and permanent element in social relations under capitalism, the time allocated to caretaking and re- production is not factored into the analysis of the relationship between productive and reproductive work. Even in Marxist analyses, reproduction is examined as merely a substratum of the production process.” (Avila 2007, p. 132). In the space-time relationship between productive and reproductive work, only the time allocated to productive work is considered valuable. Housework is therefore a key element in the process of reproduction of labourers from which surplus value is taken. Since it is usually women who do housework, it has been observed that it is through the reproduction of the labour force that women are incorporated into the surplus value nexus, which is the sine qua non of capitalism. (Rubin 1998, p. 20). Feminist economic theory has developed the concept of ‘care economy’ to refer to the space where the labour force is reproduced and maintained, including all those activities that involve cooking and cleaning tasks, housekeeping in general, and caring for children, the sick and the disabled.
A large part of the activities in the care economy are performed within the sphere of the family. This is especially so in the Third World where particularly, they are performed by women, who receive no pay for their work. This is complemented by services provided
by the public and private sectors, which make up the paid care economy. (Salvador, 2007)
The role played by the state as care provider will determine the load of care assigned to family, volunteer labour, and/or the market. If no public policies are in place to regulate the care economy and its distribution, the family is disproportionately burdened (particularly in the case of women who must pull double or triple work shifts) and the possibilities of social advancement for low-income women are limited (Salvador, 2007). With the publication of ‘The Economics of Household Production’ by Margret Reid articulating the ‘third person’ criteria, a consistent basis was provided for distinguishing productive activity from other non- economic activity in economies not organised for the market. The test was simply whether a given activity could be performed by a person other than the person receiving the benefit. Thus, cooking was a productive activity, eating was not. Logically, if an activity can be performed by someone else, then it is theoretically possible to pay them for it. That is, there is a potential market for that good or service. For instance, it makes little sense to pay someone to watch TV for you because you will not receive the benefit. However, it is possible to pay someone to prepare food for you, or more controversially, to have sex with you. Thus, these services are at least potentially marketable. This ‘third person’ criteria has been adopted as standard in most studies which seeks to value non-market production.
It is the concept of ‘Third person’ criteria represented an important challenge to Western notions of development, and it was a feminist challenge in as much as Boserup showed that it was women who did most of the subsistence work. Yet, her case for counting many of these women’s activities was that they were part of subsistence production, not that women’s household labour was productive. However, this latter argument was taken up by the feminist movement. Ann Oakley’s foundational work in the early 1970s was followed by a series of studies which clearly saw housework as work, as productive and as done mainly by women. Nearly forty years later, the figures still show that women do about twice as much unpaid household work as men.
By 1975, OECD statistician Derek Blades was able to survey some 70 countries’ attempts to incorporate subsistence agricultural production into GDP. However, while noting that women’s traditional domestic role made the division between domestic and subsistence activities unclear, he found the case for including women’s domestic labour ‘considerably weaker’ than for subsistence production.
The feminist critique of national accounts has been carried in various international fora, most notably with the recommendation from the UN Conference on Women in 1985. It was reaffirmed at Beijing in 1995, to measure and value unpaid work. But it was Marilyn Waring who popularised the feminist critique of the SNA with her landmark book, Counting for Nothing (1988).Using examples from all over the world, Waring ridiculed the system which classified women as ‘economically inactive’ women, who worked long hours providing the basic necessities of life, while valuing as (welfare enhancing) ‘growth’ the ‘work’ of the men in the missile silos with their fingers on the nuclear button.
In the last section of this Unit you will read about how women’s work, both productive and non-reproductive is measured internationally.
Self-Check Exercise-10.5
Q.1 What is the necessity of measurement and valuation of productive and reproductive work ?

10.8    INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS FOR MEASUREMENT
According to the United Nations System of National Accounts of 1993 (SNA), which provides the conceptual framework that sets the international statistical standard for the measurement and classification of economic activities, some unpaid work activities are deemed ‘economic work’ and, much like paid work, are considered to belong within the ‘SNA production boundary.’ Other unpaid work activities are classified as ‘noneconomic.’

10.8.1    Unpaid Economic Work
SNA 1993 convention indicates that the unpaid economic work can be measured and included in annual estimates of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). These unpaid, economic work pertain to: (a) production of fixed assets for household use, such as building a house; (b) subsistence production work, such as crop cultivation, animal husbandry, forestry and fishery for own use; (c) collection of basic necessities, like water and fuel wood from common or private lands; (d) collection of raw materials for income generating activities like crafts and other manufacturing; and (e) activities such as unpaid family work for crop production that reaches the market , as well as animal grazing, agro-processing, and food processing for sale. Accordingly, unpaid economic work consists of activities in procuring inputs and producing for own use, as well as for the market. In practice, data collection gaps make measurement and inclusion of many of the above mentioned activities in National Income and Product Accounts very difficult. Other types of unpaid work are deemed by the SNA (1993) to be ‘noneconomic’ and are relegated outside the SNA production boundary. Non-SNA unpaid work, often referred to as work that falls ‘outside the SNA production boundary,’ consists of household maintenance, cleaning, washing, cooking, shopping, providing care for infants and children (active and passive care), care for the permanently ill or temporarily sick (as well as for older relatives and the disabled), and all volunteer work for community services. Recognizing these as contributing to society but not to the ‘economy,’ the SNA recommendation is that parallel (satellite) accounts to the National Income and Product Accounts (GDP) should be constructed.

10.8.2    Satellite Accounts of Unpaid Work or Extended SNA (ESNA)
In 1993 SNA formally recognized that non-SNA (ESNA) activities are productive and they contribute to well-being. It has therefore recommended to measure these activities in a satellite account, which is linked to the main national account. This satellite account should use the same concepts whenever possible. That is, this account will be an extension of the national accounts to include unpaid household services and voluntary services of men and women in a system of household accounts.

10.8.3    Methods of Valuation of Unpaid Work
Valuation of unpaid work can be done either by valuing the labour input that has gone in to the work or by valuing the output generated by the work. The former is known as the
input method or a wage based valuation and the latter is known as the output method or product based valuation.

10.8.4    Input Method: Under the input method, the value of unpaid work at the individual level is computed by multiplying the time spent by the person on unpaid work with an appropriate wage rate. At the aggregate level, the total time spent on unpaid work is multiplied by a set of appropriate wage rates.
The selection of the wage rate is a very critical issue here. Two types of wage rates may be used:

•    Replacement wage rate i.e. the wage paid to a person who produces a similar service in the market, or

•    The opportunity cost, i.e. the wage rate forgone by the person who is performing the unpaid work.
The market replacement wage rate can either be a generalist rate (for example, wage rate of a housekeeper) or can be specialist rates. The generalist wage rate could be the wage of a domestic paid worker, as prevailing in the local market. The specialist wage rates of different specialized activities comparable with the relevant domestic activities.
The opportunity cost, the forgone wages by the persons engaged in unpaid work are calculated on the basis of the age, education and qualification of domestic workers. Valuation of unpaid work based on the opportunity cost determines the values looking at the person (education, age, qualification) and not at the activity.

10.8.5    Output Method: Under the output method, value of unpaid work is calculated by multiplying the units of output with the wage rate per unit of output. The direct valuation of unpaid work by the output approach would need data on the output of the unpaid work, such as the number of meals prepared, number of clothes washed and ironed, area of house cleaned, children taught etc as well as the data on the wage rate per unit of output, such as the labour charge of each meal prepared, charge per item of clothing washed and ironed, labour charge per child cared etc (Hirway,2005).

10.8.6    Data Sources
The data needed for compiling the input-output tables can be:

•  household time use surveys (for labour inputs and outputs) – with additional
information on outputs,

•  household expenditure surveys – for household expenditure on raw materials,
capital goods etc, and

•  supplementary information on the relevant prices and wages (for example, the
prices of meals, child care etc).
Like the input- output tables of the SNA, the household input-output tables present the activity structure of the household sector of the economy and present the uses of intermediate commodities, labour and capital in each type of productive activity undertaken by the households by unpaid labour and own capital. Thus, household input- output tables can form the basis of a set of accounts for the ESNA activities of households.

10.8.7    Time Use Surveys
Time Use Survey has been an effective tool in unfolding the statistical invisibility of unpaid work across countries. Time Use data helps in public policy making at both macro level and micro level. At macro level, time use data have been used in the construction of augmented economic and social accounting systems (conventional economic accounting systems provide only the productive activity in market economy and ignores the productive use of nonmarket time and leisure). At micro level, intra household behavioral models are built using the time use data, which has implications in terms of fiscal policy. For instance, studies have focussed on the use of non- market time in childcare and in the care of elderly, intra household division of labour, analysis of leisure activities and time stress, set of production activities etc.
Self-Check Exercise-10.6
Q.1 Discuss various international standards for measuring unpaid work.

10.9    INTERPRETING TIME USE DATA IN INDIA
Time Use Surveys (TUS) are increasingly accepted for getting better statistics on the size of the labour force of a country, as well as the contribution of women to the economy. The recent major macro level TUS conducted in six major states, viz., Gujarat, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya, Orissa and Tamil Nadu, during July 1998 to June 1999 by the Central Statistical Organization of India is a pioneering attempt not only in South Asia, but also among developing countries. This large scale Survey of 18,591 households in India gives a better understanding of how time is allocated across gender in the economy and provides some insight into the extent of statistical invisibility of women’s work in India. The TUS covered all members of the household aged 6 years and above.
The TUS in India categorized activities into three classes: SNA activities (that get included in GDP calculations), extended SNA activities (that do not get included in GDP but should be included in the satellite accounts) and residual non-SNA activities.
In the following section, you will read about how time use statistics may affect policy formulation.

10.10    IMPLICATIONS OF TIME USE STATISTICS FOR PUBLIC INVESTMENT
Fiscal policy interventions in terms of infrastructure can lead to substitution effects in time allocation of women from care economy to market economy, which has implications for reducing the poverty in the household and also in enhancing the education and health status of the household. Therefore, the analysis of time use statistics can help in formulating better fiscal policies in terms of infrastructure requirements. It differs across regions, again in which time use statistics can be revealing. There is need to ensure complementary fiscal services for better gender sensitive human development as gender related issues cut across sectors and for instance, investing in water supply infrastructure may be a prerequisite for improving the enrolment of girl children, which time use statistics can reveal.

10.11    LINK BETWEEN PUBLIC INFRASTRUCTURE AND TIME ALLOCATION
It is often argued that mainstream expenditure such as public infrastructure is non rival in nature and applying gender lens to these is not feasible. This argument is refuted by the time budget statistics. The time budget data revealed that this argument is often flawed, as there is intrinsic gender dimension to the non-rival expenditure. For example, the time allocation in the economy activities like fetching of water and fuel involves more girls and women and infrastructure investment with gender sensitive water polices and energy policies can really benefit women.
Prima facie, increase in public investment in infrastructure is negatively related to the time burden of women spending in fetching of water and fuel. There can be possibilities of substitutability between unpaid work and market work by women through increased investment in infrastructure by government. There can be a link between deterioration in infrastructure and rural poverty. In terms of fiscal policies to redress poverty, the aspects of time poverty is often surpassed. Time poverty affects income poverty. Fiscal policies designed to redress income poverty can be partial if it does not take into account the aspects of time poverty. This policy discussion has gender dimension as women are time poor and fiscal policies designed for poverty alleviation needs to incorporate the time allocation aspects across gender.
The time allocation in SNA activity of women is found inversely related to the public infrastructure. This result indicates that better infrastructure can lessen the unpaid SNA work of women. But, there is no evidence that the release of time locked up in unpaid SNA work of collecting water through better infrastructure have a substitution effect towards market work. This gets further reinforced by the positive link between infrastructure and time allocation in Non-SNA activity. It is to be noted that rise in the time allocation in Non-SNA for women is forced leisure due to the paucity of opportunities in terms of employment. The policy suggestion arising from this analysis is that infrastructure investment lessens the time stress of women in unpaid SNA activity; but complementary employment guarantee policies are required along with infrastructure investment to ensure substitution effect of unpaid work with market work, which in turn can have impact on household poverty.
Self-Check Exercise-10.7
Q.1 How time use data is interpreted in India?
Q2. Discuss implications of time use statistics for public investment also discuss link between public infrastructure and time allocation.

10.12    GOVERNMENT EMPLOYMENT GUARANTEE PROGRAMMES AND TIME ALLOCATION OF WOMEN
Newly created employment opportunities can serve as a vehicle for transforming women’s lives by reducing the unpaid work burden and, thus, altering the paid-unpaid gender division of labour. In some cases this will translate to prioritizing public investment in infrastructure that reduces unpaid work, such as rural water projects, feeder roads and building separate toilets in schools for girls and boys, which will reduce the time allocated to fetching water and walking children to school, as well as allow female students to go to school. In other instances it will require investing directly
in work activities that are ‘invisible’ like, childcare, elder care, and care for the chronically ill. To truly benefit those most in need, programmes will have to be contextspecific. The best way to guarantee this is by participatory community-based project design processes that directly engage with women and women’s groups.
Public job guarantee programs designed with these concerns in mind will have three distinct benefits. First, they will generate income for participants, simultaneously setting a wage floor for all, including some benefits (depending on the design of the program). These newly created jobs may or may not be always filled by women. It could be that women are the ones employed as construction workers while young men provide homebased care to the chronically ill. But in all cases, in addition to income, capacity building and skill acquisition will be gained to varying degrees. Second, the goods and services delivered will become part of the basket of consumption for underserved communities and populations, in itself a contribution to pro- poor development. Third, and quite significant for promoting gender equality, this may turn out to be a very powerful redistributive policy of unpaid work burdens.
The importance of employment guarantee programs in our context is that, if well designed, they can reduce unpaid work while redistributing the cost of reproduction by creating jobs for both women and men instead of reinforcing the existing gender-based division of unpaid labour. If such projects are not gender-informed, the danger is that they may create a typical ‘double’ day effect for women.

10.13    SUMMARY
Early discourses on women and work can be traced to the discipline of economics and the its theoretical background with focus on buyers, sellers, market making work being productive if and only if profits are produced. Whereas the household realm position itself on the range of unpaid work that is necessary for the functioning of life. Thus, for feminist economists work is not only that activity or expenditure of energy, that produces services and products of value to other people but, work can be performed without wages, salaries, or income. Economically speaking, labor market work is strictly work performed for pay. Feminist economics grew in response to the restricted and inadequate view of 'the economy' offered by mainstream economic thinking. One of the most pervasive themes of the present feminist movement is the emphasis placed on the role of reproduction as a determinant of women's work, the sexual division of labor, and the subordinate/dominant relationships between women and men.

10.14    GLOSSARY

•    Economic Realm vs. Household Realm: The economic realm focuses on market-related activities like buying, selling, and producing goods, whereas the household realm involves unpaid labor essential for maintaining the economic realm but is typically excluded from production measures.

•    Productive Work: Work that produces goods or services that are of value to others, typically counted as part of the economy when performed for wages, salaries, or profits.

•    Unpaid Work: Refers to labor such as domestic work, caregiving, and subsistence activities, which, although crucial for society and the economy, is often unrecognized and not included in formal economic analysis.

•    Double Burden: The situation where women, especially from poorer families, are responsible for both paid employment and unpaid household labor, resulting in a dual workload.

•    Invisible Economy: Refers to activities and work, particularly by women, that are not recognized as part of the formal economy due to the focus on market-based production.

•    Subsistence Agriculture: A form of agricultural production primarily for the household's consumption rather than for sale in markets, often performed by women and typically excluded from formal economic analysis.

•    Social Reproduction: A concept referring to the activities and tasks necessary to sustain life, primarily taking place in households, including childcare, healthcare, and daily sustenance.

•    Care Economy: Refers to the sector of unpaid and paid labor dedicated to caregiving and maintaining the workforce, encompassing both household and public sector services.

10.15    ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES
Self-Check Exercise 10.1
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 10.3
Self-Check Exercise 10.2
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 10.4
Self-Check Exercise 10.3
Ans. Q1. Refer to Sections 10.5.1 and 10.5.2
Self-Check Exercise 10.4
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 10.6
Self-Check Exercise 10.5
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 10.7
Self-Check Exercise 10.6
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 10.8
Self-Check Exercise 10.7
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 10.9
Ans. Q2. Refer to Sections 10.10 and 10.11

10.16    REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

•    Abraham, V. (2013) Missing Labour or Consistent ‘De-Feminisation’? Economic and Political Weekly, 48 (31).

•    Deshmukh, R.J. (2002). Women’s Work and Family Strategies in South and South-East Asia. New Delhi: Center for Women’s Development Studies and Rainbow.

•    Hartmann, H.I. and Markusen, A.R. (1980). Women as a Reserve Army of Labour: A Critique. Review of Radical Political Economics, 15(1), Spring.

•    Himanshu. (2011). Employment Trend in India: A Re-examination. Economic and Political Weekly, 46(37).

•    IGNOU (2014).Gender Issues in Work, MGSE-009, Block 1 Unit 2

•  Jain, D. (1985). The Household Trap. A Report on a Field Survey of Female
Activity Patterns, in Devaki J. and Nirmala B. (Eds), The Tyranny of the
Household. Investigative Essays on Women’s Work. New Delhi: Shakti Books.

•  Krishnaraj, Maithreyi (2000) Women’s Perspectives on Public Policy in India.
Gender, Technology and Development. May- August.

•    Mazumdar, I. and Neetha, N. (2011). Gender Dimensions Employment Trends in India, 1993-94 to 2009-10, EPW, XLVI, 43

•    National Sample Survey Office. (2006). Employment and Unemployment Situation in India 2004-05, Part 1, 61st Round.

•  National Sample Survey Office. (2011). Key Indicators of Employment and
Unemployment in India 2009- 10, 66th Round.

•  National Sample Survey Office. (2013). Key Indicators of Employment and
Unemployment in India 2011- 12, 68th Round.

•    Patel, V. (2014). Economics of Gender and Development, Mumbai: Centre for Distance Education, SNDT Women’s University.

•    Quick, P. (1977). The Class Nature of Women’s Oppression. Review of Radical Political Economics, 9 (3), Fall.

•    Sen, A. (1999). Development as Freedom. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

•    Shaw, A. (2013). Comparing NSSO’s Employment Surveys-A Methodological Note, Economic and Political Weekly, 48(30).

10.17    TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q.1 Distinguish between Paid work and Unpaid work. Discuss various methods of Valuation of Unpaid work.
Q.2 Discuss the necessity of measurement and valuation of productive and reproductive work.
UNIT-11
WOMEN, WORK, AND GLOBALIZATION
STRUCTURE

11.1    Introduction

11.2  Learning Objectives

11.3  Issues in Participation


11.3.1    Definition and Importance of Participation

11.3.2    Barriers to Women's Participation in the Workforce

11.3.3    Impact of Low Participation Rates

11.3.4    Policy Interventions to Enhance Participation
Self-Check Exercise 11.1

11.4    Occupations and Gender
Self-Check Exercise 11.2

11.5    Women and Globalization
Self-Check Exercise 11.3

11.6    Globalization and Economic Change


11.6.1    International Division of Labour
Self-Check Exercise 11.4

11.7    Gender Dynamics within the International Division of Labour Self-Check Exercise 11.5

11.8    Summary

11.9    Glossary

11.10    Answers to Self-Check Exercise

11.11    References/Suggested Readings

11.12    Terminal Questions

11.1    INTRODUCTION
Globalization has transformed economies and societies worldwide, creating both opportunities and challenges. While it has led to increased economic growth and interconnectedness, the impact on gender dynamics, particularly women's roles in the workforce, has been significant. This unit examines the complex relationship between globalization and women, focusing on issues related to participation in the workforce, occupational segregation, the impact of globalization on women's rights, and the international division of labour. By exploring these themes, we aim to shed light on the
multifaceted ways in which globalization affects women's economic empowerment and their roles in the global economy.

11.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:

•    Analyze the barriers to women's participation in the workforce and identify effective policy interventions to enhance their economic involvement.

•    Examine the impact of globalization on women's roles in various occupations and understand the dynamics of gender segregation in the labour market.

•    Evaluate the implications of the international division of labour for women’s economic empowerment and the challenges they face in a globalized economy.

11.3    ISSUES IN PARTICIPATION


11.3.1    Definition and Importance of Participation
Participation refers to the involvement of individuals in various economic activities, particularly in the labour market. For women, active participation is crucial for achieving economic independence, enhancing their social status, and contributing to national and global economic growth. Despite the growing recognition of women's contributions to the economy, significant barriers persist.

11.3.2    Barriers to Women's Participation in the Workforcei.    Cultural and Social Barriers

•    Traditional Gender Roles: Many societies hold traditional views that prioritize men's roles as breadwinners while relegating women to domestic responsibilities. These stereotypes can discourage women from seeking employment or pursuing careers.

•    Social Stigmas: Women who pursue careers, particularly in male-dominated fields, may face social stigma or criticism. This can lead to a lack of support from family and community members, further discouraging participation.

•    Work-Life Balance Expectations: Cultural expectations around caregiving and household duties often pressure women to prioritize family over career aspirations, limiting their availability for work.

ii.    Economic Barriers

•    Lack of Access to Childcare: Inadequate childcare facilities or high costs associated with childcare can make it challenging for women to balance work and family responsibilities, leading to lower participation rates.

•    Income Inequality: The gender wage gap often means that women earn less than men for similar work, making employment less attractive and reinforcing the perception that it is not worth the effort to participate in the workforce.

•    Limited Access to Capital: Women entrepreneurs frequently face difficulties in obtaining funding or loans to start businesses due to discrimination or lack of collateral, limiting their ability to engage in self-employment or entrepreneurship.

iii.    Educational Barriers

•    Access to Education: In many regions, girls have less access to education than boys due to socio-economic factors, cultural norms, or safety concerns. This lack of education limits their qualifications and employability.

•    Skills Gap: Even when women have access to education, they may not receive training in high-demand fields, leaving them underprepared for the job market and unable to secure competitive positions.

•    STEM Field Underrepresentation: Women are often underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields, which are typically associated with higher salaries and job growth. This limits their opportunities for advancement.

IV.    Workplace Barriers

•    Discrimination and Bias: Gender discrimination in hiring, promotions, and salary negotiations can create a hostile work environment, discouraging women from pursuing careers or advancing in their fields.

•    Lack of Representation: A lack of female role models in leadership positions can make it difficult for women to envision themselves in similar roles, reducing their ambition to climb the corporate ladder.

•    Inflexible Work Arrangements: Many workplaces have rigid hours and structures that do not accommodate the needs of working mothers or caregivers, making it challenging for women to balance work and family responsibilities.

V.    Legal and Institutional Barriers

•    Inadequate Labour Laws: In some countries, labour laws do not protect women’s rights adequately, including maternity leave, anti-discrimination measures, and equal pay provisions, limiting their ability to participate fully in the workforce.

•    Weak Enforcement of Policies: Even when laws exist to promote gender equality in the workplace, weak enforcement can undermine their effectiveness, leaving women vulnerable to exploitation and discrimination.

vi. Psychological Barriers

•    Internalized Stereotypes: Women may internalize societal beliefs about their capabilities, leading to lower self-esteem and confidence in pursuing careers or negotiating salaries.

•    Fear of Failure: Concerns about not being able to balance work and family or facing discrimination can discourage women from entering or re-entering the workforce.

11.3.3 Impact of Low Participation Ratesi.    Economic Growth and Productivity

•    Underutilization of Talent: Low participation rates mean that a significant portion of the potential workforce is not contributing to economic activities. Women represent a vast reservoir of skills and talents that, if harnessed, could significantly enhance productivity and economic output. When economies fail to leverage women's potential, they miss out on innovation and creativity that diverse perspectives can bring.

•    GDP Loss: Research indicates that gender parity in labour force participation could substantially increase a country’s GDP.  According to studies by
organizations such as McKinsey Global Institute, closing the gender gap in labour force participation could add trillions to global GDP by 2025. Therefore, low participation rates among women directly translate into lower economic growth.

•    Skill Shortages: Many sectors face skill shortages, and women are often well-qualified to fill these gaps. Excluding women from the labour market exacerbates these shortages, hindering industries' growth and innovation.

ii.    Societal and Community Development

•    Increased Poverty Rates: Women’s economic participation is a critical factor in poverty alleviation. Households headed by women tend to experience higher poverty rates when women are excluded from the workforce. By enabling women to work, families can access better resources, education, and health care, leading to improved living standards and community well-being.

•    Diminished Social Mobility: Low participation rates contribute to the perpetuation of intergenerational poverty. Women who are unable to work or earn a living wage are less likely to invest in their children's education and opportunities, thereby perpetuating cycles of poverty and limiting social mobility.

iii.    Gender Inequality and Social Justice

•    Perpetuation of Gender Norms: Low participation rates reinforce traditional gender roles that dictate women's primary responsibilities are in the home rather than in the workplace. This perpetuates stereotypes and social norms that view women as less capable or deserving of leadership and economic opportunities.

•    Limited Decision-Making Power: Women’s underrepresentation in economic and political decision-making roles leads to a lack of diverse perspectives in policy discussions. Consequently, policies may not adequately address women's needs or promote gender equality, further entrenching systemic inequalities.

•    Resistance to Gender Equality Initiatives: When women are not visible in the workforce, it can create a feedback loop that discourages initiatives aimed at improving gender equality. Lack of role models in various sectors can limit women's aspirations and ambitions, perpetuating low participation rates.

IV.    Impact on Family Dynamics

•    Increased Family Stress: Families with women who cannot participate in the workforce may experience increased stress due to economic constraints. This can lead to negative outcomes, such as reduced family well-being, increased family conflict, and diminished mental health for both women and their family members.

•    Dependency on Male Income: Low participation rates often result in women depending on male family members for financial support, which can create imbalances in power dynamics within households. This dependency can lead to vulnerability in situations of domestic violence or family breakdown.

V.    Health and Well-Being

•    Negative Health Outcomes: Economic independence is closely linked to health and well-being. Women who participate in the workforce often have better access to healthcare and resources that promote overall health. Conversely, those who are excluded may experience poorer health outcomes due to economic insecurity and stress.

•    Limited Access to Benefits: Many jobs provide benefits such as health insurance, retirement plans, and paid leave. Low participation rates can leave women without access to these essential benefits, affecting their long-term financial security and health.

VI. Global Competitiveness

•    Loss of Competitive Advantage: Countries that do not actively promote women's participation in the labour market may find themselves at a competitive disadvantage in the global economy. As markets become increasingly interconnected, countries that harness the potential of all their citizens, including women, are likely to be more competitive and innovative.

•    Adverse Effects on Innovation: Diverse teams are known to drive innovation. By excluding women from the workforce, organizations limit their capacity for innovation, leading to stagnation in sectors that thrive on creativity and new ideas.

11.3.4 Policy Interventions to Enhance Participationi.    Access to Affordable Childcare

•    Subsidized Childcare Programs: Governments can provide subsidies or financial assistance for childcare services to alleviate the financial burden on families. This can encourage more women to enter or remain in the workforce by ensuring their children are well-cared for in safe environments.

•    Expansion of Public Childcare Facilities: Investing in public childcare centers can increase the availability of affordable, quality childcare. This is particularly vital in low-income and rural areas where private options may be limited or too expensive.

•    Flexible Childcare Hours: Policies should encourage childcare services to offer flexible hours that accommodate the varied work schedules of parents, particularly in industries that require non-standard working hours.

ii.    Family-Friendly Workplace Policies

•    Parental Leave Policies: Implementing comprehensive parental leave policies that allow both mothers and fathers to take time off for caregiving without sacrificing job security or income can help normalize shared parenting responsibilities. This not only supports women but also encourages men to take an active role in childcare.

•    Flexible Work Arrangements: Employers can be encouraged or mandated to offer flexible working options such as telecommuting, part-time positions, and adjustable hours. This flexibility can help women balance work and family obligations more effectively.

•    Job Sharing and Phased Returns: Initiatives that allow job sharing or phased returns to work after maternity leave can help ease the transition for women returning to the workforce, making it less daunting and more manageable.

iii.    Promoting Gender Equality in Education

•    STEM Education Initiatives: Governments and organizations can implement programs specifically designed to encourage girls to pursue education and careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). This can include scholarships, mentorship programs, and partnerships with educational institutions.

•    Career Guidance and Counseling: Providing career counseling in schools can help dispel stereotypes regarding gender roles in various professions. Educators should promote a diverse range of career paths and highlight successful women in various fields.

•    Awareness Campaigns: National campaigns that promote the importance of gender equality in education can raise awareness and encourage families to invest in their daughters’ education, especially in regions where cultural norms limit educational opportunities for girls.

iv.    Addressing Gender Discrimination in the Workplace

•    Equal Pay Legislation: Governments should enforce laws that ensure equal pay for equal work. Transparency in salary structures can help identify and address pay disparities between men and women.

•    Anti-Discrimination Policies:  Implementing and enforcing strict anti
discrimination laws in hiring, promotions, and workplace treatment can help create safer and more equitable environments for women.

•    Training Programs for Employers: Providing training and resources for employers on gender bias and diversity can foster more inclusive workplace cultures. This includes educating managers on the importance of diverse teams and how to support women in leadership roles.

v.

Support for Women Entrepreneurs

•    Access to Funding and Financial Resources: Governments can create grants, low-interest loans, and other financial products aimed at women entrepreneurs. This support can help women start and grow their businesses, contributing to economic development.

•    Business Development Programs: Offering training programs and workshops focused on entrepreneurship, business management, and leadership can empower women to pursue self-employment opportunities.

•    Networking Opportunities: Creating platforms for women entrepreneurs to network, share resources, and collaborate can enhance their visibility and support systems in the business community.
vi.    Incentives for Companies to Promote Gender Equality

•    Tax Incentives: Providing tax benefits to companies that demonstrate a commitment to gender diversity and equality in their workforce can encourage them to adopt inclusive practices.

•    Public Recognition Programs: Establishing awards or recognition programs for companies that excel in promoting gender equality can incentivize more organizations to prioritize these issues.
vii. Community Engagement and Advocacy

•    Grassroots  Initiatives:  Supporting local organizations that advocate for
women’s rights and gender equality can lead to community-driven solutions. These initiatives can include awareness campaigns, workshops, and training sessions tailored to the specific needs of the community.

•    Engaging Men as Allies: Programs that actively involve men in discussions about gender equality can help change societal norms and encourage shared responsibility in domestic and professional spheres.
viii. Monitoring and Evaluation

•    Data Collection and Analysis: Governments should collect and analyze data on women’s participation in the workforce regularly. This data can inform policy adjustments and identify areas needing further intervention.

•    Impact Assessment:  Evaluating the effectiveness of policies aimed at
enhancing women’s participation can help identify successful strategies and inform future initiatives.
Self-Check Exercise 11.1
Q1. How does women's economic participation impact their social status?
Q2. What cultural and social barriers limit women's workforce participation?
Q3. How does low female participation in the workforce affect national productivity?

11.4    OCCUPATIONS AND GENDER

i)    Gender Segregation in the Labour Market
Occupational segregation refers to the division of labour based on gender, where certain professions are dominated by either men or women. This phenomenon often leads to unequal opportunities and pay disparities. Women are frequently concentrated in low-paying sectors, such as caregiving and service industries, while men dominate higher-paying fields like engineering and technology.

ii)    Women in Traditional versus Non-Traditional Occupations
While women have historically been associated with traditional occupations, such as teaching and nursing, there has been a gradual shift towards non-traditional fields. Programs aimed at encouraging women to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) have gained traction, highlighting the potential for women to excel in diverse roles.

iii)    Impact of Technology on Women’s Occupations
Technological advancements have created new opportunities for women, enabling remote work and flexible schedules. However, the digital divide remains a significant challenge, with many women lacking access to technology and training. Bridging this gap is essential for ensuring that women can benefit from the changing labour landscape.

iv)    Gender Wage Gap and Its Implications
The gender wage gap remains a persistent issue, with women earning less than men for comparable work. This disparity not only affects women's financial stability but also reinforces societal norms about gender roles. Addressing the wage gap is crucial for achieving economic equality and empowering women in the workforce.
Self-Check Exercise 11.2
Q1. What is occupational segregation, and how does it contribute to gender inequality?
Q2. Why are women often concentrated in low-paying sectors, and what are the implications of this?
Q3. How has technology created new employment opportunities for women?

11.5    WOMEN AND GLOBALIZATION

i)    The Role of Women in Global Supply Chains

•    Significance in Industries: Women are crucial in global supply chains, especially in sectors like textiles (clothing production) and agriculture (farming). For instance, in the textile industry, many women work in factories sewing clothes for major brands. In agriculture, women often grow, harvest, and process food products.

•    Underappreciation of Contributions: Despite their important roles, women’s contributions in these industries are frequently overlooked. They may not receive the recognition or pay they deserve for the hard work they do. This undervaluation can lead to feelings of disempowerment and limit women's economic opportunities.

•    Exploitative Working Conditions: Many women working in these supply chains face difficult and unfair working conditions. This might include long hours, low pay, lack of job security, and poor workplace safety. Women may also face harassment or discrimination in the workplace, making it challenging for them to speak up about their rights.

•    Need for Fair Labour Practices: To address these issues, it is essential to ensure that fair labour practices are followed in global supply chains. This means advocating for better wages, safe working environments, and the right to organize into unions. Supporting women's rights within these supply chains is crucial for promoting gender equity.

ii)    Women’s Entrepreneurship in a Globalized World

•    New Opportunities: Globalization has opened doors for women entrepreneurs by allowing them to access international markets and resources. Women can now sell their products online, reach customers from different countries, and collaborate with businesses around the world.

•    Economic Contributions: Women-led businesses are vital for economic growth and job creation. When women start their own businesses, they often create jobs for others and contribute to their communities' development.

•    Barriers Faced: Despite the opportunities, women entrepreneurs often encounter significant barriers. One major hurdle is limited access to capital, meaning they struggle to get loans or investment to start or grow their businesses. Additionally, they may lack access to mentorship, which can guide them in navigating the business world.

•    Supporting Women Entrepreneurs: To empower women entrepreneurs, targeted programs can be developed. These programs might include training on business skills, access to financing, and networking opportunities with other entrepreneurs. By providing these resources, we can help women succeed in their ventures.

iii)    Impact of Globalization on Women's Rights and Gender Equality

•    Advancing Women's Rights: Globalization has the potential to enhance women’s rights by raising awareness about gender issues worldwide. Women’s rights activists can use global platforms (like social media and international conferences) to advocate for gender equality and share their experiences.

•    Exacerbating Inequalities: However, globalization can also worsen existing inequalities. In some regions, economic changes can lead to job losses or exploitation of women workers. For instance, as companies move to countries
with lower labour costs, women may find themselves in even more precarious positions without job security or adequate wages.

•    Uneven Progress: The progress toward gender equality is not the same everywhere. Some countries may make significant strides, while others lag behind due to cultural, legal, or economic barriers. Understanding how globalization interacts with women's rights is essential to create effective strategies for advocacy.

•    Importance of Advocacy: By understanding these dynamics, activists and organizations can develop targeted approaches to address specific issues faced by women in different regions. This might involve advocating for policy changes, supporting local initiatives, or providing resources to empower women.
iv) Grassroots Movements and Advocacy for Women's Rights

•    Role of Grassroots Movements: Grassroots movements have been instrumental in pushing for women’s rights in the context of globalization. These movements consist of local organizations and community members who work together to address issues like gender inequality, labour rights, and social justice.

•    Community Mobilization: These organizations mobilize communities by raising awareness about gender inequality and advocating for women’s rights. They might organize campaigns, workshops, and events to educate people about the challenges women face and the importance of gender equality.

•    Advocacy for Labour Rights: Many grassroots movements focus on improving labour rights for women. They aim to ensure fair wages, safe working conditions, and the right to organize. By supporting women workers, these movements help create a more equitable workplace environment.

•    Sustainable Change: Supporting grassroots movements is crucial for achieving lasting change. When communities are empowered to advocate for their rights, they can create sustainable solutions that benefit everyone. This grassroots approach can lead to significant shifts in attitudes and policies regarding gender equality.
Self-Check Exercise 11.3
Q1. How are women involved in global supply chains, particularly in textiles and agriculture?
Q2. How has globalization created new opportunities for women entrepreneurs?
Q3. How has globalization contributed to the advancement of women's rights?

11.6 GLOBALIZATION AND ECONOMIC CHANGE

•  Historical Context of Globalization
Globalization is not a new phenomenon; it has evolved over centuries. Understanding its historical context, including colonialism and trade, can provide insights into contemporary dynamics. The integration of economies and cultures has led to both positive and negative consequences for women worldwide.
• Economic Theories Related to Globalization
Several economic theories explain the impact of globalization on labour markets and economic development. Classical theories emphasize the benefits of free trade, while critiques highlight the disparities created by globalization. Analyzing these theories can help contextualize the experiences of women in the global economy.

•    Impacts of Globalization on Local Economies
Globalization has transformed local economies, often resulting in job creation and increased trade. However, it can also lead to job displacement and economic insecurity for vulnerable populations, including women. Assessing the localized effects of globalization is essential for understanding its broader implications.

•    The Role of International Organizations
International organizations, such as the United Nations and the World Trade Organization, play a crucial role in shaping policies related to globalization and gender equality. Their efforts to promote women's rights and economic empowerment are vital for advancing gender equity on a global scale.

•    Economic Opportunities and Challenges for Women
Globalization presents both opportunities and challenges for women. While it can enhance access to markets and resources, it can also lead to exploitative labour practices. Understanding the complexities of these dynamics is essential for promoting sustainable economic development.
Self-Check Exercise 11.4
Q1. What are the primary ways globalization has transformed local economies, particularly for women?
Q2. How does job displacement and economic insecurity affect women in developing countries?

11.7    INTERNATIONAL DIVISION OF LABOUR
The international division of labour refers to the way production processes are distributed across different countries, reflecting a global system of specialization. In this context, countries focus on producing goods and services in which they have a comparative advantage. Developed nations, with their advanced technologies and skilled labour, typically control the production of high-value goods such as electronics, machinery, and pharmaceuticals. Conversely, developing countries often specialize in lower-value, labour-intensive industries like textiles, agriculture, and basic manufacturing.
This division of labour results from historical factors, including colonialism, trade policies, and economic development patterns. While it allows countries to benefit from trade by focusing on their strengths, it also highlights and reinforces global economic inequalities. Developed nations accrue wealth and technological advancements, whereas developing countries remain reliant on low-wage labour and raw material
exports. This disparity can hinder economic growth in poorer nations and contribute to a cycle of poverty and underdevelopment.
Moreover, the international division of labour is influenced by globalization, which has integrated economies and facilitated the movement of goods, services, and capital across borders. As companies seek to maximize profits, they often relocate production to countries with cheaper labour costs, further entrenching the existing inequalities in the global labour market.

11.7.1    Gender Dynamics within the International Division of Labour
Gender dynamics significantly shape the international division of labour, influencing the roles and opportunities available to women and men in the workforce. Women often find themselves in low-wage, informal employment, particularly in industries like textiles, agriculture, and services. These jobs frequently lack job security, benefits, and protection against exploitation. In contrast, men tend to dominate higher-paying, formal positions in sectors like engineering, finance, and management, which often come with better working conditions and more significant career advancement opportunities.
The disparity in gender representation across different sectors is indicative of broader social and cultural norms that prioritize male employment and decision-making roles. Women are often expected to fulfill caregiving responsibilities, limiting their ability to pursue higher-paying jobs or careers in male-dominated industries. Additionally, systemic barriers such as discrimination, lack of access to education and training, and limited networking opportunities further perpetuate these inequalities.
Understanding these gender dynamics is crucial for addressing the persistent inequalities in the labour market. Policymakers and organizations must work to dismantle the barriers that restrict women's participation in higher-paying sectors and promote equal opportunities for career advancement. This can involve implementing gender-sensitive policies, providing access to education and vocational training, and promoting women's representation in leadership roles.
Self-Check Exercise 11.5
Q1. What is the international division of labour, and how does it relate to global specialization?
Q2. How do gender dynamics influence the roles women and men play in the global workforce?

11.8    SUMMARY
In conclusion, the interplay between women, work, and globalization is complex and multifaceted. While globalization presents opportunities for women's economic empowerment, significant barriers persist. Addressing issues related to participation, occupational segregation, and the international division of labour is essential for promoting gender equality in the global economy.
By implementing policies that support women's participation, enhancing access to education and resources, and advocating for fair labour practices, societies can harness the potential of women in the workforce. Ultimately, achieving gender equality in the
context of globalization is not only a matter of justice but also a prerequisite for sustainable economic growth.

11.9    GLOSSARY

•    Labour Force Participation Rate: is the percentage of a country's working-age population that is actively involved in the labor market.

•    Barriers to Women's Participation: Factors that hinder women from entering or remaining in the workforce, including social norms, discrimination, unequal access to education and training, and lack of childcare support. These barriers contribute to gender inequality in labour markets.

•    International Division of Labour: The global allocation of production processes and jobs across different countries, often along lines of comparative advantage. In this context, it refers to how labor is distributed across gender, with women often concentrated in lower-wage, informal, or precarious jobs.

•    Gender Dynamics: The interplay of roles, responsibilities, and opportunities based on gender in economic, political, and social contexts. Within the international division of labor, gender dynamics explore how globalization affects men and women differently, especially in terms of access to employment and working conditions.

•    Globalization: The increasing interconnectedness of economies, cultures, and political systems across the world. Globalization has both positive and negative effects on women's employment, potentially expanding opportunities while also exacerbating inequalities in certain sectors.

11.9    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISE
Self-Check Exercise 11.1
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 11.3.1
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 11.3.2
Ans. Q3. Refer to Section 11.3.3
Self-Check Exercise 11.2
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 11.4
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 11.4
Ans. Q3. Refer to Section 11.4
Self-Check Exercise 11.3
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 11.5
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 11.5
Ans. Q3. Refer to Section 11.5
Self-Check Exercise 11.4
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 11.6
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 11.6
Self-Check Exercise 11.5
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 11.7
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 11.7

11.11    REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

•    Banarjee, S. (2005). Role of Women in Development Sector. Mangal Publication, Jaipur.

•   Chandra, S. (2001). Women and Economic Development. B.R. Publication,
Delhi.

•   Elango, K., Perumal, A. and  Raj, M. (2008). Emerging Issues in Gender and
Women Development. Abhijeet Publication, New Delhi.

•    Jain, D. (2006). Women, Development and the UN. Orient Longman, Hyderabad.

•   Jayasuriya, S. and Jayasuriya, D.C. (1999). Women and Development- The
Road from Beijing. Har Anand Publication, New Delhi.

•   Kalpagam, U. (2011). Gender and Development in India – Current Issues.
Rawat Publication, Jaipur.

•    Narayana, E.A. and Lakshmi, E.V. (2011). Women development in India. Regal Publication, New Delhi.

•    Roy, S.M. (2008). The Gender Politics of Development. Zubaan Publication, New Delhi.

•    Rustagi, P. (2000). Gender Development Indicators : Issues, Debates and Ranking of Districts. CWDS, New Delhi.

•    Seth, M. (2001). Women Development. Sage Publication, New Delhi.

•   Sinha, R. (2004). Status of Women and Economic Development. RBSA
Publication, Jaipur.

•   Thakur, S. (2012). Women Empowerment in Rural India. Abhijeet Publication,
New Delhi.

•  www.egyankosh.ac.in

•   https://pib.gov.in

•  www.india.gov.in/topics/social-development/women

11.12 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q1. What are the key barriers to women's participation in the workforce, and how do these barriers impact economic growth and social development
Q2. Discuss the significance of policy interventions in enhancing women's participation in the labor market. How can these interventions address the identified barriers?
Q3. Discuss the impact of gender segregation in the labor market on women’s economic opportunities.
Q4. Evaluate the role of women in global supply chains and the impact of globalization on their working conditions. What are the challenges women face in these sectors, and what policy interventions can ensure fair labor practices?
Q5. How has technology transformed women's participation in the workforce, and what barriers still prevent women from fully benefiting from technological advancements?
Unit-12
SEGMENTATION AND WAGE DIFFERENTIALSSTRUCTURE

12.1    Introduction

12.2    Learning Objectives

12.3    Nature of Segmentation of Labour Market


12.3.1    Causes of Segmentation of the Labour Market: Demand Side

12.3.2    Causes of Segmentation of the Labour Market: Supply Side

12.3.3    Effects of Segmentation of Labour Market

12.3.4    Remedies to Integrate Women With the Labour Market
Self-Check Exercise-12.1

12.4    Wage Differentials


12.4.1    Nature of Wage Differentials

12.4.2    Determinants of Wage Differentials

12.4.3    Causes of Wage Differentials

12.4.4    Measures to Remove Wage Differentials
Self-Check Exercise-12.2

12.5    Summary

12.6    Glossary

12.7    Answers to Self-Check Exercises

12.8    References/Suggested Readings

12.9    Terminal Questions

12.1    INTRODUCTION
Women have been participating in the labour force from time immemorial. But, today in the labour market they do not have the same standing as their male counterpart. Women workers are concentrated in the informal sector and are paid low wages. In the organized sector where women participation is low, promotions are few and far between. Women work in a segmented labour market. Their working conditions are pathetic and being in informal sector they are not covered by social security legislations. Segmentation of labour not only have detrimental effect on women as workers but also accrue loss to national economy. This plight of women is not peculiar to India; but is the universal from countries that are less developed to industrialised developed world. However, in this unit the focus of our study is India. Let us go through the objectives of reading this unit.

12.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:

•    Explain the nature of the segmentation, its causes, effects and remedies;

•    Analyse causes and effects of wage differentials;

•    Explain the ways to integrate women with the labour market; and

•    Discuss possible solutions to remove wage differentials.

12.3    NATURE OF SEGMENTATION OF LABOUR MARKET
According to the 2001 Census, there were 127.2 lakh female workers in India, of which as many as 94.67 per cent were in the unorganized sector. In case of male workers also 89.07 per cent of them were working in the unorganized sector. Whereas 10.91 per cent of male workers were in the organized sector only 5.28 per cent of female workers were in the organized sector. This shows that concentration of women workers is in the unorganized sector both in absolute and relative sense. Let us discuss the scenario in detail.

•    If we take into consideration the classification of workers into ‘main’ and ‘marginal’ workers, the Census of India 2001 statistics clearly indicates how women’s position in the labour market is weak in relation to the male workers. Thus, of the total marginal workers, 60.92% are female and only 39.07% are male. This situation is just the reverse in the case of ‘main’ workers. Of the total ‘main’ workers, a very high proportion, 76.72% consists of male workers whereas only a small proportion, 23.27% consists of female workers. Considering the ‘category of main’ workers, in 2001 Census analysis, it is found, that a substantial majority of female workers, almost 46.22 lakhs are engaged in agriculture. In this category, 53.60 lakhs of them work more as agricultural labourers while only 32.90% work as cultivators.

•    If sector-wise situation of male and female workers is compared on the basis of 2001 Census statistics, we find that 79 per cent of female workers work in the primary sector as against 63 per cent of male workers in that sector. Thus, more of women workers are occupied in agriculture and agriculture related tasks.

•    When we analyze the employment in the secondary sector we find that only 13% of female workers get job in the industrial sector as against 19% of males. The disparity is more prominent in the tertiary sector where only 8% of female workers get jobs as against 18% of male workers. Thus, women get fewer jobs in the tertiary sector and hence are very few in the higher salary brackets.

•    Even when women are employed in the secondary and tertiary sector, they do not get equal opportunities in all the industries. NSSO has classified industries into approximately 384 divisions. Only in 55 types of industries, intensity of women’s employment is high. In these industries, women form more than 40% of the total workforce. The situation in tertiary sector is in no way different. In trade and commerce sector, male workers account for 8.98% of the jobs while only 2.26% of female workers are engaged in this sector. In transport and communication sector 3.54% male workers are employed but only 0.32 per cent of female workers are
engaged there.
Thus, we see that analysis of macro data sets make women workers disadvantageous status evident. Let us now look into causes of the situation discussed above.

12.3.1    Causes of Segmentation of the Labour Market: Demand Side
Segmentation of the labour market is primarily the result of the patriarchal structure of the society. Employers, as well as workers, who are mostly men, assume that the primary role of women is inside the house, as wife and a mother. Here we discuss some of the important factors that lead to segmentation of force on the basis of gender.

•    Secondary role: Whatever a woman does in the labour market is viewed as her secondary role. She is not looked upon as capable of providing household finance and her income is only viewed as marginal income or secondary income. However, at times, income of all the member is needed for the family’s survival.

•    Patriarchal nature of the society: We have a patriarchal society. Patriarchal attitude carried on for generations make it difficult for the employers to realize the reality and accept women as equal partners.

•    Women’s commitment towards work: There is a misconceived notion about women’s sincerity towards work. Employers assume that women would be irregular for work. More of absenteeism and less of sincerity is anticipated from women. It is because of this attitude of men that the demand for women workers is confined to only low skill and low paid jobs.

•    Effect of modernization: Along with this traditional attitude, the effect of modernization and mechanization has also worked against women. When new machines are employed for doing work earlier done by women, men are employed to run the machines. This leads to the replacement of women workers by men workforce. But, as women were not properly organized in the trade unions, there is not enough resistance. This gives us a picture of change in demand for women workers in the wake of modernization.

•    Effect of legislation: Other factor causing reduction in demand for women workers, is the laws enacted to protect them. Certain benefits like maternity benefits and provision of crèches add expenditure to the employers existing cost. Principle of equal pay for equal work also reduce the employers inclination of paying a lower wage to women workers as cost of added benefits/provisions is over and above the wages. This also led to tead reduction in the demand for women workers.
In the following section you will read about the supply side of causes of segmentation of labour force.

12.3.2    Causes of Segmentation of the Labour Market: Supply Side
The same patriarchal attitude which leads to the segmentation of the labour market on the demand side is also responsible for the segmentation on the supply side. Let us examine a few other prominent factors.

•    Patriarchal Attitude: Patriarchal attitude of parents and of society in general, make women workers position weak in labour market. The girl child does not get
the same attention in terms of nurturing and care. Their entitlement in terms of food or medical care is less than that of boys in the family. They are generally anemic and bear more disease burden. A girl child normally is not allowed to continue in the secondary school. Even if they are allowed, they are not given equal opportunity as their brothers to choose a field of education that they prefer for career building. Patriarchal values expect women to concentrate on certain disciplines and professions that are said to be feminine. These patriarchal values are so internalized by the women themselves that very few of them aspire for education in the fields so called ‘reserved for men’. Even after completing their education, often they are not in a position to decide whether to work or not and if at all, how long to remained employed. The situation now is changing, though we still find patriarchal mindset prevalent in some sections of Indian society.

•    Patriarchal Structures: Patriarchal societal structure leads women to regard home keeping and rearing children as their primary duties. Hence, women often look for work which is near home and opt for work timings which can be adjusted with their domestic duties. They often give up opportunities of promotion which involve change of work place or additional responsibilities at the existing or a new work place. Also, patriarchal structures along with patriarchal attitude is responsible for lack of geographical mobility of women. At the time of marriage, women migrate to live with their in-laws or their husband. They also follow their husbands when they migrate for work. This restricted mobility affects women’s supply in the labour markets.

•    Strength of Bargaining: One more limiting factor on the supply side of women labour force is their inability to bargain. It is a known fact that bargaining power of labour depends upon the strength of their union. But, trade unionism among women workers is not easy as they find it difficult to spare time for union activities. Trade union activity involves active participation where they will be needed at different places for long span of time for different kinds of union activities. While the male members are able to spare their time for these women are not.

12.3.3    Effects of Segmentation of Labour Market
Segmentation of labour market is undesirable as it leads to discrimination against women workers. Segmentation results in lower payment being made to women workers in comparison to male workers. Let us cast a look on other effects that segmentation has on female labour force.

•    Lack of Capital Intensive Technology: Segmentation keeps women workers concentrated in certain fields where less capital intensive technology is used. In those Indian industries where a significant percentage of workers are women, the capital/labour ratio and output/labour ratio are both below the all-India all-industries-average.

•    Vulnerability of Loss of Job: For women workers, employer’s strategy remains ‘last in, first out’. Segmentation makes women the most vulnerable workers. At the onset of depression they are thus the first workers to be removed from the job. Unfortunately, they are the last to be taken back on the job when situation improves.

•    Redundancy of Women workers: Another serious effect of segmentation is the greater extent of unemployment of women workers as a result of patriarchal social and economic structures.
In the following section you will read about some of the ways to mainstream women workforce and overcome segmentation.

12.3.4    Remedies to Integrate Women With the Labour Market

•    To Overcome Patriarchal Attitude: As we have seen the root cause of segmentation of labour market, both on the demand and supply side, lies in the patriarchal attitude regarding women’s role - as a housewife, mother and also as workers. Special efforts should be made to change this attitude. Women’s organization should also make exceptional efforts to uproot the internalization of patriarchal attitude by women themselves.

•    Awareness about adverse effects of segmentation of Labour Market: Men should be made a were of the adverse effect labour market segmentation has not only on women but also on employers. Women also must be made aware of the ill effects of labour market segmentation who accept it as their destiny.

•    Role of civil society: All organizations dealing with labour should be made receptive to the fact and there should be special measures taken to orient the employers in both the private and the public sector to encourage gainful employment for both men and women.

•    Gender Inclusive Policies: Policies that are gender sensitive and promote gender equality should be promoted. Special incentives should be instituted to encourage members of both the sexes for achieving excellence in educational activities to performance at workplace.

•    Advocacy by Government: There should be continuous effort, by governmental as well as the non-government organizations dealing with women, to remove misconceptions which regard ‘home’ as the only sphere of work for women. Imaginary adverse effects women’s work will have on their children and other familial responsibilities should be discouraged. Research should be encouraged in this field to remove such misconceptions.

•    Encouragement Formal Education: Special efforts should be made to see that girl children enroll for primary education in equal number and special attention should be paid to reduce the drop-out ratio. They should be encouraged to go in for higher studies by giving special scholarships. If women venture into untrodden areas of study previously not opted by women, they should be given special incentives.

•    Childcare Facilities: Special facilities like maternity leave, crèche to take care of the children of working women etc, must be made available so that women can enter the organized sector of the labour market. Since individual employers will be unwilling to bear the cost, the State should shoulder the responsibility. This will minimize the resistance of employers to women employees.

•    Equal Remuneration: Women should get equal remuneration as men in the same
occupation. This has not been possible in spite of the fact that India has ratified the Equal Remuneration Convention. So, there is a need to modify the law and also effectively implement the same if women are to be integrated within the labour market.
Self-Check Exercise-12.1
Q1. How does the employment of women in the primary sector compare to that of men, based on the 2001 Census data?
Q2. How does the patriarchal nature of society contribute to labor market segmentation?
Q3. Why is trade union participation challenging for women in the labor force?
Q4. What role can civil society play in overcoming labor market segmentation?
In the following section you will read about the nature, determinants, causes and effects of wage differentiation.

12.4    WAGE DIFFERENTIALS
Wage differentials has been a practice that has been faced by women workers from the time of industrialization. Here, we will discuss various aspects of wage differentials between and men and women workers.

12.4.1    Nature of Wage Differentials
There are differences in the wages paid to the men and women workers. This is found around the world and is not something peculiar to India. This is generally done by reserving certain categories of work for women and other categories of work for men and by paying higher rate of wage for the categories of work reserved for men. A case study given below will illustrate this point clearly to you.
Though Equal Remuneration Convention No. 1000 was passed by I.L.O. in 1951 and was ratified by India. Equal Remuneration Act passed in India in 1976, makes it obligatory on the employers to pay equal remuneration, but the female workers are till now paid less than the male workers.
The NSSO (1996) Report shows that not only in agriculture but in all other areas of employment like industry, finance and services, women are paid lower wages. Thus, while women are paid 90.8% of male wages in agriculture, the percentage is 67.8% in mining, 84.5% in finance sector and 72.0% in service sector. The wage differential is seen not only throughout different sectors of employment, but also in the some profession. At the same educational level, women get 85.5% of men’s salary in nursing, 71.4% in teaching and 87.4% in clerical jobs. If this is the plight of educated women, one can well imagine the predicament of illiterate and semi-literate women.
With women’s increased participation in paid work there is mixed evidence that, the gender-wage gap has shown a tendency to diminish. In some industrialized countries, such as, the United States of America, the gap appears to have narrowed. In others, such as, Japan, it has widened. Similarly, in developing countries, such as EI Salvador and Sri Lanka, Hong Kong, Myanmar, Singapore, Taiwan, and Province of China, the
wage gap has widened. Even though the evidence is sparse, trade expansion and liberalization with Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) flows are likely to affect gender wage gaps in two ways: (a) through differential impact on the demand for female and male labours; and (b) through increase in bargaining power relative to organized workers in industries that are directly affected by the export of capital.
FDI flows might be expected to drive up the wages of women workers because they tend to stimulate demand for female labour. By contrast, the increased ability of businesses to relocate all or some segments of their production across national borders puts a downward pressure on the wages of workers in the affected industries. The little existing research suggests that the latter effect has been stronger.
It is also argued that the signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and concomitant threat of moving offshore, helped manufacturing employers in the United States of America to successfully resist the demands for wage increase. Likewise, FDIs by MNCs tend to move away from the newly industrialized economies, where wages and working conditions have improved, to less developed countries, such as India, Mauritius, Sri Lanka, and more recently Bangladesh, China and Viet Nam. Women’s wages relative to men’s might thus be unlikely to rise if women are more heavily concentrated than men in industries where capital is ‘footloose’ (i.e., where the threat by businesses to move offshore is highly credible). Indeed, that is likely to be the case in many low-wage sites in developing countries which attract FDIs. Not surprisingly, wage differentials are especially marked in those developing countries or areas which pursue export-led industrialization or have Economic Processing Zones (EPZs).
By contrast, in some developed economies, such as the United States, the forces of globalization appear to have adversely affected men’s wages more than women’s. Over the last two decades, trade liberalization and capital mobility have eroded well-paying blue-collar wages in concentrated industries where men were the well-entrenched insiders. Increased international competition which reduces the bargaining power of male workers in such industries, may be one explanation for the decreasing gender wage gap. Three quarters of the decrease in the wage gap in the United States since late 1970s is estimated to stem from the decline in male real wages (Lawrence and Bernstein, 1994). At least in some counties, the narrowing of the gender wage gap reflects in part a ‘downward harmonization’ between men and women.
Other factors also have influenced gender wage differentials over the past decades. There have been significant changes in the patterns of occupational segregation by sex around the world. Although women still earn less than men at every level of education, increasing number of women in higher- level jobs, especially in developed countries, have effectively improved women’s aggregate labour-market income relative to men. Other important factors, depending on the region and the country, have been the following:

•    the type of wage settlement

•    technological change

•    pattern of industrial development

•    change in societal values with regard to gender inequality.

12.4.2    Determinants of Wage Differentials
For identical work profile, women are paid less. And women are confined to relatively inferior tasks and more of contractual or casual work. Women employees get differential opportunities, differentials treatment and differential treatment.

•    Causes of WD are gender gaps in education, skill, opportunities due to patriarchal attitude and myths about women’s inferiority. Absence of affirmative action by the state and trade unions also perpetuate wage differentials.

•    Effects of WD are subordination of women in the workplace, family, community and public life, son preference, man is treated as a ‘bread winner’ and Head of the Household.
Despite the rapid and global increases in female paid employment in recent years, occupational segregation by sex remains a worldwide phenomenon. It can be an important indicator of women’s disadvantaged position in labour market. Indeed, higher levels of occupational segregation are generally associated with poorer labour-market conditions for women, lower pay, lower status, and more limited career opportunities, among others. It can be also be a source of labour market rigidity and thus economic inefficiency.
Women are more likely to be working in ‘men’s job’ than the opposite. But, as a rule, women are employed in a narrower range of occupations than men. Male-dominated, non-agricultural occupations are over seven times more numerous than female-dominated occupations. Women dominate in clerical and secretarial jobs and in low-end service occupations (as shop assistants, waitresses, maids, hairdressers, dressmakers), and as professionals they are most likely to be teachers or nurses. The ‘female occupations’ generally pay less and have lesser status and advancement prospects.
A distinction is usually made between two different forms of occupational segregation. Horizontal segregation, refers to the distribution of men and women across occupations (e.g,, women as maids and men as truck drivers); while the other, termed as vertical segregation refers to the distribution of men and women in the job hierarchy in terms of status within an occupation (e.g. production workers versus production supervisors). Neither form of occupational segregation correlates well with the level of socio- economic development across countries. Both vary by region, however, which suggests that social, historical and cultural factors might be important in determining the extent of occupational segregation by sex.
The level of horizontal segregation is lowest in the Asia and Pacific region and highest in the Middle East/North Africa. It is also relatively high in other developing regions, while of average magnitude in the OECD and transition economics in Eastern Europe. There are also large and significant differences in occupational segregation by sex across OECD sub regions. North America has the lowest level, while Scandinavia as a sub-region has the highest. The reason for the high level of segregation in the latter seems to be related to the way in which the welfare has created occupations that have remained ‘female’.
Vertical segregation, by contrast, is higher in Asia and the Pacific than in other parts of the world. Export-led industrial development has apparently opened up many industrial occupations to women (thereby significantly reducing horizontal segregation) without however, decreasing gender inequalities within occupations in term of wage, authority and career advancement possibilities. It again time to assess your understanding of the previous sections that you have just finished reading.
Let us now read why there exists wage defferentials between man and women workers.

12.4.3    Causes of Wage Differentials
Causes of wage differentials between men and women are deep rooted in the patriarchal attitude of the society. Let us read some more causes of wage differentials.

•    Secondary wage earners: Justification for paying lower wages to women is that men work for supporting their families while women work only for extra income. Many socio-economic surveys have shown that there is a large percentage of women who are sole supporters of their family. Census also records large number of women headed holds.

•    Not skilled to use machinery: Wage differential is not always based on different wage rates. The difference between the average wage earnings of men and women can result from the fact that many women workers are working at a lower level in the same employment, or doing the same work in the unorganized sector as is the situation with the Beedi workers. It is also based on the fact that whenever machinery is introduced men are substituted for female labourers and are paid wages related to the increased productivity resulting from the introduction of machines. The average wage earnings of women are also lower because they get less hours of work in comparison with men and they suffer from unemployment to a larger extent.

•    Gendered division of labour: The bifurcation of work between men and women is also a cause of wage differentials. In agriculture, weeding is predominantly a female task and is largely an off-peak activity. On the other hand, ploughing, transplanting and harvesting are mainly men’s activities and they are all peak season and time-bond activities. This job differential (weeding vis-à-vis ploughing, transplanting and harvesting) and time differential (off peak work vis-à-vis peak season time-bond activities) also lead to wage differences between men and women workers.

•    Use of obsolete technology: In industry the tasks assigned to women are usually performed by using low capital intensive technology. The processes they participate in, tend to be more primitive, using crude tools, consuming more of manual/physical energy. As a result, production tends to be slow, the product nonstandardized and the wages low.

•    Engaged in dispensable labour: For example, with regard to handicrafts, women’s skills mostly consist of capital and energy saving ingenuity. They are seldom found giving a definite distinctive character to the final products which leads to the survival of handicrafts. Women’s skills are limited to helping with ancillaries and are therefore dispensable making women’s wages low.

•    Loose ties with labour market: The low wages is related to the loose ties of most of the women with the labour market. Having internalized the patriarchal values, they feel that their first responsibility is to look after their homes and their children. They give up a job after child birth and reenter the job market when their children start going to full time school.
At this point, assess your understanding by attempting the following exercise. In the next subsection you will read how wage differentials can be minimized.

12.4.4    Measures to Remove Wage Differentials
Following measures can be instrumental in removing wage differentials.

•    Remove Segmentation of Labour Market: Wage differentials lead to segmentation of labour market. Hence, remove segmentation of labour market by changing the factors on both the demand and the supply side.

•   Entry into Organized Labour Market: Women must be encouraged and
facilitated to enter the organized sector of the labour market.

•    Participation in Union Activities: They should be encouraged to join trade
unions in large numbers and to actively participate in the union so that they can fight wage discrimination.

•    Equal Remuneration Act: The Equal Remuneration Act should be implemented and loop-holes should be plugged.
Self-Check Exercise-12.2
Q1. What are the primary reasons for wage differentials between men and women in various sectors?
Q2. How do patriarchal attitudes contribute to wage differentials in the workplace?
Q3. Why do women often receive lower wages in agriculture compared to men?
Q4. What role can trade unions play in reducing wage differentials for women?

12.5    SUMMARY
The labour market, not only in India but also in other countries of the world, is segmented with reference to the sex of workers. It does not accord the same status to female workers as it accords to the male workers. There are many factors working both on the demand and the supply side, which causes these segmentation of the market. A deep rooted cause of this segmentation is the patriarchal attitude of the employers and the society as a whole. Efforts to bring about the change in mind set of employers is the most important step to irradiate segmentation of labour force. Skill development of women is a prerequisite to overcome the barren and segmentation. A variety of technical courses should be made available to women and employment opportunities in new areas should be facilitated for them. If we succeeded in integrating women within the labour market, it will not only be beneficial to women workers but to the nation’s economy as a whole.

12.6    GLOSSARY

•    Segmentation: The process of defining and subdividing a large homogenous market into clearly identifiable segments having similar needs, wants or demand characteristics.

•    Wage differentials:   The difference in wages between workers with different
skills in the same industry or between those with comparable skills in different industries.

•    Wage discrimination:  Wage discrimination means when an employer pays a
woman less than a man for substantially equal work. Wage discrimination may also occur in instances that do not meet the equal work standard.

•    Patriarchy: It is a social system in which the male gender role acts as the primary authority figure central to social organization. In family situation a man holds authority over his wife, children and property. It implies the institution of male rule and privileges and entails female subordination.

•    The Equal Remuneration: This Act provides for the payment of equal Act, 1976 remuneration to men and women workers for same work or of similar nature work and for the prevention of discrimination on the ground of sex against women in the matter of employment.

12.7    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISES
Self-Check Exercise 12.1
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 12.3
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 12.3.1
Ans. Q3. Refer to Section 12.3.2
Ans. Q4. Refer to Section 12.3.4
Self-Check Exercise 12.2
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 12.4.1
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 12.4.2
Ans. Q3. Refer to Section 12.4.3
Ans. Q4. Refer to Section 12.4.4

12.8    REFERENCES/ SUGGESTED READINGS

•    Abraham, V. (2013) Missing Labour or Consistent ‘De-Feminisation’? Economic and Political Weekly, 48 (31).

•    Deshmukh, R.J. (2002). Women’s Work and Family Strategies in South and South-East Asia. New Delhi: Center for Women’s Development Studies and Rainbow.

•    Hartmann, H.I. and Markusen, A.R. (1980). Women as a Reserve Army of Labour: A Critique. Review of Radical Political Economics, 15(1), Spring.

•    Himanshu. (2011). Employment Trend in India: A Re-examination. Economic and Political Weekly, 46(37).

•    Government of India (1974). Towards Equality Report: The Committee on the Status of Women in India, New Delhi: Department of Social Welfare, Ministry of Education and Social Welfare.

•    IGNOU (2014).Gender Issues in Work, MGSE-009, Block 1 Unit 2

•    Krishnaraj, Maithreyi (2000) Women’s Perspectives on Public Policy in India. Gender, Technology and Development. May- August.

•    Kucera. (1998). Foreign Trade and Men and Women’s Employment and Earnings in Germany & Japan CEPA Working Papers on Globalization, Labour Markets and Social Policy, Working Paper 6, April 1998.

•    Lawrence and Bernstein. (1994). Handbook of Labour, Economics, Vol-3, Part A (1999). Chapter 26, Changes in Wage Structure and Earnings Inequality.

•  Lim. (1996). More and Better Jobs for Women: An Action Guide ILO: Geneva

•  Mazumdar, I. and Neetha, N. (2011). Gender Dimensions Employment Trends in
India, 1993-94 to 2009-10, EPW, XLVI, 43

•    National Sample Survey Office. (2006). Employment and Unemployment Situation in India 2004-05, Part 1, 61st Round.

•  National Sample Survey Office. (2011). Key Indicators of Employment and
Unemployment in India 2009- 10, 66th Round.

•  National Sample Survey Office. (2013). Key Indicators of Employment and
Unemployment in India 2011- 12, 68th Round.

•    Patel, V. (2014). Economics of Gender and Development, Mumbai: Centre for Distance Education, SNDT Women’s University.

•    Quick, P. (1977). The Class Nature of Women’s Oppression. Review of Radical Political Economics, 9 (3), Fall.

•    Sen, A. (1999). Development as Freedom. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

•    Shaw, A. (2013). Comparing NSSO’s Employment Surveys-A Methodological Note, Economic and Political Weekly, 48(30).

12.9    TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q1. Discuss various causes leading to segmentation of labour market in India. Suggest methods to integrate women with the labour market.
Q2. Do you agree that patriarchal attitude of society is the root cause of segmentation? Discuss with the help of examples.
Q3. Discuss the causes of the wage differential between male–female workers in India.
Q4. What measures will you suggest to bring about wage equality? Explain by giving examples.
UNIT-13
INVESTMENTS IN HUMAN CAPITAL
STRUCTURE

13.1    Introduction

13.2    Learning Objectives

13.3    Theoretical Framework
Self-Check Exercise 13.1

13.4    Types of Investments In Human Capital
Self-Check Exercise 13.2

13.5    Barriers to Investment in Human Capital by Gender
Self-Check Exercise 13.3

13.6    Impact of Investments in Human Capital
Self-Check Exercise 13.4

13.7    Policy Recommendations to Enhance Investments in Human Capital
Self-Check Exercise 13.5

13.8    Summary

13.9    Glossary

13.10    Answers to Self-Check Exercise

13.11    References/Suggested Readings

13.12    Terminal Questions

13.1    INTRODUCTION
Human capital is defined as the skills, knowledge, and experience possessed by individuals, which contribute to their productivity and economic potential. At the household level, investments in human capital primarily revolve around education, health, and skill development. These investments are crucial for economic development, poverty reduction, and the overall well-being of individuals and communities. In recent years, there has been growing recognition of the importance of gender in shaping investment decisions in human capital. The sex factor significantly influences how families allocate resources toward education, healthcare, and skill development, often resulting in disparities between males and females. Understanding these dynamics is vital for addressing gender inequality and fostering inclusive economic growth.
This unit aims to explore the nuances of human capital investments at the household level, examining the role of gender in shaping these decisions. It will discuss the types of investments made, the barriers faced by different genders, and the overall impact of
these investments on economic and social outcomes. The chapter will conclude with policy recommendations to enhance investments in human capital, emphasizing the need for gender-sensitive approaches.

13.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:

•    Define human capital and explain its significance in economic development.

•    Examine the role of gender in shaping household investment decisions in human capital.

•    Evaluate how gender disparities in human capital investments affect broader economic and social development.

•    Develop policy recommendations to enhance investments in human capital that address gender disparities.

13.3    THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

•    Human Capital Theory
Human capital theory posits that investments in education, training, and health lead to enhanced productivity and economic growth. Pioneered by economists like Gary Becker, this theory highlights the importance of investing in individuals as a means to increase overall economic output. According to Becker, education is a crucial component of human capital that contributes to individual earnings and societal prosperity.

•    Gender and Human Capital
The intersection of gender and human capital theory reveals critical insights into how investments differ by sex. Societal norms and expectations often dictate that males receive preferential treatment in educational and economic opportunities, leading to significant disparities in human capital accumulation. Understanding these differences is essential for creating effective interventions that promote gender equality.

•    Investment Decisions in Households
Investment decisions at the household level are influenced by various factors, including socio-economic status, cultural norms, and individual aspirations. Gender roles often play a significant role in these decisions, with families prioritizing investments based on perceived returns for male versus female members. This section will examine these influencing factors in detail.
Self-Check Exercise -13.1
Q1. Define human capital, and why is it significant for economic development?
Q2. What are the key components of human capital theory?
Q3 . What factors influence investment decisions in households regarding human capital?

13.4    TYPES OF INVESTMENTS IN HUMAN CAPITAL

i)    Education
Education stands as the keystone of human capital investment, profoundly influencing individual and societal economic outcomes. The significance of education is underscored by a wealth of research demonstrating that increased educational attainment correlates with higher income levels, improved job prospects, and enhanced quality of life.

1.    Impact on Economic Outcomes:

•    Investments in education yield substantial economic benefits. Educated individuals tend to be more productive, innovative, and adaptable in the labor market. Higher levels of education lead to a more skilled workforce capable of meeting the demands of a rapidly changing global economy.

•    Economies that invest in the education of both genders see more pronounced economic growth, as a diverse workforce brings various perspectives and talents, fostering innovation and creativity.

2.    Gender Disparities in Education:

•    Despite the recognized benefits of investing in education for all, gender disparities persist in many regions. Traditional gender roles often dictate that boys receive preferential treatment in educational investments. Families may prioritize sons' education due to beliefs that they will be the primary earners, while girls may be viewed as future homemakers with less need for formal education.

•    These disparities have long-term consequences, as girls who miss out on education face limited opportunities for economic participation. They are more likely to enter the labor market in low-skilled, low-paying jobs, perpetuating cycles of poverty and economic inequality.

3.    Policies for Promoting Gender Equality in Education:

•    Addressing educational disparities requires targeted policies that promote gender equality. Initiatives such as scholarships for girls, community awareness programs, and policy frameworks that mandate equal access to education can help bridge the gap.

•    Furthermore, creating a supportive environment that values girls’ education can shift cultural perceptions and encourage families to invest equally in the education of all children.

ii)    Health
Health is an essential facet of human capital, with investments in health care significantly influencing both individual and societal economic outcomes. A healthy population is more productive, and health investments can lead to substantial economic returns.

1.    Economic Benefits of Health Investments:

•    Improved health enhances workforce productivity by reducing absenteeism and increasing labor force participation. Healthy individuals are more likely to engage in productive activities, leading to higher economic output.

•    Additionally, investments in health care, particularly in maternal and child health, yield significant returns. Ensuring that mothers have access to quality health care not only improves their well-being but also positively impacts their children's health and development, leading to a more robust future workforce.

2.    Barriers to Health Access for Women:

•    Women often encounter multiple barriers to accessing health care, including economic constraints, lack of transportation, and societal stigma. In many cultures, women may be expected to prioritize family health over their own, leading to neglect of their health needs.

•    Furthermore, cultural norms and gender discrimination can restrict women's autonomy in making health-related decisions, diminishing their ability to seek necessary care. This lack of access to healthcare can have dire consequences for women's health outcomes and overall family well-being.

3.    Importance of Maternal and Child Health:

•    Maternal health is pivotal not only for the well-being of mothers but also for the future generations they nurture. Investing in maternal health care can reduce maternal and infant mortality rates, ensuring that children are born healthy and have a better chance of thriving.

•    Enhancing maternal health services, promoting family planning, and improving access to prenatal and postnatal care are crucial steps toward fostering healthier families and communities.

iii)    Skills Development
Vocational training and skills development represent vital components of human capital investment, especially in today’s dynamic job market. As economies evolve, the demand for skilled labor—particularly in emerging sectors—has increased, making skills development essential for both individual employability and broader economic growth.

1.    Enhancing Employability:

•  Skills development initiatives are designed to enhance employability by providing
individuals with the specific skills required for various occupations. Access to quality vocational training enables workers to adapt to changing labor market demands, increasing their chances of securing stable employment.

•    Investment in skill development is particularly important for marginalized groups, including women, who may face additional barriers to entering the workforce.

2.    Gender Disparities in Skills Development:

•    Despite the growing importance of vocational training, women remain underrepresented in skill development programs, especially in high-demand sectors such as technology, engineering, and skilled trades. This underrepresentation not only limits women's economic opportunities but also stifles overall economic growth.

•    Societal perceptions regarding gender roles can discourage women from pursuing careers in traditionally male-dominated fields, leading to a workforce that does not fully utilize the potential of its female members.

3.    Barriers to Skills Development:

•    Barriers to skills development for women include cultural stigma, lack of access to information about available programs, and financial constraints. Additionally, women often juggle multiple responsibilities, such as caregiving, which can limit their ability to participate in training programs.

•    Addressing these barriers requires a multi-faceted approach, including community outreach, flexible training schedules, and financial assistance for women seeking skills development opportunities.

4.    Implications for Economic Growth:

•    The lack of gender parity in skills development has far-reaching implications for economic growth. By failing to equip half the population with the skills necessary to thrive in the labor market, economies risk hindering innovation, productivity, and overall competitiveness.

•    Promoting gender-inclusive skills development programs not only empowers women but also contributes to a more dynamic and resilient economy. By leveraging the talents and skills of all individuals, societies can achieve sustainable economic growth and development.
Self-Check Exercise -13.2
Q1. Why is education considered a primary form of human capital investment?
Q2. How do gender differences in access to health and vocational training affect overall productivity?

13.5    BARRIERS TO INVESTMENT IN HUMAN CAPITAL BY GENDER
Investing in human capital—like education, health, and skills development—is essential for personal and societal growth. However, there are significant barriers that affect how much individuals, especially women, can invest in their own development. These barriers can be influenced by gender, leading to inequalities that affect women's opportunities in various areas.

1.    Cultural Norms and Gender Roles
In many societies, traditional views about gender roles can create barriers to investment in human capital. These cultural norms often dictate that men should be the primary earners and decision-makers in the family, while women are expected to take care of
household duties and children. As a result, families may prioritize spending on education and skills development for boys over girls. This leads to fewer educational and training opportunities for girls, which limits their ability to contribute economically later in life. When girls do not receive equal educational opportunities, they may have a harder time finding good jobs or earning a decent income.

2.    Economic Constraints
Financial limitations can significantly affect investment in human capital, particularly for women. In many households, financial resources are limited, and families must make tough choices about where to allocate their money. When faced with these decisions, families may prioritize spending on the education or health of male members, believing they will provide a better return on investment. Women might be encouraged to take up low-paying jobs or forgo education altogether to help with household responsibilities, further limiting their future earning potential.

3.    Limited Access to Healthcare
Access to quality healthcare is crucial for human capital development. However, women often face barriers when trying to obtain medical care. These barriers can include financial costs, lack of transportation, and insufficient healthcare facilities in their communities. When women cannot access necessary healthcare services, their overall health suffers. Poor health can prevent them from pursuing education or jobs, leading to a cycle of poverty and limited economic participation.

4.    Lack of Information and Awareness
Another barrier is the lack of information about available educational and training opportunities. Many women may not be aware of programs designed to help them develop skills or pursue education. This lack of awareness can stem from limited access to technology or education about these resources. Without knowledge of the options available to them, women may miss out on opportunities that could improve their lives and contribute to their families and communities. Increasing awareness and providing information can empower women to take action toward their own development.

5.    Gender-Based Discrimination
Discrimination based on gender is a persistent barrier in many societies. Women often face biases that limit their opportunities in education and employment. For instance, employers might prefer to hire men for certain jobs or believe that women are less capable in specific fields, such as science or technology. This discrimination not only affects women’s ability to secure jobs but also discourages them from pursuing education or training in these areas. When women do not have equal access to opportunities, it limits their potential contributions to the economy and society as a whole.

6.    Balancing Work and Family Responsibilities
Women frequently bear the brunt of household responsibilities, such as childcare and domestic work. This expectation can make it challenging for them to invest time in education or skills training. The struggle to balance these responsibilities can lead to lower participation rates in educational programs or job training. When women feel they
cannot pursue opportunities due to family duties, their chances for advancement are significantly reduced.

7.    Inadequate Support Systems
The lack of supportive environments can also be a barrier to investing in human capital. Support systems, such as mentorship programs, family support, and community initiatives, play a crucial role in encouraging women to pursue education and skills training. When these support systems are lacking, women may feel isolated and less motivated to seek opportunities for growth. Building strong support networks can help women overcome these challenges and promote greater investment in their development.
Self-Check Exercise -13.3
Q1. How do cultural and social norms influence household investment decisions in education and health?
Q2. What economic barriers do families face that affect their investment choices in human capital?

13.6    IMPACT OF INVESTMENTS IN HUMAN CAPITAL
Investments in human capital—through education, health, and skills development— have profound effects on both households and the broader economy. These investments lead to improved quality of life, increased earning potential, and overall societal progress. Below are some key ways in which human capital investments impact households and economic outcomes:

1.    Improved Household Income
One of the most direct outcomes of investing in human capital is the improvement in household income. Education and skills development significantly increase an individual’s earning potential, as they can access better-paying jobs. When both men and women in a household are educated and have marketable skills, the combined household income rises, leading to greater financial stability. Higher income allows families to afford better living conditions, invest in their children’s education, and improve their standard of living. This creates a virtuous cycle where future generations have better opportunities for education and health, continuing the upward trajectory.

2.    Reduction in Poverty Levels
Investments in human capital, especially in women, can play a crucial role in breaking the cycle of poverty. When women have access to education and employment opportunities, they contribute to household income, which reduces financial dependency and poverty. Research has shown that households where women are educated tend to invest more in their children's health, education, and overall well-being. As more families rise out of poverty, the economy benefits from increased consumer spending, greater savings, and a more skilled workforce. This contributes to sustainable economic growth and development.

3.    Better Health Outcomes
Investments in health, including maternal and child health, have lasting effects on both households and the economy. When individuals are healthy, they can work more effectively and contribute to economic productivity. Healthy mothers are better able to care for their children, leading to improved child development outcomes, including better nutrition, cognitive development, and future educational success. A healthier population reduces the burden on healthcare systems and increases overall productivity. Healthier workers mean fewer sick days, increased efficiency, and a stronger economy. Additionally, when families invest in healthcare, they ensure the well-being of future generations, promoting long-term societal benefits.

4.    Gender Equality and Economic Empowerment
Investing in women’s education and skills development promotes gender equality, which has significant economic benefits. When women are empowered to participate in the workforce, economies experience higher productivity and growth. Women also tend to reinvest a larger portion of their earnings back into their families and communities, contributing to overall economic well-being. Closing the gender gap in human capital investments can lead to significant gains in economic output. According to studies, increasing gender equality in education and employment could lead to trillions of dollars in global economic growth. Moreover, when women contribute to household income, it shifts power dynamics, leading to more equitable decision-making within the household.

5.    Intergenerational Benefits
Investing in human capital, particularly education, creates long-term intergenerational benefits. Educated parents are more likely to prioritize their children’s education and health, creating a cycle of upward mobility. Children of educated parents generally perform better in school and have better access to resources and opportunities. These intergenerational benefits lead to a more educated and skilled future workforce, contributing to sustained economic growth. Over time, societies with higher levels of human capital enjoy better social cohesion, reduced crime rates, and more equitable income distribution.

6.    Increased Labor Market Participation
When investments are made in human capital, particularly in education and skills training, labor market participation increases. More individuals, including women, are able to join the workforce, leading to greater economic activity. This is particularly important in countries where large segments of the population are underemployed or unemployed. Higher labor market participation boosts economic output, increases tax revenues for governments, and leads to more innovation and productivity in various sectors. Additionally, as more women enter the workforce, businesses and industries benefit from diverse perspectives and skills, driving economic progress.

7.    Enhanced Economic Productivity
Investing in human capital enhances economic productivity at both individual and macroeconomic levels. Educated and skilled workers are more innovative, efficient, and capable of adapting to new technologies and work environments. This leads to higher productivity across industries, contributing to overall economic growth. At the household
level, higher productivity translates to better job performance, promotions, and income growth. At the national level, improved productivity boosts a country’s competitiveness in the global market, attracting investment and fostering economic resilience.

8.    Reduced Gender Gaps in Economic Outcomes
Investments in women’s education and health help reduce gender disparities in income, employment, and leadership roles. When women are educated, they have better opportunities to pursue high-paying jobs and leadership positions, narrowing the gender wage gap. This reduction in gender inequality has broader economic benefits as it enables a more inclusive and productive workforce. Narrowing the gender wage gap increases household income and contributes to reducing overall income inequality. As gender disparities diminish, women’s economic empowerment leads to more balanced and diverse decision-making in both households and the workplace, benefiting society as a whole.

9.    Boost to Innovation and Economic Resilience
Human capital investments lead to higher levels of innovation, which is critical for longterm economic growth. Educated individuals are more likely to engage in creative problem-solving, entrepreneurship, and technological advancements. This boosts a nation’s ability to adapt to changing economic conditions and remain competitive in the global market. Households that invest in education and skills development are better prepared to navigate economic challenges, such as recessions or job market shifts. At the national level, countries with a well-educated workforce are more resilient to economic downturns and better positioned to lead in emerging industries like technology and renewable energy.

10.    Social and Civic Benefits
Investing in human capital also leads to broader social and civic benefits. Educated individuals are more likely to engage in their communities, participate in political processes, and contribute to social cohesion. Education fosters critical thinking, tolerance, and a sense of responsibility, which are essential for building stable and peaceful societies. At the household level, education and civic engagement promote better decision-making and more active participation in community development. At the national level, this leads to stronger democratic institutions, lower crime rates, and a more engaged and informed citizenry, all of which contribute to long-term social stability and economic prosperity.
Self-Check Exercise -13.4
Q1. What is the relationship between human capital investment and national economic growth?
Q2. How do investments in human capital affect household income and dynamics?
Q3. In what ways do education and health investments enhance women's social mobility and empowerment?

13.7    POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS TO ENHANCE INVESTMENTS IN HUMAN CAPITAL
Investing in human capital, particularly for women and girls, is essential for achieving gender equality and fostering inclusive economic growth. Governments, institutions, and communities need to implement targeted policies to address the gender disparities in education, health, and skills development. Below are detailed policy recommendations to enhance human capital investments, with a focus on improving outcomes for females:

1.    Ensure Equal Access to Quality Education
One of the most significant barriers to female human capital development is unequal access to quality education. Policies should focus on ensuring that girls have equal opportunities to complete their education, from primary school through higher education.

•    Free and Compulsory Education: Governments should make primary and secondary education free and compulsory for all children, including girls. This reduces financial barriers and incentivizes parents to send girls to school.

•    Eliminate Gender Bias in Schools: Educational policies should address gender biases in curricula, teaching practices, and resource allocation. This includes providing gender-sensitive teacher training and ensuring that textbooks promote gender equality.

•    Incentivize Girls' Enrollment and Retention: Introduce scholarship programs, cash transfers, or stipends specifically targeted at girls to encourage families to keep their daughters in school. Conditional cash transfers linked to school attendance have proven successful in many regions.

•    Infrastructure Improvements: Build more schools in rural areas to reduce the distance girls need to travel. Provide separate sanitation facilities for girls to improve school attendance, especially during menstruation.

2.    Invest in Vocational Training and Skills Development for Women
To increase female participation in the labor market, policies should focus on vocational training and skills development that cater to the specific needs of women and girls.

•    Gender-Focused Vocational Training: Offer vocational training programs that target women and provide them with marketable skills. These programs should be available in both traditional and non-traditional sectors, such as technology, engineering, and entrepreneurship.

•    Subsidized Training Programs: Provide subsidies or financial incentives for women to participate in training programs, particularly those from low-income households.

•    Mentorship and Career Guidance: Establish mentorship programs for young women to guide them through career decisions and help them access job markets that may traditionally be male-dominated.

•    Skill Certification Programs: Introduce skill certification programs that recognize informal work experience, particularly for women who have worked in caregiving roles or household enterprises.

3.    Expand Access to Healthcare for Women and Girls
Investing in women’s health is crucial for their overall well-being and economic productivity. Health policies should focus on improving access to healthcare services for women and girls, particularly in marginalized communities.

•    Universal Health Coverage (UHC): Governments should implement UHC systems that ensure women and girls have access to affordable, high-quality healthcare services, including reproductive health, maternal care, and preventive care.

•    Improve Maternal and Child Health Services: Strengthen healthcare systems to provide better maternal health services, including prenatal, childbirth, and postnatal care. This can reduce maternal mortality rates and improve the health of future generations.

•    Address Gender-Specific Health Issues: Create targeted programs to address health issues that disproportionately affect women, such as breast and cervical cancer, reproductive health, and mental health.

•    Remove Barriers to Healthcare Access: Address the socio-economic barriers that prevent women from accessing healthcare. This includes providing transportation subsidies, mobile health clinics, and outreach programs in rural areas.

4.    Promote Female Participation in STEM Fields
There is a significant gender gap in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields. Encouraging more women to pursue careers in STEM is essential for boosting innovation and economic growth.

•    Early Exposure to STEM Education: Introduce girls to STEM subjects early in their education by incorporating engaging and gender-neutral STEM curricula. Encourage participation through science clubs, coding workshops, and math competitions.

•    Scholarships for Women in STEM: Governments and private institutions should offer scholarships and fellowships specifically for women pursuing higher education in STEM fields. This reduces the financial burden and promotes female participation in these areas.

•    Create Role Models: Promote visibility of female role models in STEM by showcasing successful women in these fields through media campaigns, school programs, and mentorship opportunities.

•    Collaborate with the Private Sector: Partner with industries in technology and engineering to provide internships and job placements for women in STEM, ensuring they have practical experience and access to career opportunities.

5.    Address Social Norms and Gender Bias
Cultural and societal norms often perpetuate gender inequality in human capital investments. Governments and organizations should aim to challenge these norms and promote gender equality through advocacy and public awareness campaigns.

•    Community Awareness Campaigns: Conduct campaigns in communities, especially in rural areas, to raise awareness about the importance of educating girls and the long-term benefits of investing in women’s health and skills development.

•    Legal Reforms to Combat Gender Discrimination: Strengthen and enforce laws against gender discrimination in education and employment. Implement policies that require equal pay for equal work and address gender-based violence in the workplace.

•    Support for Care Work: Implement policies that recognize and support unpaid care work, predominantly performed by women. This includes providing paid parental leave, affordable childcare services, and flexible work arrangements.

•    Male Engagement Programs: Encourage male family members, community leaders, and influencers to support women’s education, employment, and health. Engaging men in these efforts helps break down cultural barriers that limit women’s opportunities.

6.    Improve Data Collection on Gender and Human Capital
To create effective policies that address gender disparities, governments need accurate and comprehensive data on the status of women in education, health, and employment.

•    Gender-Disaggregated Data: Collect and publish data disaggregated by gender on key indicators such as school enrollment rates, health outcomes, workforce participation, and wage gaps. This data can be used to monitor progress and identify areas for intervention.

•    Impact Evaluation of Gender-Focused Programs:  Conduct regular
evaluations of government and NGO programs aimed at improving human capital investments for women and girls. Assess the impact of these programs and adjust them as necessary to achieve better outcomes.

•    Inclusive Data Collection Methods: Ensure that data collection efforts include marginalized and hard-to-reach populations, such as rural women, ethnic minorities, and women with disabilities. Inclusive data collection helps ensure that policies are equitable and address the needs of all women.

7.    Provide Financial Incentives for Households to Invest in Female Human Capital
Financial incentives can motivate households to invest more in the education and health of girls and women.

•    Conditional Cash Transfers (CCTs): Implement CCT programs that provide financial assistance to families in exchange for sending girls to school or ensuring they receive regular health check-ups. CCTs have been highly
successful in countries like Brazil and Mexico in improving girls’ education and health outcomes.

•    Tax Breaks for Education and Health Expenses: Offer tax breaks or deductions for families that invest in education and healthcare for their daughters. This reduces the financial burden of these investments and encourages more equitable allocation of resources between male and female children.

•    Microfinance Programs for Women: Expand access to microfinance programs that provide loans for women’s education, health, and entrepreneurship. By empowering women financially, these programs can help them take charge of their human capital development.

8.    Encourage Female Entrepreneurship and Economic Participation
Creating more opportunities for women to engage in the economy is essential for maximizing the returns on human capital investments.

•    Support for Female Entrepreneurs: Provide grants, low-interest loans, and business development services tailored to female entrepreneurs. Ensure that women have access to capital and financial services to start and grow their businesses.

•    Access to Markets: Facilitate access to domestic and international markets for women-led businesses. Provide support for networking, market linkages, and digital platforms that enable women entrepreneurs to expand their reach.

•    Workforce Participation Policies: Enact policies that promote women’s participation in the workforce, such as affordable childcare services, paid maternity leave, and anti-discrimination laws.
Self-Check Exercise -13.5
Q1. What are some effective strategies for increasing female enrollment and retention in education?
Q2. How can policies improve access to healthcare for women and girls?

13.8    SUMMARY
This unit has explored the details of investments in human capital at the household level, emphasizing the significant role of gender in shaping these decisions. By understanding the barriers and opportunities associated with human capital investments, policymakers and communities can work toward fostering greater equity and inclusivity. Prioritizing gender-sensitive approaches will not only enhance individual and household outcomes but also contribute to sustainable economic development and social progress.

13.9    GLOSSARY

•    Human Capital: refers to the knowledge, skills, and health that individuals accumulate throughout their lives, which enhance their productivity and economic value.

•    Human Capital Theory: that suggests investments in education, health, and training improve an individual’s productivity and earning potential, leading to overall economic growth.

•  Gender and Human Capital: examines how gender affects access to and
benefits from human capital investments, with women often facing more barriers.

•  Gender-Sensitive Investments: education, health, and skills that  are
specifically designed to address the needs and barriers faced by women and girls.

13.10    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISE
Self-Check Exercise 13.1
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 13.3
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 13.3
Ans. Q3. Refer to Section 13.3
Self-Check Exercise 13.2
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 13.4
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 13.4
Self-Check Exercise 13.3
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 13.5
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 13.5
Self-Check Exercise 13.4
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 13.6
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 13.6
Ans. Q3. Refer to Section 13.6
Self-Check Exercise 13.5
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 13.7
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 13.7

13.11    REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

•    Banarjee, S. (2005). Role of Women in Development Sector. Mangal Publication,
Jaipur.

•    Chandra, S. (2001). Women and Economic Development. B.R. Publication,
Delhi.

•    Elango, K., Perumal, A. and  Raj, M. (2008). Emerging Issues in Gender and
Women Development. Abhijeet Publication, New Delhi.

•    Jain, D. (2006). Women, Development and the UN. Orient Longman, Hyderabad.

•    Jayasuriya, S. and Jayasuriya, D.C. (1999). Women and Development- The Road from Beijing. Har Anand Publication, New Delhi.

•    Kalpagam, U. (2011). Gender and Development in India – Current Issues.
Rawat Publication, Jaipur.

•    Narayana, E.A. and Lakshmi, E.V. (2011). Women development in India. Regal
Publication, New Delhi.

•    Roy, S.M. (2008). The Gender Politics of Development. Zubaan Publication,
New Delhi.

•    Rustagi, P. (2000). Gender Development Indicators : Issues, Debates and
Ranking of Districts. CWDS, New Delhi.

•    Seth, M. (2001). Women Development. Sage Publication, New Delhi.

•    Sinha, R. (2004). Status of Women and Economic Development. RBSA
Publication, Jaipur.

•    Thakur, Sadhana (2012). Women Empowerment in Rural India. Abhijeet
Publication, New Delhi.

13.12    TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q1. How does the intersection of gender and human capital theory influence investment decisions at the household level, and what are the implications for economic development and growth?
Q2. What are the primary barriers to investment in human capital by gender, and how do these barriers manifest in educational attainment, health access, and skills development for women?
Q3. In what ways can targeted policy interventions and awareness campaigns effectively enhance investments in human capital for women, ultimately contributing to improved household outcomes and fostering sustainable economic growth?
UNIT-14
HOUSEHOLD ECONOMICS: THEORETICAL CONCEPTS AND GENDER CRITIQUE
STRUCTURE

14.1    Introduction

14.2    Learning Objectives

14.3    Historical Evolution of Household Economics
Self-Check Exercise 14.1

14.4    Theoretical Concepts in Household Economics


14.4.1    The Neo-Classical Approach

14.4.2    The Neo-Marxist Approach

14.4.3    Gender Critique of Household Economics


14.4.3.1    The Gendered Division of Labour

14.4.3.2    The Gender Contract
Self-Check Exercise 14.2

14.5    Negotiation Models within Families
Self-Check Exercise 14.3

14.6    Intersectionality and Household Economics
Self-Check Exercise 14.4

14.7    Importance of Analyzing Households as Economic Units
Self-Check Exercise 14.5

14.8    Summary

14.9    Glossary

14.10    Answers to Self-Check Exercise

14.11    References/Suggested Readings

14.12    Terminal Questions

14.1    INTRODUCTION
Household economics is a branch of economics that studies the household as an economic unit, analyzing how households make decisions related to resource allocation, production, consumption, and labour. The household is not merely a site of consumption but a vital unit of production and reproduction, contributing significantly to the broader economy. It encompasses decisions about who works, what work is done, how income is generated and spent, and how time is allocated between paid and unpaid labour. In traditional economic theory, households are often modeled as units
that maximize utility, balancing the needs and preferences of their members against the constraints they face.
The significance of household economics in broader economic theory lies in its capacity to bridge microeconomic and macroeconomic analyses. While microeconomics focuses on individual decision-making, and macroeconomics considers aggregate economic outcomes, household economics provides insights into the foundational role households play in both spheres. By understanding household behavior, economists can better predict and explain market outcomes, labour supply, and consumption patterns. Furthermore, household economics challenges the assumption that the market is the primary site of economic activity, highlighting the substantial economic value of unpaid labour, such as childcare and eldercare, often performed within households.

14.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you will be able to:

•    Describe the historical evolution of household economics

•    Explain the theoretical concepts in household economics

•    Discuss the negotiation models within families

•    List the importance of analyzing households as economic units

14.3    HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF HOUSEHOLD ECONOMICS
The study of household economics has evolved significantly over time. In classical economic theory, households were primarily considered consumers, with little attention paid to their role in production and labour. The neoclassical school, particularly through the work of Gary Becker in the 1960s, advanced the study of household economics by applying economic principles to family decision-making. Becker's "New Household Economics" introduced the concept of households as producers of "commodities" using time and goods to produce outputs such as meals, education, and leisure. This approach emphasized the household's role in allocating time between market labour and home production, as well as in making decisions about marriage, fertility, and education.
The Marxist approach to household economics emerged as a critique of the capitalist system, viewing households as sites of both production and reproduction. Marxists argued that households are integral to the reproduction of labour power, with unpaid domestic labour supporting the capitalist economy by maintaining and regenerating the workforce. In this context, households were seen as spaces where exploitation and inequality could be perpetuated, particularly along gender lines.
In recent decades, feminist economists have critically examined household economics, challenging the assumptions of both neoclassical and Marxist theories. They argue that traditional economic models often ignore the gendered nature of household labour, particularly the undervaluation of unpaid work typically performed by women. Feminist critiques have pushed for a more nuanced understanding of household dynamics, one that considers power relations, social norms, and the intersectionality of gender, race, and class.
Self-Check Exercise 14.1
Q1. Describe in brief the historical evolution of household economics.

14.4    THEORETICAL CONCEPTS IN HOUSEHOLD ECONOMICS


14.4.1    The Neo-Classical Approach
The neo-classical approach to household economics is rooted in the assumption of the "unitary household model," where the household is treated as a single entity with a common utility function. The model assumes that household members share the same preferences and pool their resources to maximize collective welfare.
Key Assumptions:

-    Utility Maximization: Households aim to maximize a joint utility function, which is assumed to represent the preferences of all members.

-    Resource Pooling: All income and resources are pooled together, and decisions are made to optimize the overall well-being of the household.

-    Perfect Information and Rationality: Household members have perfect information and make rational decisions based on this information.
Limitations:

-    Homogenization of Preferences: This model overlooks the possibility of conflicting interests among household members.

-    Neglect of Power Dynamics: It ignores the power imbalances that can exist within households, particularly along gender lines.

-    Invisibility of Unpaid Labour: The model fails to account for unpaid domestic and care work, often performed by women, that is essential for the functioning of the household and the economy at large.

14.4.2    The Neo-Marxist Approach
The neo-Marxist approach to household economics emphasizes the role of households in the reproduction of labour power and the perpetuation of capitalist systems. This perspective highlights how households contribute to the economy through both productive and reproductive labour, with a focus on the exploitation inherent in these processes.
Key Concepts:

-    Social Reproduction: Refers to the array of activities and relationships involved in maintaining and reproducing people, both on a daily basis and intergenerationally.

-    Exploitation of Reproductive labour: Women's unpaid labour within households is seen as essential for the reproduction of labour power, yet it remains undervalued and exploited within capitalist systems.

-    Class and Gender: Neo-Marxist analysis often intersects with feminist theories to explore how class and gender intersect in the exploitation and marginalization of women within households.
Critiques:

-    Reductionism: The neo-Marxist approach can be criticized for reducing all household dynamics to economic and class struggles, potentially overlooking other significant social factors.

-    Gender Oversight: While it recognizes the exploitation of women's labour, early neoMarxist theories often did not adequately address the complexities of gender relations within households.

14.4.3    Gender Critique of Household Economics14.4.3.1    The Gendered Division of Labour
One of the central critiques of traditional household economics is its failure to account for the gendered division of labour. Feminist economists have highlighted how economic models often ignore the substantial amount of unpaid labour performed by women in households, including cooking, cleaning, child-rearing, and caring for the elderly.

-    Invisibility of Unpaid Labour:

-    Feminist Critique: Feminist scholars argue that traditional economic models render women's unpaid labour invisible, treating it as non-economic activity. This invisibility reinforces gender inequalities by perpetuating the undervaluation of women's work.

-    Economic Impact: Unpaid labour contributes significantly to the economy, yet it is not reflected in GDP or other economic indicators, leading to a skewed understanding of economic productivity and growth.

-    Social Reproduction:

-    Conceptualization: Social reproduction encompasses the processes that maintain and reproduce the labour force, including the daily and generational care of family members. Feminist economists have emphasized that social reproduction is crucial to the functioning of the economy, yet it remains largely unrecognized and uncompensated.

14.4.3.2    The Gender Contract
The concept of the "gender contract" refers to the implicit and explicit agreements between men and women regarding their roles and responsibilities within households. These contracts are shaped by cultural norms, legal frameworks, and social expectations, and they often reinforce gender inequalities.
Implicit and Explicit Contracts:

-    Implicit Contracts: These are unwritten, culturally enforced agreements about gender roles within the household. For example, the expectation that women should be primary caregivers while men should be breadwinners.

-    Explicit Contracts: These may include legal agreements, such as marriage contracts, that define the roles and responsibilities of each partner.
Critique:

-    Reinforcement of Inequality: The gender contract often perpetuates traditional gender roles, limiting women's economic opportunities and autonomy.

-    Negotiation and Resistance: While these contracts can be restrictive, they are also subject to negotiation and change. Feminist scholars have explored how women resist and renegotiate these contracts to gain more equitable power and resource distribution within households.
Self-Check Exercise 14.2
Q1. Explain the neo classical approach of household economics
Q2. Describe the neo Marxist approach of household economics

Q3. Explain the gender critique of household economics.

14.5 NEGOTIATION MODELS WITHIN FAMILIES
In response to the limitations of the unitary household model, economists have developed bargaining and negotiation models that recognize the household as a site of conflict and cooperation among members with different preferences and power levels.

-    Bargaining Models:

-    Collective Models: These models assume that household members have individual preferences and negotiate to reach decisions that maximize collective welfare. The outcome of these negotiations depends on each member's bargaining power, which is influenced by factors such as income, access to resources, and social norms.

-    Non-Cooperative Models: In these models, household members act in their selfinterest, and the household outcome is a result of strategic interactions. These models are useful for understanding how power dynamics and inequalities within households affect decision-making.

-    Empirical Evidence:

-    Income and Bargaining Power: Empirical studies have shown that when women control a greater share of household income, they tend to have more bargaining power, which can lead to more equitable decision-making and better outcomes for children and the household overall.

-    Impact of Social Norms: Social norms around gender roles continue to influence bargaining outcomes, often constraining women’s ability to negotiate more equitable terms within households.
Self-Check Exercise 14.3
Q1. Describe the negotiation models within families.

14.6    INTERSECTIONALITY AND HOUSEHOLD ECONOMICS
Intersectionality, a concept introduced by Kimberlé Crenshaw, refers to how different social identities—such as gender, race, class, and sexuality—intersect to create unique experiences of oppression and privilege. In the context of household economics,
intersectionality is crucial for understanding how various forms of inequality compound to shape the experiences and economic outcomes of different household members.
Intersectional Analysis:
-Race and Class: Women of color and women from lower socio-economic backgrounds often face multiple layers of disadvantage within households, including economic marginalization, limited access to resources, and increased vulnerability to exploitation.

-    Global Perspective: Intersectional analysis is also important in a global context, where factors such as migration status, ethnicity, and nationality further complicate the dynamics of household economics.
Policy Implications:

-    Targeted Interventions: Intersectional analysis highlights the need for policies that address the specific needs of marginalized groups within households. For example, social protection programs that are sensitive to the intersection of gender, race, and class can more effectively reduce inequalities.
Self-Check Exercise 14.4
Q1. Explain the relationship between intersectionality and household economics.

14.7    IMPORTANCE OF ANALYZING HOUSEHOLDS AS ECONOMIC UNITS
Analyzing households as economic units is crucial for several reasons. First, it allows for a more comprehensive understanding of economic behavior, as households are where crucial decisions about labour supply, consumption, savings, and investments are made. These decisions, in turn, influence broader economic trends and outcomes, such as labour market participation, income distribution, and economic growth.
Second, the analysis of households sheds light on the distribution of resources and power within the family. This is particularly important for understanding issues of inequality, both within households and in society at large. By examining how resources are allocated among household members, economists can identify patterns of inequality that may be obscured when looking only at individual or market-level data.
Third, recognizing the economic value of unpaid labour within households challenges traditional economic metrics, such as Gross Domestic Product (GDP), which typically exclude non-market activities. By incorporating the value of unpaid labour, economists can develop more accurate measures of economic well-being and productivity.
Finally, the study of household economics is essential for the development of effective public policies. Policies related to taxation, social welfare, childcare, and eldercare all have direct implications for household behavior and well-being. By understanding how households function, policymakers can design interventions that better support families and promote economic equity.
Self-Check Exercise 14.5
Q1. Explain the importance of analyzing households as economic units.

14.8    SUMMARY
Household economics, when critically examined through the lens of gender, reveals the limitations of traditional economic models and the importance of incorporating gender and power dynamics into economic analysis. The gender critique has brought to light the significant yet often invisible contributions of women to the economy through unpaid labour and the complex negotiations that take place within households. By moving beyond the unitary household model and embracing intersectional analysis, we can better understand and address the inequalities that persist within households and the broader economy.
This unit underscores the necessity of a gendered approach to household economics, one that recognizes the diversity of household experiences and the importance of equitable resource distribution. As economic theories and policies evolve, integrating gender perspectives will be crucial for creating more just and inclusive economic systems.

14.9    GLOSSARY

•    Household Economics: is a theoretical framework that studies the decisions made by households and their ability to produce commodities to meet needs. It analyzes households at both the micro and macro economic levels

•    Intersectionality: is a sociological framework that helps us understand how a person's social and political identities can lead to unique experiences of discrimination and privilege. It's based on the idea that multiple social categories, such as race, gender, and class, are interconnected and create overlapping systems of discrimination.

•    Gross Domestic Product (GDP): is the total monetary or market value of all the finished goods and services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period.

10.10    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISE
Self-Check Exercise 14.1
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 14.3
Self-Check Exercise 14.2
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 14.4.1
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 14.4.2
Ans. Q3. Refer to Section 14.4.3
Self-Check Exercise 14.3
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 14.5
Self-Check Exercise 14.4
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 14.6
Self-Check Exercise 14.5
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 14.7

14.11    REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

•  Becchio, G. (2021). A History of Feminist and Gender Economics. Taylor &
Francis Books India Pvt. Ltd

•  Birch, E.; Le, A. and Miller, P.W. (2009). Household Divisions of Labour:
Teamwork, Gender and Time. Palgrave Macmillan

•    Das, K. (2009). Gender Dynamics: In Economic Development of India. Reference Press

•  Dewan, R and Prabhu, S. (2008). Macroeconomics And Gender. Zubaan an
Association of Kali for Women.

•  Eswaran, M. (2014). Why Gender Matters in Economics. Princeton University
Press

•    Jacobsen, J.P. (2007). The Economics of Gender, Third Edition. Wiley-Blackwell, U.S.A.

•    Paoloni, P. and Lombardi, R. (2018). Gender Issues in Business and Economics. Springer International Publishing.

•    Sen, R. and Chatterjee. (2020). Power, Sexuality and Gender Dynamics at Work. SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd.

14.12    TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q1. Explain in detail the theoretical concepts in household economics
Q2. Discuss the negotiation models within families
Q3. Write the importance of analyzing households as economic units
Unit-15
ALLOCATION OF GENDER TIME
STRUCTURE

15.1    Introduction

15.2    Learning Objectives

15.3    Gendered Division of Labour: Historical Context and Norms


15.3.1    Pre-Industrial Societies

15.3.2    Industrial Revolution and Capitalism

15.3.3    Post-War Era and the Rise of Feminism
Self-Check Exercise 15.1

15.4    National Sample Survey (NSS) and Time Use Surveys
Self-Check Exercise 15.2

15.5    The Double Burden: Paid and Unpaid Labour
Self-Check Exercise 15.3

15.6    Labour Force Participation and Time Allocation
Self-Check Exercise 15.4

15.7    Factors influencing Gendered Time Use
Self-Check Exercise 15.5

15.8    Policy Implications: Addressing the Time Use Imbalance
Self-Check Exercise 15.6

15.9    Summary

15.10    Glossary

15.11    Answers to Self-Check Exercise

15.12    References/Suggested Readings

15.13    Terminal Questions

15.1    INTRODUCTION
The allocation of time between the market and the household is a critical indicator of gendered economic roles and power dynamics within societies. In India, gender differences in time use highlight the entrenched inequalities in both paid and unpaid labour. Women disproportionately bear the burden of household duties while facing barriers to entering and thriving in the formal labour market. These time-use patterns not only reflect existing gender norms but also perpetuate economic inequality and limit women’s opportunities for personal and professional growth.
This unit explores the gender differences in time use in India, drawing on empirical data and studies to analyze how time is allocated between market and household activities. It also examines the broader implications for policy, development, and gender equity.

15.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:

•    Describe the historical context and norms of gender division of labour

•    Discuss the time use survey conducted by National Statistical Office in 2019

•    Explain the factors influencing the gender time use.

15.3    GENDERED DIVISION OF LABOUR: HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND NORMS
The gendered division of labour, which refers to the distinct allocation of tasks, responsibilities, and roles between men and women, has deep historical roots shaped by social, economic, and cultural factors. It emerges from a complex interplay of traditional norms, patriarchal structures, and evolving economic systems, which have all contributed to the unequal distribution of labour both in the household and the public sphere.

15.3.1    Pre-Industrial Societies
In pre-industrial societies, the division of labour was often based on physical attributes and biological roles, such as childbearing and nursing, which were primarily assigned to women. Men, on the other hand, engaged in physically demanding tasks such as hunting, herding, and later, agricultural work. While this division was often seen as pragmatic, it laid the foundation for the social hierarchies and gender norms that persisted over time. Women's work, though integral to the survival of the community (e.g., gathering food, crafting, and childcare), was often devalued and seen as secondary to men's contributions.
This early division of labour created a model where men’s work was associated with the public and productive domain, while women’s labour was confined to the private, domestic sphere. In many agrarian societies, although women were actively involved in farming and craft-making, the ownership of land and control of resources were typically in the hands of men, reinforcing gender inequality.

15.3.2    Industrial Revolution and Capitalism
The industrial revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries brought significant changes to the gendered division of labour. As economies transitioned from agrarian to industrialized systems, work became more segregated. Men increasingly took up wage labour in factories and industries, while women were relegated to unpaid domestic work. This period solidified the idea of separate spheres, where men were the breadwinners and women were homemakers, confined to managing the home and caring for children.
Industrial capitalism further marginalized women’s labour, as the economic value was increasingly placed on paid work outside the home. Women's contribution to the household economy, such as caregiving and household chores, became invisible and devalued. Even when women entered the workforce, especially during times of labour
shortages, such as during the World Wars, they were typically employed in low-paying, low-status jobs, reinforcing their subordinate position in both the economy and society.

15.3.3    Post-War Era and the Rise of Feminism
The post-war era in the 20th century saw the beginning of a shift in the gendered division of labour. The rise of feminist movements in the 1960s and 1970s, particularly in Western countries, challenged traditional gender norms and the unequal distribution of labour. Women began to demand equal rights, access to education, and the opportunity to work outside the home. This period also saw increased attention to the unpaid labour women performed within the household, which feminists argued was crucial for sustaining the economy and society but remained largely unrecognized.
The introduction of policies aimed at increasing women’s participation in the labour market, such as maternity leave, childcare support, and anti-discrimination laws, began to challenge the rigid division between men’s work and women’s work. However, the change was slow, and despite women’s increasing entry into the workforce, they continued to bear the primary responsibility for domestic tasks and caregiving.
Self-Check Exercise 15.1
Q1. What is the gendered division of labour?
Q2. What roles were typically assigned to men and women in pre-industrial societies?
Q3. How did the industrial revolution change the gendered division of labour?

15.4    NATIONAL SAMPLE SURVEY (NSS) AND TIME USE SURVEYS
The National Sample Survey (NSS) and Time Use Surveys (TUS) have played a critical role in providing empirical evidence on the economic and social behaviors of households in India. These surveys offer valuable insights into gender disparities, particularly in the allocation of time between market-based economic activities and household tasks. Through these surveys, it becomes clear how gendered divisions of labour contribute to systemic inequalities within both private and public spheres, with a particular focus on unpaid work.
National Sample Survey (NSS)
The National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) has conducted several rounds of surveys on various socio-economic aspects, from employment and household consumption to health and education. NSS surveys, which began in 1950, provide robust data on workforce participation, unemployment, consumption patterns, and many other dimensions, disaggregated by gender, caste, region, and other demographic factors. Specifically, NSS rounds on employment and unemployment give critical insights into gender differences in labour market participation.
Despite improvements in women’s access to education and employment opportunities, the NSS data repeatedly highlight low female labour force participation rates (LFPR) in India. While men’s LFPR has remained relatively stable, women’s LFPR has often shown a declining trend, particularly in rural areas. This decline can be attributed to factors such as patriarchal norms, the burden of unpaid domestic work, and the
absence of gender-sensitive employment policies. NSS data reveal that women, especially in rural areas, engage primarily in informal, low-paying jobs, or remain within the boundaries of domestic work, which is not adequately accounted for in traditional economic indicators like GDP.
Moreover, NSS data on the workforce also reveal significant occupational segregation, where women are over-represented in low-skill, low-paid sectors like agriculture, domestic work, and care services, and under-represented in higher-paying formal sectors. This highlights a structural issue in India’s labour market where gender, class, and caste intersect to reinforce inequalities.
Time Use Surveys (TUS)
Time Use Surveys, which were first conducted in India on a pilot basis in 1998-99 and subsequently in 2019, focus explicitly on the allocation of time across various activities. They gather data on how individuals spend their time on paid and unpaid work, care activities, and personal activities. This is crucial in understanding the “invisible” contribution of women’s unpaid labour to the economy and household maintenance.
Empirical evidence from the 2019 Time Use Survey reveals stark gender differences in time allocation. On average, Indian women spend 299 minutes a day on unpaid domestic and 134 minutes on unpaid caregiving work, while men spend only 97 and 76 minutes respectively. Conversely, men spend nearly 459 minutes on paid work or income-generating activities, while women spend just 333 minutes per day on paid labour. This uneven distribution reflects deeply entrenched social norms where women are expected to take primary responsibility for household tasks, limiting their time for paid labour or leisure.
Average time (in minutes) spent in a day in different activities
| Description of the activity | Male | Female | Person |
|---|---|---|---|
| Employment and related activities | 459 | 333 | 429 |
| Production of goods for own final use | 198 | 116 | 151 |
| Unpaid  domestic  services  for  household members | 97 | 299 | 248 |
| Unpaid  caregiving  services  for  household members | 76 | 134 | 114 |
| Unpaid volunteer, trainee and other unpaid work | 102 | 99 | 101 |
| Learning | 426 | 423 | 424 |
| Socializing  and  communication,  community participation and religious practice | 147 | 139 | 143 |
| Culture, leisure, mass-media and sports practices | 164 | 165 | 165 |
| Self-care and maintenance | 729 | 723 | 726 |


Source: Time Use Survey, National Statistical Office, January – December 2019.
The India Time Use Survey (TUS) 2019 also provides insights into this unequal distribution of time. The TUS revealed that 92 per cent of women participate in unpaid
domestic services for household members, compared to only 27 per cent of men. In addition, 57 per cent of women engage in unpaid caregiving activities, compared to just 14 per cent of men. This data underscores the gendered expectations regarding unpaid labour and reflects the broader societal undervaluation of women’s contributions to the household.
The Time Use Survey is particularly significant in quantifying unpaid labour, which often remains invisible in conventional economic analysis. It reveals how women’s work is disproportionately categorized as ‘non-market activities,’ which further reinforces their economic marginalization. This empirical evidence calls for greater recognition and valuation of unpaid labour, arguing for its inclusion in policy-making decisions such as social security, retirement benefits, and tax policies.
Self-Check Exercise 15.2
Q1. What key insights do NSS data provide regarding female labour force participation rates in India?
Q2. How do Time Use Surveys measure unpaid labour?

15.5    THE DOUBLE BURDEN: PAID AND UNPAID LABOUR
The concept of the double burden, or "dual burden," refers to the simultaneous responsibilities women face in managing both paid work in the labour market and unpaid domestic labour within households. This phenomenon is rooted in the deep-seated gender division of labour that assigns women primary responsibility for household duties, caregiving, and family welfare, while also expecting them to participate in the workforce. The result is a disproportionate workload that negatively impacts women's time, well-being, career progression, and economic independence.
Unpaid Labour and Its Invisibility
Unpaid labour encompasses a range of activities that are crucial for the maintenance of households and society, including cooking, cleaning, caregiving, and emotional labour. Despite its essential role, unpaid work is not formally recognized or remunerated in most economic systems, particularly in traditional national income measures like Gross Domestic Product (GDP). This invisibility reinforces the undervaluation of women's contributions to society, both at home and in the economy.
The disproportionate burden of unpaid work falls overwhelmingly on women. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), women globally spend more than twice as much time as men on unpaid care and domestic work. In developing countries, including India, the gap is even wider. Empirical evidence, such as from India’s Time Use Survey (2019), shows that women spend nearly five hours a day on unpaid domestic work, while men spend less than two hours. This persistent inequality in household responsibilities limits women’s participation in paid employment and restricts their ability to invest time in education, skill development, or leisure.
Paid Labour and Gender Inequality
On the paid labour front, women face significant challenges in terms of access, opportunities, and wage equality. Structural barriers, such as occupational segregation, gender pay gaps, and limited access to quality jobs, affect women’s ability to fully participate in the workforce. Women are often concentrated in informal, low-wage sectors, such as domestic work, caregiving, and agriculture, where job security and social protections are minimal. In addition to these economic inequalities, women are frequently expected to manage household duties and caregiving responsibilities even if they engage in full-time paid employment.
The pressures of balancing paid and unpaid work often lead to negative outcomes for women in the labour market. They may be forced to take up part-time work, which is typically less secure and lower paid, or face career interruptions due to family responsibilities. These disruptions contribute to the gender wage gap, as women accumulate less work experience and miss out on promotions or advancement opportunities. Women’s "time poverty," a direct consequence of the double burden, thus restricts their economic independence and diminishes their bargaining power in both professional and domestic spaces.
Consequences of the Double Burden
The double burden has wide-ranging consequences, affecting women's physical and mental health, as well as their overall quality of life. Juggling paid work and unpaid domestic duties often leads to stress, burnout, and fatigue. Women may also have less time for self-care, leisure, or social activities, which can result in social isolation and reduced emotional well-being. Furthermore, the pressure of fulfilling multiple roles reinforces traditional gender norms, which not only sustain gender inequality but also perpetuate intergenerational patterns of inequality by passing these norms to children.
The economic costs of the double burden extend beyond individuals, affecting productivity and national economies. Women's limited access to full-time work and higher-paying jobs reduces household income and contributes to higher rates of poverty. Moreover, unpaid care work remains an underutilized resource in the global economy. According to Oxfam, if unpaid care work were given monetary value, it would add trillions of dollars to the global economy, emphasizing its importance for both economic and social development.
Self-Check Exercise 15.3
Q1. What are some of the challenges women face in paid labour?
Q2. How does the double burden affect women's economic independence?

15.6    LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION AND TIME ALLOCATION
Women’s labour force participation (LFP) and time allocation are critical indicators of gender equality and economic development. The way women engage with the labour market and how they allocate their time between paid and unpaid work highlights both progress and challenges in achieving gender parity. Globally and in India, empirical data reveals persistent gender disparities in labour force participation
and the division of time between the market and household work, which are shaped by cultural norms, economic structures, and public policies.
Labour Force Participation of Women
Women’s labour force participation has been a subject of intense debate, particularly in countries like India, where the paradox of declining female LFP amidst growing economic development has puzzled economists and policy makers. Women’s participation in the workforce is significantly lower than men’s across the world. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), the global LFP rate for women stands at approximately 47 per cent, compared to 74 per cent for men. In India, the gap is even more pronounced, with female LFP hovering around 20 per cent in recent years.
This low participation can be attributed to several structural and socio-cultural barriers. Gender norms dictate that women’s primary responsibility lies within the home, performing domestic chores and caregiving, while paid work is considered secondary. Women’s LFP is also limited by factors such as the lack of quality employment opportunities, discriminatory hiring practices, and inadequate workplace protections. Moreover, the absence of affordable childcare services, rigid working hours, and unsafe work environments further dissuade women from participating in formal employment.
Another significant factor influencing women’s LFP is educational attainment. While there has been an increase in women’s access to education, especially at the secondary and tertiary levels, this has not necessarily translated into proportional increases in workforce participation. The inverse relationship between educational levels and female LFP, particularly in rural areas of India, can be attributed to a combination of societal expectations and the lack of suitable job opportunities for educated women.
Time Allocation: Paid and Unpaid Work
A key issue that impacts women’s labour force participation is how they allocate their time between paid work and unpaid domestic and care work. Globally, women spend significantly more time on unpaid labour compared to men. The time-use surveys conducted in various countries reveal that women spend up to three times more time than men on unpaid domestic work. The burden of unpaid labour creates "time poverty" for women, where the cumulative hours spent on household chores and caregiving duties reduce the time available for productive or remunerative activities. Women often find themselves constrained to part-time work, informal jobs, or low-paying sectors that offer flexibility but lack security and benefits. This time allocation disparity also limits women’s ability to pursue career advancement, engage in lifelong learning, or participate in social and leisure activities, further entrenching gender inequalities.
Intersection of Labour Force Participation and Time Allocation
The interaction between labour force participation and time allocation is closely intertwined, and addressing one without the other is insufficient. Cultural norms that assign women the primary responsibility for unpaid care work prevent many from fully engaging in the workforce, especially in formal sectors. Even when women do enter paid employment, the expectation that they will continue to manage the majority of household duties often leads to role overload, stress, and reduced work-life balance.
For women from marginalized communities or lower-income groups, the challenges are even more severe. These women often take up low-wage, informal jobs that offer minimal social protections while continuing to bear the burden of unpaid domestic work. In such cases, time allocation patterns are not only shaped by gender but also intersect with class and caste-based inequalities, leading to compounded disadvantages.
Self-Check Exercise 15.4
Q1. What is the current female Labour Force Participation (LFP) rate in India?
Q2. How does educational attainment affect women's labour force participation?
Q3. What role do cultural norms play in women’s time allocation between paid and unpaid work?

15.7    FACTORS INFLUENCING GENDERED TIME USE
1 Education and Employment: Education levels play a crucial role in determining how women allocate their time. Women with higher education tend to spend more time in market activities, as they are more likely to pursue formal employment. However, even among educated women, the burden of household work remains disproportionately high.
Employment opportunities are another determining factor. Women’s labour force participation in India remains low compared to global averages, at approximately 20.3 per cent (2020 data), down from 26 per cent in 2005. This decline is partly due to a lack of jobs, cultural restrictions, and the challenge of balancing work and household responsibilities. Rural women, in particular, face limited job opportunities, and their market work often consists of unpaid family labour.
2 Socioeconomic Status and Caste: Intersectional factors such as class, caste, and rural-urban location influence how time is allocated between market and household work. Women from lower socioeconomic backgrounds and marginalized castes often experience double or triple burdens. They may be engaged in both market work, usually in the informal sector, and unpaid household work, as well as agricultural labour in rural areas.
In contrast, women from higher socioeconomic backgrounds may have access to paid domestic help, which reduces their time spent on household chores. However, even among wealthier households, cultural expectations around caregiving often mean that women still perform a substantial share of unpaid care work.
3 Regional Disparities: India’s diverse cultural and economic landscape means that time-use patterns vary significantly across different regions. In more developed urban areas, women may have greater access to education and formal employment, leading to a more balanced division of labour. However, in rural areas, traditional gender norms are often more rigid, and women’s participation in market work is limited.
States like Kerala, which have higher levels of female education and employment, demonstrate more balanced time-use patterns, while states in northern India such
as Uttar Pradesh and Bihar tend to have more rigid gender roles, with women spending significantly more time on unpaid work.
4 Social Reproduction and the Invisibility of Women’s Work: One of the key issues underlying gendered time use is the invisibility of women’s unpaid labour, particularly in the domain of social reproduction. Social reproduction refers to the unpaid activities that sustain daily life, including cooking, cleaning, caregiving, and maintaining the household. These activities, though essential for the functioning of society and the economy, are often devalued or ignored in official economic statistics.
Self-Check Exercise 15.5
Q1. How does socio-economic status affect the time women spend on unpaid work?
Q2. What is the relationship between caste and time use in India?
Q3. How do regional disparities in India affect women’s time use?

15.8    POLICY IMPLICATIONS: ADDRESSING THE TIME USE IMBALANCE
Addressing the gendered imbalance in time use requires a multi-pronged approach, including policy interventions that recognize and redistribute unpaid labour. There are several policy measures that can help reduce the burden on women and promote more equitable time-use patterns.

1.    Paid Family and Care Leave: Providing paid family and care leave, especially for both men and women, can help distribute caregiving responsibilities more equitably. As of now, India’s maternity leave policies are more robust than its paternity leave policies, reinforcing the notion that caregiving is primarily a woman’s responsibility. Expanding paternity and parental leave would encourage shared caregiving, easing the burden on women and promoting gender equality at home.

2.    Affordable Childcare Services: Expanding access to affordable and high-quality childcare services would enable more women to participate in the labour market without sacrificing time for unpaid caregiving tasks. Establishing public childcare centers, especially in underserved rural areas, could alleviate the heavy time burden women face. A public-private partnership model for childcare services could also incentivize employers to support working parents by offering workplacebased childcare.

3.    Flexible Work Arrangements: Policies that promote flexible working hours, remote work, and part-time employment can help both men and women balance paid work with household responsibilities. Such policies are especially important for women re-entering the workforce after caregiving breaks. India could expand the reach of its flexi-time laws to all sectors and enforce regulations that ensure equal opportunities for part-time workers.

4.    Infrastructure Development: Investing in infrastructure, such as access to water, electricity, and cooking gas, can reduce the time burden of household chores, particularly for rural women. Women in rural India spend a considerable amount of
time collecting water or fuel, limiting their ability to engage in paid work. Government schemes like Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (LPG connections) should be expanded further to ensure that all households benefit from these services, reducing women’s unpaid work burden.

5.    Public Awareness and Gender Sensitization: Raising awareness about gender equality and shared household responsibilities through mass campaigns and educational programs is crucial for altering deep-rooted social norms. Public campaigns targeting both men and women should emphasize the importance of sharing domestic tasks. Integrating gender studies into school curricula can help change attitudes among younger generations, promoting more equal divisions of labour within households.

6.    Legal Reforms for Equal Pay and Gender Parity: Strengthening laws related to equal pay for equal work and prohibiting discriminatory hiring practices can help address the economic marginalization of women. By closing the gender wage gap, women will have greater bargaining power in both the workplace and the household. Additionally, enforcing anti-discrimination laws that prevent women from being overlooked for promotions due to caregiving responsibilities would help ensure that women are not forced into precarious part-time jobs.

7.    Support for Informal Sector Workers: Given that a large proportion of women work in the informal sector, policies should aim to extend social protection benefits like health insurance, maternity leave, and pensions to these workers. Programs like Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maandhan Yojana (pension scheme for informal workers) should be expanded to ensure women in informal employment are not left behind in social security coverage.

8.    Incentivizing Male Participation in Domestic Work: Policies that encourage men to take on more domestic and caregiving tasks are essential to balancing the time-use disparity. Governments can introduce tax benefits or other incentives for families where caregiving duties are more equally divided between spouses. This would shift some of the unpaid labour burden from women to men, fostering a more balanced division of labour.

9.    Expansion of Elder Care Services: In addition to childcare, the growing need for elder care in India adds to the time-use imbalance, with the burden primarily falling on women. Expanding public elder care services and home-based support programs could relieve some of this pressure, allowing women more time for paid work and personal activities.

10.    Monetary Valuation of Unpaid Work: Lastly, valuing unpaid domestic labour through monetary estimates in national statistics would highlight its contribution to the economy. By integrating unpaid work into national accounts, policymakers can advocate for better support systems for caregivers and promote policies that compensate or redistribute unpaid labour more fairly.
These policies aim to promote equitable time-use patterns and ensure that the burden of unpaid work is more evenly distributed across genders, ultimately enhancing women’s economic participation and well-being.
Self-Check Exercise 15.6
Q1. What policies could help redistribute unpaid labour more equitably?
Q2. What role does public infrastructure development play in reducing the unpaid labour burden for rural women?

15.9    SUMMARY
Gender differences in time use in India reveal a complex web of societal, cultural, and economic factors that shape how men and women allocate their time between market and household work. While women bear a disproportionate burden of unpaid work, this dynamic is not only a reflection of traditional gender roles but also a key contributor to economic inequality.
Addressing these disparities requires a comprehensive approach that recognizes the value of unpaid work, promotes work-life balance, and encourages gender parity in both household and market spheres. Policies such as flexible work arrangements, affordable childcare, and investments in social infrastructure are crucial, alongside cultural shifts that promote shared domestic responsibilities.

15.10    GLOSSARY

•    Division of labour: refers to separation of activities and the specialized allocation to different individuals.

•  Labour  force  participation rate: is the ratio  between the total labour
force divided by the total working-age population.

•  Unpaid  work: is work that is  done without  any direct  payment or
compensation. It can be in the form of housework, care work, or other services.

15.11    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISE
Self-Check Exercise 15.1
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 15.3
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 15.3.1
Ans. Q3. Refer to Section 15.3.2
Self-Check Exercise 15.2
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 15.4
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 15.4
Self-Check Exercise 15.3
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 15.5
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 15.5
Self-Check Exercise 15.4
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 15.6
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 15.6
Ans. Q3. Refer to Section 15.6
Self-Check Exercise 15.5
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 15.7 (2)
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 15.7 (2)
Ans. Q3. Refer to Section 15.7 (3)
Self-Check Exercise 15.6
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 15.8
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 15.8

15.12    REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

•  Becchio, G. (2021). A History of Feminist and Gender Economics. Taylor &
Francis Books India Pvt. Ltd

•  Birch, E.; Le, A. and Miller, P.W. (2009). Household Divisions of Labour:
Teamwork, Gender and Time. Palgrave Macmillan

•    Das, K. (2009). Gender Dynamics: In Economic Development of India. Reference Press

•  Dewan, R and Prabhu, S. (2008). Macroeconomics And Gender. Zubaan an
Association of Kali for Women.

•  Eswaran, M. (2014). Why Gender Matters in Economics. Princeton University
Press

•    Jacobsen, J.P. (2007). The Economics of Gender, Third Edition. Wiley-Blackwell, U.S.A.

•    Paoloni, P. and Lombardi, R. (2018). Gender Issues in Business and Economics. Springer International Publishing.

•    Sen, R. and Chatterjee. (2020). Power, Sexuality and Gender Dynamics at Work. SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd.

15.13    TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q1. Analyze the paradox of declining female labour force participation in India amidst growing economic development. What structural and cultural barriers contribute to this trend?
Q2. How do education and employment opportunities influence gendered time-use patterns in India? Include discussion on rural-urban differences.
Q3. What are the key policy interventions needed to address the gendered imbalance in time use?
Q4. Analyze the significance of Time Use Surveys (TUS) in shedding light on unpaid labour. What does the data from the 2019 survey reveal about the allocation of time between paid and unpaid work in India?
UNIT-16
GENDER BUDGETING
STRUCTURE

16.1    Introduction

16.2  Learning Objectives

16.3  Meaning of Gender Budgeting


16.3.1    Definitions of Gender Budgeting

16.3.2    Origin of Gender Budgeting

16.3.3    Objectives of Gender Budgeting
Self-Check Exercise 16.1

16.4    Steps involved in Gender Budgeting
Self-Check Exercise 16.2

16.5    Why is Gender Budgeting Necessary?
Self-Check Exercise 16.3

16.6    Benefits of Gender Budgeting
Self-Check Exercise 16.4

16.7    Gender Budgeting and India’s International Commitments
Self-Check Exercise 16.5

16.8    Summary

16.9    Glossary

16.10    Answers to Self-Check Exercise

16.11    References/Suggested Readings

16.12    Terminal Questions

16.1    INTRODUCTION
This unit gives an in-depth understanding of gender budgeting and how it can be used as a strategic tool to bring positive changes to the lives of both men and women. It emphasizes the importance of grasping the fundamentals of gender budgeting, recognizing that society traditionally views and treats men and women differently, which results in unequal distribution of resources and responsibilities. The unit aims to explore how gender budgeting can help shift these societal norms in a more equitable direction, providing an opportunity to challenge and transform the traditional roles assigned to women. Through both theoretical and practical insights, this unit introduces the concept of gender budgeting and highlights its relevance in contemporary society. You will learn
about the connection between budgeting and gender roles and understand how societal structures influence both.

16.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:

•    Explain the meaning and objectives of gender budgeting;

•    List the steps involved in gender budgeting;

•    Explain the need for gender budgeting; and

•    Examine the benefits of gender budgeting.

16.3    MEANING OF GENDER BUDGETING
The government has numerous policies designed to achieve its social and economic growth objectives. To implement these policies, it must allocate substantial funds for various sectors, such as defence, administration, development projects, welfare schemes, and relief operations. As a result, it becomes crucial for the government to identify all possible sources of revenue to generate the necessary funds to meet its growing expenditures. The process of planning and estimating both revenue and expenditure is called the budget. The word "budget" is derived from the French term “Budgette,” meaning a "leather bag" or "wallet." A budget is essentially the financial blueprint of the government, detailing its income and expenditure for a fiscal year, which typically runs from April 1st to March 31st. It is one of the most important documents for understanding government activities, as it reflects its policies and programs. A budget generally consists of two parts: the first provides an overview of the government’s financial performance, while the second outlines the financial plans for the upcoming year.
A gender budget, however, is not a separate budget for women. Instead, it is an approach that highlights the gap between policy intentions and the resources allocated to achieve them, ensuring that public spending addresses the distinct needs of both men and women. The goal is not necessarily to spend the same amount on men and women, but to ensure that the spending is appropriate to their specific needs. Gender budgeting is a tool for fulfilling the government's commitment to gender mainstreaming. Without sufficient economic support, commitments to gender equality cannot be fully realized. Gender budget initiatives go beyond examining programs aimed specifically at women and girls. They challenge the assumption of "gender neutrality" in economic policies, raising awareness that budgets often affect men and women differently due to their varying social and economic circumstances.
Initially referred to as "women’s budgets," these initiatives focused on the impact of policies on women and girls. More recently, the focus has shifted to "gender" to avoid the misconception that the aim is to create a separate budget for women. Instead, gender budgeting analyzes the real impact of government income and expenditure on both men and women, ensuring that implemented programs do not exacerbate genderbased social and economic inequalities. It involves a gender-based assessment at
every stage of the budgetary process, from planning to execution, to promote gender equality through budget restructuring.
Ultimately, the process of gender budgeting leads to the creation of gender-responsive budgets. The terms gender-responsive, gender-sensitive, gender, and women’s budgets are often used interchangeably. Gender budgeting:

•    Encompasses the entire budget process, from planning and approval to execution and auditing, all viewed through a gender-sensitive issues.

•  Involves analyzing actual expenditure and revenue allocation between
women/girls and men/boys.

•  Assists governments in adjusting, reprioritizing, and refining policies to ensure
they meet the specific needs of both genders.

•    Serves as a tool to ensure policy commitments are matched by financial allocations, delivering the intended outcomes for gender equality.

12.3.1    Definitions of Gender Budgeting
The term “gender budgeting” describes the government expenditure on various programmes/ policies that addresses gender concern in the society. There are two definitions which describe the term gender budgeting.
‘Gender-sensitive budgets’, ‘gender budgets’, and ‘women’s budgets’ refer to a variety of processes and tools aimed at facilitating an assessment of the gendered impacts of government budgets. In the evolution of these exercises, the focus has been on auditing government budgets for their impact on women and girls. This has meant that, to date, the term ‘women’s budget’ has gained widest use. Recently, however, these budget exercises have begun using gender as a category of analysis so the terminology ‘gender- sensitive budgets’ is increasingly being adopted. It is important to recognize that ’women’s budgets’ or ‘gender-sensitive budgets’ are not separate budgets for women, or for men. They are attempts to break down, or disaggregate; the government’s mainstream budget according to its impact on women and men, and different groups of women and men, with cognizance being given to the society’s underpinning gender relations.”
“Gender budget initiatives analyze how governments raise and spend public money, with the aim of securing gender equality in decision-making about public resource allocation; and gender equality in the distribution of the impact of government budgets, both in their benefits and in their burdens. The impact of government budgets on the most disadvantaged groups of women is a focus of special attention.” (IDRC, 2001)
The two definitions stress the fact that gender budgeting is a tool to audit government budget to analyze the impact of budgets on women and men. It also see how government money is spent to improve the socio economic condition of girls, boys, women and men. It is also a tool to engender public economy.

16.3.2    Origin of Gender Budgeting
In the fourth International Conference for Women in Beijing in the year 1995 discussed different strategies to implement the Gender and Development approach. Signatory
countries of Fourth International Women Conference agreed to mainstream the gender in to their policies and programmes. One of the strategies of Gender and Development Approach is Gender Budgeting. The theoretical root of gender budgeting is Feminist Economy of Interdependencies between private and public budgets.
The International Organizations like UNIFEM, Common Wealth Secretariat, International Development Research Centre, Canada took number of initiatives to pursue gender budgeting initiatives. By looking at the Australian experience, number of countries took initiatives. South Africa is an another example where both civil society and government joined together and initiated the gender budgeting.
In 1984, Australia introduced the first gender budgeting initiative. Taking budgets as essential instruments for promoting gender equality, pioneering analysis of the impact of public budgets on gender relations was carried out. The Australian example was not only crucial in raising awareness, but its approach served as an important point of reference for later gender budgeting initiatives. Every year since 1989, the British Women’s Budget Group (WBG), consisting of experts from universities, unions and NGOs, has published comments on the national budget.
Their focus is on assessing taxes and transfers, but they also refer constantly to the importance of “engendering” economic policies. In 1993 the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF) established a gender budgeting initiative in Canada. Based on an alternative concept of security, the initiative focused on welfare and defence expenditure. Despite the British and Canadian efforts, until recently most projects had been carried out in the southern hemisphere, often encouraged and supported by international organizations. One of the most prominent examples is probably South Africa’s Women’s Budget Initiative, established after the first democratic elections in 1995. But in Europe Britain’s gender budgeting initiative remained isolated until the end of the 1990s, when France started publishing the “Jaune Budgétaire”, followed by other new gender budgeting initiatives emerging in several European countries. Gender budgeting now takes place in more than 40 countries all over the world. It is initiated and conducted in a wide variety of ways.

12.3.3    Objectives of Gender Budgeting
Sharp and Broomhill (2002) explain that most gender budgeting initiatives have three core goals. They seek to: (1) mainstream gender issues within government policies; (2) promote greater accountability for governments' commitment to gender equality; and (3) change budgets and policies. The following are the main objectives of gender budgeting:

1.    Mainstream Gender Issues in Government Policies: Gender budgeting aims to ensure that gender considerations are integrated into all areas of government policy. By doing so, it brings attention to the different needs and experiences of men and women, ensuring that policies are not gender-neutral but are tailored to promote equality.

2.    Promote Accountability for Gender Equality Commitments: One of the key goals of gender budgeting is to hold governments accountable for their commitments to gender equality. By analyzing how government spending and
policies affect men and women differently, gender budgeting helps ensure that gender equality objectives are actively pursued and not just rhetorical.

3.    Influence and Change Budgets and Policies: Gender budgeting seeks to bring about tangible changes in budget allocations and policy decisions to promote gender equality. By analyzing the differential impacts of budgets on men and women, governments can adjust their spending priorities to address gender disparities and create more equitable outcomes.

4.    Address Discrepancies in Paid and Unpaid Work: Expenditure and taxation policies often have different impacts on men and women due to their varying roles in both paid and unpaid work. Gender budgeting highlights these discrepancies and helps create policies that fairly recognize and support both types of contributions.

5.    Make Gender Inequalities Visible: Gender budgeting aims to make the often hidden inequalities between men and women visible, especially in areas such as unpaid labor and care work. By doing so, it seeks to create fairer outcomes for both genders by acknowledging the different ways policies impact them.

6.    Utilize Both Equity and Efficiency Arguments: Gender budgeting addresses both fairness (equity) and effectiveness (efficiency) in its approach. It recognizes the importance of ensuring equal outcomes for men and women while also highlighting how gender-sensitive policies can improve overall economic and social efficiency. This dual argument supports the creation of policies that are both just and effective.

7.    Monitor Behavioral Responses to Policies: Gender budgeting also considers the different ways men and women respond to policies, arguing that these behavioral aspects should be analyzed and monitored. Understanding these responses ensures that policies achieve their intended objectives by accounting for the varied needs and actions of men and women.

8.    Foster Collaboration between Governments and Other Actors: Gender budgeting promotes collaboration between governments, civil society, and other stakeholders to integrate gender analysis into economic policy. This partnership helps ensure that gender budgeting initiatives are comprehensive and that their findings are used to influence policies effectively.
By focusing on these objectives, gender budgeting aims to create more equitable and effective economic policies that support gender equality and improve social outcomes for both men and women.
Self-check Exercise 16.1
Q1. Define the Gender Budgeting.
Q2. What are the main objectives of Gender Budgeting.
Q3. When the Gender Budgeting initiative started?

16.4    STEPS INVOLVED IN GENDER BUDGETING
There are certain steps to be followed in gender budgeting. Universally five steps are followed and those five Steps of gender budgeting is briefly outlined in the following:
Step I: An analysis of the situation for women and men and girls and boys (and the different sub- groups) in a given sector.
Step II: An assessment of the extent to which the sector’s policy addresses the gender issues and gaps described in the first step. This step should include an assessment of the relevant legislation, policies, programmes and schemes. It includes an analysis of both the written policy as well as the implicit policy reflected in government activities. It should examine the extent to which the above meet the socio-economic and other rights of women.
Step III: An assessment of the adequacy of budget allocations to implement the gender sensitive policies and programmes identified in step 2 above.
Step IV: Monitoring whether the money was spent as planned, what was delivered and to whom? This involves checking both financially and the physical deliverables (disaggregated by sex)
Step V: An assessment of the impact of the policy / programme / scheme and the extent to which the situation described in step 1 has been changed, in the direction of greater gender equality.
Self-Check Exercise 16.2

Q1. What are the main steps involved in Gender Budgeting.

16.5    WHY IS GENDER BUDGETING NECESSARY?
The achievement of human development is heavily dependent on the development and empowerment of the 586 million women and girls who, according to the 2011 census of Government of India, account for 48.43 per cent of the total population of the country. These women and girls not only comprise a large part of the valuable human resources of the country; they are also individuals in their own right and their socio- economic development sets the foundation for sustainable growth of the economy and society as a whole. In addition, the Constitution of India has mandated equality for every citizen of the country as a fundamental right.
Nevertheless, the reality is that women in India continue to face disparities in access to and control over resources. These disparities are reflected in indicators of health, nutrition, literacy, educational attainments, skill levels, occupational status among others. The poor status and value attached to women is also reflected in the fact that the female sex ratio for the 0-6 age group declined from an already low 945 in 1991 to 927 in 2001 and 919 in 2011 Census of India, implying that millions of girls went missing in just a decade.
There are a number of gender-specific barriers which prevent women and girls from gaining access to their rightful share in the flow of public goods and services. Unless these barriers are addressed in the planning and development process, the fruits of economic growth are likely to completely bypass a significant section of the country’s
population. This, in turn, does not augur well for the future growth of the economy. Gender budgeting is a critical tool in economic policy, serving as a reflection of a government’s priorities and values. Through its budget, a government decides which groups will benefit from services, where resources will be allocated, and what types of employment opportunities will be created. These decisions are inherently political and have different impacts on men and women across various socio-economic categories.
One of the key issues in traditional budgeting is the assumptions made about family structures, such as who is considered the breadwinner or head of the household. These assumptions can lead to policies that disproportionately favor one gender, typically men, without considering the unique circumstances of women. When the budget fails to account for gender differences in labor, especially unpaid and informal work typically done by women, it results in inefficiencies. A gender-blind approach to budgeting— where policies assume men and women have the same needs—ignores the reality of gender disparities and perpetuates inequality.
A gender-responsive budget is essential to address the different capabilities, roles, and needs of men and women. Historically, men and women have had unequal access to education, healthcare, and other resources, which contributes to gender gaps. Addressing these gaps through the budget is crucial for achieving equity. Since men and women occupy different roles in society and the economy, their needs differ. A budget that recognizes these differences can allocate resources more equitably.
While many budgets appear gender-neutral on the surface, they often fail to consider the distinct ways in which poverty affects men and women. For instance, in Uganda, widowhood is a significant cause of poverty among women, as they lose both income and property rights upon their husband's death. Conversely, men do not experience the same economic downturn when they lose their wives, largely due to patriarchal structures that control property ownership. When men cannot fulfill their traditional role as providers, they may respond by abandoning their families or turning to substance abuse, whereas women often take on additional burdens to provide for their children. Therefore, policies aimed at poverty reduction must recognize that poverty has a gender dimension, and the budget must treat poor men and poor women as distinct groups with different causes of and responses to poverty. A gender perspective ensures that these unique needs are addressed, making anti-poverty efforts more effective.
There are other reasons for incorporating a gender perspective into the budget. It promotes economic efficiency and helps fulfill the government’s commitments to achieving gender equality. If we acknowledge that men and women have unequal opportunities and if the budget is the tool used to drive economic policy, then it must also be used to bridge these inequalities. Research supports the idea that reducing gender disparities enhances economic efficiency. For example, studies on Kenyan women farmers show that when they receive the same agricultural inputs as men, their yields are more than 20 per cent higher. Similarly, research on time-use surveys demonstrates that when public policy reduces women’s domestic burdens, household income rises, and more children, especially girls, are able to attend school.
Furthermore, evidence suggests that women are more likely than men to spend their income on the welfare of their children, such as on health, nutrition, and education.
Therefore, if a government prioritizes children's education, it can enhance the effectiveness of that policy by also supporting women’s income generation, as they are more likely to invest in their children’s future.
Another critical issue is the ‘hidden economy,’ which refers to the unpaid labor, primarily by women, that supports households and communities. For example, many countries, both developed and developing, have adopted policies like home-based care to reduce healthcare costs. However, this policy often shifts the cost of care from hospitals to households, where women typically bear the burden of caregiving. This shift is not economically efficient in the long term, as it forces women to leave paid employment to care for sick family members, thereby reducing household income and, potentially, women’s employment opportunities.
Gender-responsive budgeting involves analyzing the budget and the policies it reflects through a gender lens. This means not only examining how resources are allocated but also understanding the broader economic policies at play. It requires analyzing how the budget impacts men, women, boys, and girls in different settings, both urban and rural. This approach also recognizes the various contributions men and women make to the economy, including unpaid care work. By making these contributions visible and addressing the trade-offs between the care economy, the household economy, and the market economy, gender-responsive budgeting can lead to more equitable resource allocation.
One key aspect of gender-responsive budgeting is finding creative ways to acknowledge and reduce the burden of unpaid work, particularly caregiving. This doesn’t mean compensating individuals directly for their domestic labor, but rather using public funds to alleviate some of that burden. For example, policies that provide access to water, energy-efficient stoves, or affordable childcare can free up women’s time, allowing them to participate more fully in the labor market. In this way, genderresponsive budgeting not only ensures fairness but also enhances the overall efficiency of the economy.
Self-Check Exercise 16.3
Q1. Why is Gender Budgeting Necessary?

16.6    BENEFITS OF GENDER BUDGETING

1.    Promotes Gender Equality: Gender budgeting helps address gender disparities by ensuring that government resources are allocated equitably between men and women. It highlights the different needs, roles, and contributions of both genders, creating policies that reduce inequalities in access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities.

2.    Improves Economic Efficiency: Research has shown that gender-sensitive policies can increase economic productivity. For instance, in agriculture, when women farmers receive the same resources as men, their productivity is significantly higher. Similarly, reducing domestic burdens on women (like providing access to water or energy-efficient stoves) can free up their time for paid work, boosting household income and the economy as a whole.

3.    Recognizes and Reduces Unpaid Labour: Gender budgeting brings attention to unpaid labor, especially caregiving, which is predominantly carried out by women. By providing public services (like childcare or healthcare), it reduces the burden of unpaid work on women, allowing them to engage more in the formal economy.

4.    Addresses Poverty with a Gender Perspective: Poverty affects men and women differently. Women are often more vulnerable due to factors like widowhood or lack of property rights. Gender budgeting helps create policies that target the specific causes of poverty for women, such as land ownership issues or unequal pay, leading to more effective poverty alleviation strategies.

5.    Enhances Social Welfare: Women are more likely to invest their income in the health, nutrition, and education of their children. By supporting women’s economic empowerment through gender budgeting, governments can indirectly improve child welfare, boosting overall social well-being.

6.    Increases Policy Effectiveness: Policies that take into account gender-specific needs are more likely to succeed. For example, policies promoting children’s education are more effective when they also support women’s ability to generate income, as women are more likely to use that income for their children’s education and well-being.

7.    Reduces     Gender-Based     Disparities     in     Public     Services
Gender budgeting ensures that public services like healthcare, education, and transportation are designed to meet the needs of both men and women. It highlights gaps in access and creates targeted interventions to improve service delivery for all genders.

8.    Supports Government Commitments to International Agreements: Many countries have committed to gender equality through international agreements, such as the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Gender budgeting helps governments fulfill these commitments by aligning their budget allocations with gender equity goals.

9.    Improves Transparency and Accountability: By analyzing how budgetary allocations affect men and women differently, gender budgeting promotes greater transparency in government spending. It holds governments accountable for ensuring that their policies are inclusive and equitable, leading to more responsible governance.

10.    Fosters Inclusive Economic Growth: Gender budgeting helps integrate women more fully into the workforce by addressing barriers to their participation, such as unpaid caregiving responsibilities or unequal access to education and training. This leads to more inclusive economic growth, benefiting society as a whole.

11.    Reduces Gender Blindness in Policy Making: Traditional budgets often assume men and women have the same needs, which can lead to gender-blind policies. Gender budgeting challenges this assumption by making gender-specific needs visible, ensuring that government policies are not one-size-fits-all.

12.    Improves Long-term Development Outcomes: Gender budgeting contributes to sustainable development by promoting gender equality, improving health and
education outcomes, and enhancing economic participation. It ensures that resources are used efficiently to support long-term social and economic development.
Incorporating a gender perspective into budgeting leads to more effective, equitable, and efficient policies that benefit not only women but society as a whole.
Self-check Exercise 16.4
Q1. Explain the main benefits of Gender Budgeting.

16.7    GENDER BUDGETING AND INDIA’S INTERNATIONAL COMMITMENTS
During the last decade, a number of international meetings have been convened that have the potential for transforming the reality of women's lives. At many of these meetings government, including Government of India, have committed to taking action to improve the situation of women. The following are among the international commitments to which Government of India is party:

i)    The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), which Government of India signed in 1980.

ii)    The World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna (1993) asserted that women's rights are human rights.

iii)    The International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) in Cairo (1994) placed women's rights and health at the centre of population and development strategies.

iv)    At the Fourth World Conference of Women in Beijing (1995), governments declared their de- termination "to advance the goals of equality, development and peace for all women everywhere in the interest of all humanity".

v)    In the 1995 Commonwealth Plan of Action on Gender and Development governments declared their vision of a world "in which women and men have equal rights and opportunities in all stages of their lives".
Self-Check Exercise 16.5
Q1. List the steps taken by Indian Government to improve the situation of women.

16.8    SUMMARY
There's no universal approach to Gender Budgeting, and different countries have adopted various models to fit their contexts. However, a shared focus among these models is evaluating how government budgets impact women, men, girls, and boys. International experience shows that while Gender Budgeting can significantly contribute to development, it may not succeed if the people responsible for its implementation lack a clear understanding of its purpose or if they believe the benefits do not justify the extra effort required. The Government of India aims to integrate Gender Budgeting into the standard budget process rather than treating it as an additional task. Initially, there will be a learning curve as government officials acquire new skills and methods and as the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Women and Child Development refine the
approach. Over time, Gender Budgeting is expected to become an integral and routine aspect of effective budgeting practices.

16.9    GLOSSARY

•    Gender budgeting: is a strategy to achieve equality between women and men by focusing on how public resources are collected and spent.

•    Gender analysis: is a systematic method for understanding gender differences and power dynamics in a specific context. It involves looking at the relationships between men and women, their access to resources, and the constraints they face.

•    Gender Gap: a relative disparity between people of different genders, is reflected in a variety of sectors in many societies. There exist differences between men and women as reflected in social, political, intellectual, cultural, scientific and economic attainments or attitudes.

16.10    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISE
Self-check Exercise 16.1
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 16.3.1
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 16.3.3
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 16.3.2
Self-check Exercise 16.2
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 16.4
Self-check Exercise 16.3
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 16.5
Self-check Exercise 16.4
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 16.6
Self-check Exercise 16.5
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 16.7

16.11    REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

•  Becchio, G. (2021). A History of Feminist and Gender Economics. Taylor &
Francis Books India Pvt. Ltd

•  Birch, E.; Le, A. and Miller, P.W. (2009). Household Divisions of Labour:
Teamwork, Gender and Time. Palgrave Macmillan

•    Budlender, D., Elson, D., Hewitt, G., and Mukhopadhyay, T. (2002). Gender Budgets Make Cents, Commonwealth Secretariat. IDRC CRDI, UNIFEM.

•    Das, K. (2009). Gender Dynamics: In Economic Development of India. Reference Press

•    Dewan, R and Prabhu, S. (2008). Macroeconomics And Gender. Zubaan an Association of Kali for Women.

•    Eswaran, M. (2014). Why Gender Matters in Economics. Princeton University Press

•    Himmelweit, S. (2002). Making Visible the Hidden Economy: The Case for Gender- Impact Analysis of Economic Policy. Feminist Economics. 8 (1), 49-70.

•    Jacobsen, J.P. (2007). The Economics of Gender, Third Edition. Wiley-Blackwell, U.S.A.

•    Katherine, R. (2002). Gender Budgets: The Experience of the UK's Women's Budget Group. A paper presented in the conference 'Gender Balance – Equal Finance', Basel, Switzerland.

•    Paoloni, P. and Lombardi, R. (2018). Gender Issues in Business and Economics. Springer International Publishing.

•    Sen, R. and Chatterjee. (2020). Power, Sexuality and Gender Dynamics at Work. SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd.

•  Sharp, R. (2003). Budgeting for Equity: Gender Budget Initiatives within a
Framework of Performance Oriented Budgeting. New York, UNIFEM.

•  Sharp, R. and Broomhill, R. (2002). Budgeting for Equality: The Australian
Experience. Feminist Economics, 8 (1), 25-47.

16.12    TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q1. What is meant by Gender Budgeting. Why is gender budgeting necessary?
Q2. What are the steps to be followed in preparing gender budget? Explain them briefly.
UNIT-17
GENDER MAINSTREAMING
STRUCTURE

17.1    Introduction

17.2  Learning Objectives

17.3  Gender Mainstream


17.3.1    Definition of Gender Mainstreaming
Self-Check Exercise 17.1

17.4    Origin of Gender Mainstreaming


17.4.1    Women in Development (WID) Approach

17.4.2    Gender and Development (GAD)

17.4.3    Comparing WID and GAD
Self-Check Exercise 17.2

17.5    Forms of Gender Mainstreaming
Self-Check Exercise 17.3

17.6    Dimensions of Gender Mainstreaming
Self-Check Exercise 17.4

17.7    Components of a Gender Mainstreaming Strategy
Self-Check Exercise 17.5

17.8    Summary

17.9    Glossary

17.10    Answers to Self-Check Exercise

17.11    References/Suggested Readings

17.12    Terminal Questions

17.1    INTRODUCTION
Gender mainstreaming has progressively developed into a key strategy aimed at promoting both gender equality and gender equity within the broader framework of gender and development. Over time, it has emerged as a crucial approach for
addressing disparities between men and women across various sectors of society. Initially introduced and  championed  by  international  organizations, gender
mainstreaming seeks to integrate gender perspectives and considerations into all levels of policy-making, planning, and program implementation. Its primary goal is to ensure that gender equity and equality are systematically incorporated into every aspect of social, economic, and political life. This unit provides an overview of the origins of gender mainstreaming, tracing its historical development, and offers a comprehensive
explanation of the concept itself, including its key principles and applications. By doing so, it highlights the importance of gender mainstreaming in creating more inclusive and equitable outcomes for all.

17.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:

•    Define the concept of gender mainstreaming;

•    Explain the origin of gender mainstreaming strategy;

•    Examine the dimensions of gender mainstreaming; and

•    Analyze the components of gender mainstreaming.

17.3    GENDER MAINSTREAMING
Society is divided into two main groups: those who hold power and those who are marginalized by the powerful. These power imbalances exist across various areas such as the state, caste, community, religion, and gender. Those with power control key positions in important social structures, institutions, and processes, which together form what we call the "mainstream."
The goal of gender mainstreaming is to achieve gender equality, meaning men and women should have equal visibility, access to resources, and decision-making power. Across the world, men and women live within social systems that are based on unequal gender relations. Gender roles often restrict women's movement and limit them to household duties and responsibilities like caring for the family. These roles are timeconsuming, often undervalued, and not recognized as real labor. Meanwhile, men are typically seen as the main providers and decision-makers in the family.
Development policies that claim to be gender-neutral often fail to address the different challenges faced by men and women. As a result, they tend to benefit men more, since men usually have better access to training and credit opportunities. Even when there are women-specific programs, women often don't have the necessary skills to fully benefit from them. These programs fail to recognize the deeply ingrained gender inequalities that assign different roles to men and women and limit women's decisionmaking power.
Gender mainstreaming is a powerful tool that ensures gender concerns are included from the start in the planning and execution of development projects. It focuses on addressing gender inequalities directly, instead of simply adding women-focused programs that don’t tackle the root causes of inequality. Since unequal gender relations are so ingrained in society, even policymakers often assume their policies are neutral when, in fact, they favour men.
Gender mainstreaming helps ensure that development policies reflect the needs and concerns of women by acknowledging the wider structures of inequality. It aims to involve more women in public life and decision-making, which benefits not just women, but society as a whole. By promoting gender equality, it fosters a more just and sustainable society, with men and women working together as equal agents of change.
Ultimately, gender mainstreaming brings attention to gender issues and helps set the agenda for achieving greater gender equality.

13. 3.1 Definition of Gender Mainstreaming
In 1997, the United Nations Economic and Social Council defined gender mainstreaming as a strategy to ensure that both women’s and men’s concerns and experiences are fully integrated into the design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of policies and programs across all areas—political, economic, and societal. The goal is for both women and men to benefit equally, preventing any perpetuation of inequality. The relative status of men and women, as well as the intersection of gender with race, class, and ethnicity, and issues related to rights, control, ownership, power, and voice, are all crucial factors that influence the success and sustainability of any development initiative.
In practice, gender mainstreaming involves identifying gaps in gender equality using gender-disaggregated data, developing strategies to address those gaps, allocating resources and expertise to implement these strategies, monitoring progress, and ensuring accountability for the outcomes at both individual and institutional levels. Gender mainstreaming functions as both an approach and a strategy. As an approach, it involves making gender considerations central to policy-making, program planning, implementation, monitoring, and within institutional structures. Its aim is to ensure that women’s needs and priorities are considered at every stage of decision-making and resource distribution.
Self-Check Exercise 17.1
Q1. Define the gender mainstreaming.
Q2. What is the aim of gender mainstreaming.

17.4    ORIGIN OF GENDER MAINSTREAMING
At the fourth U.N. International Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995, "gender mainstreaming" was officially recognized as a global strategy for governments and development organizations to promote gender equality. This approach emerged from over 20 years of lessons learned from addressing women’s needs in development.
Before the early 1970s, development policies viewed poor women only through their roles as wives and mothers, focusing on welfare issues like maternal health, childcare, and nutrition. The assumption was that economic growth would benefit poor women as their husbands' economic conditions improved. However, in 1970, Danish economist Esther Boserup challenged this belief in her book ‘Women’s Role in Economic Development’, showing that women were actually losing status rather than gaining from their husbands' success.

17.4.1    Women in Development (WID) Approach:
The WID approach emerged in the 1970s in response to women's invisibility in development theory and practice. Many publications during this time highlighted that women’s contributions to social and economic life were being ignored, and their needs were not considered in development projects. The goal of WID was to include women in
development processes, believing that this would make projects more effective. As part of the growing women’s movement, the U.N. declared 1975 as the International Year for Women, and the period 1976-1985 as the International Women’s Decade. This led to the creation of national women’s organizations and ministries in many countries, institutionalizing WID policies in governments, donor agencies, and NGOs. WID strategies focused on:

•    Meeting women's practical needs,

•    Strengthening their ability to manage households,

•  Expanding their productive roles, and

•  Increasing their income.

17.4.2    Gender and Development (GAD):
In the 1980s, GAD emerged as a response to the limitations of the WID approach, focusing on the inequality in gender relations between men and women. The aim of GAD was to reshape power relations that led to these inequalities, preventing fair development for both women and men. GAD strategies focused on addressing both practical and strategic gender needs, recognizing women's multiple roles in society, using gender analysis tools, and implementing gender mainstreaming.

17.4.3    Distinguish between WID and GAD:
A Gender and Development (GAD) approach to achieving gender equality focuses on transforming development ethics to promote gender justice and affirm all life on the planet. It recognizes that gender is only one determinant of power and life opportunities and seeks to involve local populations in defining their own gender and development needs. On the other hand, a Women in Development (WID) approach aims to involve women in development activities to address the perceived cause of their backwardness, which is their lack of participation in development. While the WID approach has been criticized for being a tool of the First World Agenda, the GAD approach offers alternatives in the form of gender transformative approaches that challenge the technocratic development agendas and offer bottom-up political change. The main difference between the two approaches lies in their focus, with GAD emphasizing broader social transformation and gender justice, while WID focuses on women's participation in development activities.
Self-Check Exercise 17.2
Q1. Distinguish between WID and GAD.

17.5    FORMS OF GENDER MAINSTREAMING
Gender mainstreaming can be categorized into two main approaches: integrationist and agenda-setting (or transformative) forms, each with distinct objectives and impacts on the development process.

(i)    Integrationist Gender Mainstreaming: The integrationist approach aims to incorporate gender equality concerns into existing development paradigms, without fundamentally altering the overall development agenda. In this version, gender issues and women’s needs are acknowledged and included within
various programs, sectors, and policies. However, the core priorities and frameworks of these programs remain unchanged. This means that while gender concerns are considered, they are simply added to the pre-existing structure, which continues to operate as before. This approach addresses gender inequality by ensuring that women’s specific needs are met in various sectors like health, education, and employment, but it does not challenge or alter the broader power structures or priorities of the development agenda. For example, women may be included in programs aimed at increasing employment opportunities, but the larger framework of economic development remains focused on traditional growth models without questioning whether those models are gender-inclusive or equitable.

(ii)    Agenda-Setting (Transformative) Gender Mainstreaming:  In contrast,
agenda-setting, or transformative gender mainstreaming, seeks to fundamentally reshape the development agenda itself. This approach goes beyond merely integrating women’s needs into existing structures; it aims to change the underlying priorities, frameworks, and power dynamics that guide development policies and programs. Transformative gender mainstreaming involves the full and active participation of women in every stage of decision-making, from policy formulation to implementation and evaluation. It recognizes that for true gender equality to be achieved, the development agenda must not only consider women as individuals with specific needs but also incorporate women’s collective agenda. This means addressing structural inequalities and questioning the fundamental assumptions that guide development strategies. Instead of simply adding women into existing programs, this form of gender mainstreaming seeks to shift the focus of development itself, making it more inclusive and equitable for both men and women.
For example, in the transformative approach, women’s involvement would not be limited to adapting to existing economic frameworks; instead, women’s experiences, knowledge, and perspectives would play a central role in redefining the frameworks themselves. This approach recognizes that the development agenda, as it stands, often reflects the interests and priorities of those in power, which historically have not been women. By setting new agendas that prioritize gender equality, transformative gender mainstreaming seeks to ensure that development policies are truly inclusive and equitable. This type of gender mainstreaming is more radical, as it demands a transformation of societal structures and a rethinking of power relations that go beyond merely addressing surface-level inequalities.
Self-Check Exercise 17.3
Q1. Explain the various forms of gender mainstreaming.

17.6    DIMENSIONS OF GENDER MAINSTREAMING
Gender mainstreaming is a continuous, evolving process of change that requires consistent follow-up and active engagement from all levels of an organization. One of the key dimensions of a successful gender mainstreaming strategy is fostering ownership within the organization. This means that the responsibility and commitment to gender mainstreaming must be shared by everyone across the organization, from
leadership to staff at all levels. Employees need to understand why gender mainstreaming is critical to the organization’s success and be equipped with the knowledge and tools necessary to apply this strategy in their daily work.
It is important that every staff member, regardless of their role, possesses a basic understanding of how to incorporate gender considerations into their specific tasks and responsibilities. However, to ensure effective and sustained implementation, there should be a dedicated unit or department within the organization focused exclusively on promoting gender equality. This specialized unit would be responsible for ensuring that gender equality concerns are integrated into every policy, activity, and program. This step is crucial to institutionalizing a gender infrastructure within the organization, ensuring that gender mainstreaming is not treated as a one-time initiative but rather as an ongoing priority woven into the organization's fabric.
Additionally, the overarching aim of achieving gender equality should guide the entire gender mainstreaming process and be reflected in the internal structure of the organization. This includes adopting inclusive employment practices, such as affirmative action policies, and implementing measures to prevent and address sexual harassment in the workplace.
Another critical aspect of gender mainstreaming is establishing accountability mechanisms. This means that staff performance in implementing gender mainstreaming should be regularly monitored, and employees should be held accountable for their progress in promoting gender equality. Creating accountability ensures that gender mainstreaming is not treated as a mere formality but is actively pursued and evaluated as part of the organization's goals. This dimension ensures that gender equality becomes an integral part of the organization’s culture and operations, requiring continuous oversight and a commitment to improvement at every level.
Self-Check Exercise 17.4
Q1. Explain the various dimensions of gender mainstreaming.

17.7    COMPONENTS OF A GENDER MAINSTREAMING STRATEGY
Gender mainstreaming is about bringing organizational change that aims at incorporating gender perspectives into projects, programs and decision-making structures of an organization. It is a broad and comprehensive process which involves a wholesome transformation of the internal culture of the organization, rather than simply including gender concerns in planning and implementation of programs. An effective gender mainstreaming strategy involves five basic components, namely:

1)    Identifying gender issues and implications

2)    Building gender issues into policy and programmes

3)    Capacity building

4)    Transforming internal culture

5)    Monitoring

1)    Identifying Gender Issues and Implications:
In an effective gender mainstreaming process, the first step is to have a diagnosis of the existing situation of gender disparity in a particular sector or in the whole community. This involves the collection of data and information on the target issue. The main tool for this initial assessment phase is gender analysis.

(i)    Gender Analysis: Gender analysis refers to a study of the different conditions that women and men face, and the differential effects that development policies and programs may have on them because of their different situations. Gender analysis tells us who has access to resources and to decision-making power and who is likely to lose or benefit from a particular policy or programme.
Gender analysis involves both quantitative and qualitative research into the gender relations, the social, economic, political status of women and men, as well as into the differential impact of development policies and projects on each sex. Quantitative research includes the collection, compilation and processing of sex-disaggregated data and indicators, while qualitative research involves the study of the broader cultural and historical trends that affect gender relations. Sex-disaggregated statistics and qualitative analysis are complementary to each other in understanding the gender situation in a given setting or sector.
Since women are not a homogeneous group, but, they reflect the diversity of the entire population, the data should further be disaggregated by age, race/ethnicity, class and disability in order to understand not only how women have life experiences different than those of men but also how different women have different life experiences and needs.
The main principle of gender analysis is to acknowledge that nothing is genderneutral. On the basis of this main guiding idea, the steps to carry out a gender analysis for policy formulation are the following: Identify disaggregated data, identify your constraints and knowledge gaps, formulate questions/hypotheses about the human impact of policies or research. Gender analysis can also be used to reconsider and assess the existing statistics on the situation of women and men so as to see whether the data they contain is split up by sex, as well as to analyze the assumptions and criteria concerning the gathering of this data.

(ii)    Undertaking Gender Analysis- Gender-sensitive Indicators: Undertaking gender analysis involves the use of gender-sensitive indicators. An indicator is a piece of information, measurement, a fact, or an opinion on a specific situation and measures changes in that situation over time. Indicators can be based on qualitative or quantitative evidence and they are necessary tools for measuring social change.
Gender-sensitive indicators are used to track and measure gender-related changes over time. A quantitative indicator is a measure of quantity, while a qualitative indicator is a measure of people’s perceptions on an issue. Both qualitative and quantitative gender-sensitive indicators must meet the conditions of reliability and validity.
Reliability refers to the accuracy and consistency of an indicator. An indicator is
reliable if multiple uses of the same tool such as an interview or a survey yield the same or similar results. Validity of an indicator means that the information that the indicators provide must be close to the reality they are measuring.
In gender analysis both quantitative and qualitative gender-sensitive indicators are crucial as they are complementary to each other. For instance, in measuring the political representation of women, a commonly used quantitative indicator is the number of the women parliamentarians. This measure enables the researches and policy designers to follow the change in the numbers of women parliamentarians over time. While it is a useful piece of statistic, a quantitative indicator may occasionally fail to draw a complete picture of the real levels of political representation of women in the given society. Qualitative indicators that focus on the perceptions of the women parliamentarians themselves concerning their role in the parliament as well as on other questions such as how many times issues related to gender equity are raised in parliament, what legislation related to gender equity is passed and enforced and whether Women’s speeches are making an impact yield a more accurate and wider understanding of the degree, level and aspects ofWomen’s political representation.
In using gender-sensitive indicators to track down and measure the change achieved through a project, it is important to develop different indicators pertaining to different phases of the project cycle. There are various types of indicators such as:

•    Risk/Enabling Indicators: These indicators measure the influence of factors such as socio- economic, socio-cultural, environmental, legal and political factors that are external to a project and contribute to its success or failure.

•    Input Indicators: Input indicators identify and assess the resources at the disposal of the project such as funding, human and non-human resources as well as infrastructure.

•    Process Indicators: Process indicators measure project implementation and, as such, provide monitoring

•    Output Indicators: Output indicators measure the immediate effects of the products and services delivered by the project.

•    Outcome Indicators: Outcome indicators aim at revealing the long-term effects and the overall impact of the project.

2)    Building Gender Issues into Policy and Programmes:
Building gender issues into policy making process and gender based policy appraisal is very much required. These are discussed in the following:

( i) Gender-aware Policy-making:  Building gender issues into policy and
programmes is the main component of the gender mainstreaming process. It involves gender-aware policy-making and programme implementation, that is, setting and carrying out policies and programmes that take into account the different roles, resources, needs and interests of women and men. Gender-aware policy- making should be informed by gender analysis carried out prior to each
new development initiative.
The first step in building gender issues into policies and programmes is to choose an appropriate policy area. Most policy areas are relevant for gender mainstreaming but it might be easier to start with those which are generally recognized as key areas for achieving gender equality, such as education, labor market family policy, etc.

i i) Gender-based Policy Appraisal: Gender-based policy appraisal is a crucial step before policy and programme implementation. It involves an analysis of the potential effects of the policy proposal from a gender perspective. In other words, gender-based policy appraisal allows for the evaluation of a given policy proposal in terms of its differential impact on women and men. Gender-based policy appraisal does not only have to be applied to policy proposals but it can also be used as a tool to review existing projects and programmes with the aim of ensuring that they are gender-sensitive. In analyzing policies it is important to determine whether they fall under:

•    Gender-neutral policies: These policies are seen as having no significant gender dimension. However, in reality, almost all policies have differential impacts on women and men. As such, gender-neutral policies which do not recognize the relevancy of gender in the particular sector and target group they are directed at, become gender-blind or gender-biased policies in practice as they end up addressing the needs and interests of the males in the constituency they are applied to.

•    Gender-specific policies: Gender-specific policies recognize that women and men have differential needs and that these needs should be targeted specifically. However, they do not address the existing distribution of resources and power as well as the gender relations, itself.

•    Gender-aware/redistributive/transformative policies:  These policies are
undertaken with the broader goal of bringing forward structural changes in the gender relations system in order to transform the distribution of resources, power and roles among women and men.

3)    Capacity Building:
Capacity building involves gender training in the form of workshops on topics ranging from basic gender consciousness to gender planning. The aim is to raise awareness and knowledge of the staff on gender issues, as well as donating them with skills for mainstreaming gender in their work. Trainings may include topics on concept of gender, feminist theory and movement, gender mainstreaming tools and instruments, gender planning and gender analysis.

(i)    Keys to Successful Planning for Gender Training: Successful planning for gender training should consider the following aspects:

•    Involving the senior staff: Providing for the attendance of the senior staff in the trainings conveys a clear indication of their commitment and support to the goal of gender mainstreaming for the staff lower down the hierarchy.

•    Determining the right time: The trainings should be scheduled in view of the timelines for policy initiatives, project planning and implementation to ensure that the staff will immediately put to use the skills they gained through the training.

•    Contact with participants: Establishing pre-training contact with the participants enables the trainer to adjust the training material to suit the context and the group.

•    Women and men trainers working together: Having women and men trainers work together reinforces the view that women and men mutually empower each other by working in cooperation on equal standing.

•    Use of participatory methods: Research on adult learning reveal that adults best learn in participatory and interactive environments in which they are encouraged to relate the training material to their own work and experience and to air their views openly.

•    Appropriate content: Training material should include both more general gender consciousnessexercises and sector-specific training exercises.

•    Follow-up of the training: Changes in behavior and development of skills is an everlasting process which requires constant inputs and follow-up.

•    Institutionalizing the trainings: Promotion of gender awareness is a cumulative process. As such the trainings should not be regarded as a one-off exercise but they should be held on a regular and ongoing basis.

4)    Transforming Internal Culture
Gender mainstreaming is not only also a process of mainstreaming gender issues in the external activities of an organization but it is also about changing individual attitudes and altering the internal working principles, management structure and culture of an organization. The goal of achieving gender equality should be the guiding principle in the internal structure of the organization reflecting on issues ranging from affirmative action employment policies to taking measures against sexual harassment in the workplace. As such, gender mainstreaming should involve the transformation of the rules of conduct, norms and procedures within the organization itself, leading to an empowering institutional culture in which women and men engage in productive cooperation as powerful agents on equal standing. Some of the measures to create an institutional culture that contributes to advancing gender equality are the following:

(i)    Adopting employment policies based on principles of gender equality:

•    Eliminating gender-based discrimination concerning salaries.

•    Providing the staff with maternity and paternity leaves.

•  Eliminating occupational segregation.

•  Combating sexual harassment

(ii)    Achieving gender balance in administration and decision-making:

•    Taking measures to ensure women staff members' equal access to and full
participation in decision-making.

•    Strengthening women staff members' capacity to participate in decision-making andleadership.

•    Ensuring equity in the availability of training options for both women and men.

•    Providing that disciplinary measures are gender-aware.

(iii)    Ensuring that internal rules of conduct are based on gender equality:

•    Creating a supportive environment for the staff based on flexibility and empowerment,rather than fear and distrust.

•    Providing training to promote gender awareness and sensitivity among the staff.

•    Adopting more creative and non-hierarchical forms of leadership.

•    Encouraging participatory consultative management.

5)    Monitoring
Since gender mainstreaming is only a means to achieve the end goal of gender equality, monitoring the impact of gender mainstreaming in terms of increased gender equality is crucial. Monitoring consists of continuous scrutinizing, evaluation and followup concerning the effect and efficiency of the policies and projects. The techniques, tools and criteria for monitoring should be decided at the stage of policy-planning and the monitoring of gender mainstreaming must be a part of the normal monitoring process.
Monitoring can take the form of periodic reporting on activities, following-up the gender trainings, establishing a gender-aware performance appraisal system. The aim of reporting is to assess the whole process of gender mainstreaming and identify the obstacles encountered. The outcomes should be evaluated and taken into account in project formulation, planning andimplementation. When monitoring implementation, attention should be paid to empowerment, distribution of beneficiaries by sex, participation in decision-making (disaggregated by sex), perceptions by beneficiaries of change/impact in their well-being.
Creating accountability is another important aspect of the monitoring process. The work of the staff should be monitored continuously and they should be held accountable concerning their performance in gender mainstreaming. Establishing a gender-aware performance appraisal system which rewards the efforts that advance gender equality and equity and provides sanctions against gender discrimination is an available monitoring tool for creating accountability.
Self-Check Exercise 17.5
Q1. What is gender analysis?
Q2. How to achieve gender balance in administration and decision making?

17.8    SUMMARY
In this Unit, it becomes clear that gender mainstreaming is a powerful approach to integrating gender considerations into every stage of development projects. Rather than merely adding gender concerns through women-specific projects that offer targeted benefits and services, gender mainstreaming ensures that gender needs and issues are addressed from the outset. This approach aims to rectify the broader framework of gender inequality that often persists throughout the development process. The unit provides a comprehensive discussion of the five core components of gender mainstreaming, detailing how these elements can be effectively applied to translate gender equality and equity from concept into practice.

17.9    GLOSSARY

•    Gender mainstreaming: is considered as an initiative taken by international organizations to mainstream gender in sectors, so that gender equity and equality can be attained.

•    Sex-disaggregated data: means every data that is cross-classified by sex, presenting information separately for women and men, boys and girls.

•    Gender Training: Provide skills and methods for improved gender-orientation for development.

17.10    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISE
Self-Check Exercise 17.1
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 17.3.1
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 17.3
Self-Check Exercise 17.2
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 17.4.3
Self-Check Exercise 17.3
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 17.5
Self-Check Exercise 17.4
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 17.6
Self-Check Exercise 17.5
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 17.7 (1) (i)
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 17.7 (4) (ii)

17.11    REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

•  Becchio, G. (2021). A History of Feminist and Gender Economics. Taylor &
Francis Books India Pvt. Ltd

•  Birch, E.; Le, A. and Miller, P.W. (2009). Household Divisions of Labour:
Teamwork, Gender and Time. Palgrave Macmillan

•    Commonwealth Secretariat. (1999). Gender Mainstreaming in the Public Service: A Reference Manual for Governments and Other Stakeholders. Commonwealth Secretariat.

•    Council of Europe. (1998). Gender Mainstreaming: Conceptual Framework, Methodology and Presentation of Good Practices. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.

•    Das, K. (2009). Gender Dynamics: In Economic Development of India. Reference Press

•  Dewan, R and Prabhu, S. (2008). Macroeconomics And Gender. Zubaan an
Association of Kali for Women.

•  Eswaran, M. (2014). Why Gender Matters in Economics. Princeton University
Press

•    Jacobsen, J.P. (2007). The Economics of Gender, Third Edition. Wiley-Blackwell, U.S.A.

•    Kanji, N. (1997). Training for Gender-Aware Policy Making: Guidelines for Mainstreaming Gender at the Policy Level. ODA.

•    Paoloni, P. and Lombardi, R. (2018). Gender Issues in Business and Economics. Springer International Publishing.

•    Parker, R., Lozano, I., & Messner, L. A. (1995). Gender Relations Analysis: A Guide for Trainers. Save the Children, USA.

•    Sen, R. and Chatterjee. (2020). Power, Sexuality and Gender Dynamics at Work. SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd.

17.12    TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q1. Define gender mainstreaming and briefly explain the origin of gender mainstreaming as aconcept.
Q2. Explain the various forms of gender mainstreaming strategy.
Q3. How to identify gender issues and implications? Explain how to build gender concern in policy and programmes.
UNIT-18
GENDER POLICY TO REDUCE GENDER INEQUALITY
STRUCTURE

18.1    Introduction

18.2    Learning Objectives

18.3    Conceptualizing Gender Inequality


18.3.1    Definition of Gender Inequality

18.3.2    Causes of Gender Inequality

18.3.3    Consequences of Gender Inequality
Self-Check Exercise 18.1

18.4    Global Perspective on Gender Equality


18.4.1    International Frameworks

18.4.2    Best Practices from Other Countries
Self-Check Exercise 18.2

18.5    National Gender Policy Framework


18.5.1    Objectives of the National Gender Policy

18.5.2    Key Components
Self-Check Exercise 18.3

18.6    Policy Implementation Mechanisms


18.6.1    Institutional Framework

18.6.2    Gender Budgeting

18.6.3    Monitoring and Evaluation
Self-Check Exercise 18.4

18.7    Challenges in Implementing the National Gender Policy
Self-Check Exercise 18.5

18.8    Policy Recommendations and Way Forward
Self-Check Exercise 18.6

18.9    Summary

18.10    Glossary

18.11    Answers to Self-Check Exercise

18.12    References/Suggested Readings

18.13    Terminal Questions

18.1    INTRODUCTION
Gender inequality remains a pressing challenge worldwide, manifesting in various dimensions—economic, social, political, and cultural. It persists despite decades of policy efforts, advocacy, and legislation aimed at narrowing the gender gap. In many countries, including India, gender disparities in education, employment, healthcare, and political representation remain prevalent. The National Gender Policy (NGP) is a strategic framework designed to address these imbalances by ensuring gender equity through various government measures, laws, and programs. This chapter aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the National Gender Policy (NGP) as a mechanism to reduce gender inequality, with a focus on India while drawing from global best practices.

18.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:

•    Analyze the key components and objectives of the National Gender Policy in addressing gender inequality across various sectors.

•    Evaluate global best practices and international frameworks that influence India's approach to reducing gender disparities.

•    Assess the challenges in implementing the National Gender Policy and recommend strategies to strengthen legal frameworks, political commitment, and resource allocation.

18.3    CONCEPTUALIZING GENDER INEQUALITY


18.3.1    Definition of Gender Inequality
Gender inequality refers to unequal treatment or perceptions of individuals based on their gender. It stems from societal norms, traditional roles, and cultural beliefs that dictate the power dynamics between men and women. Gender disparities are apparent in several fields, including labor markets, educational opportunities, political representation, legal systems, healthcare, and economic resources. Gender inequality not only marginalizes women but also limits the potential for societal development as a whole.

18.3.2    Causes of Gender Inequality
Gender inequality refers to the unequal treatment or perceptions of individuals based on their gender, often manifesting as disparities in rights, responsibilities, opportunities, and social expectations between men and women. The causes of gender inequality are deeply rooted in historical, social, economic, political, and cultural contexts. While the specific factors may vary across regions, certain key drivers of gender inequality are pervasive globally.

1.    Cultural and Social Norms:
Cultural and social norms play a significant role in perpetuating gender inequality. Traditional gender roles often position men as the primary breadwinners and women as caretakers of the home, confining women to unpaid domestic labor. These roles are
reinforced by patriarchal values, where men hold authority over women in both private and public spheres. From an early age, gender stereotypes dictate what is considered appropriate behavior for boys and girls, shaping their aspirations, opportunities, and treatment. For instance, girls are often encouraged to prioritize family responsibilities over education or career ambitions, leading to limited participation in public life. In some societies, these norms are deeply entrenched, and deviations from these expectations can result in social ostracism or violence.

2.    Economic Factors
Economic inequality is a major contributor to gender disparity. The gender wage gap, occupational segregation, and lack of access to financial resources prevent women from achieving economic independence. Women are often relegated to lower-paying jobs and sectors, such as care work, teaching, and domestic services, which are undervalued despite their essential contribution to the economy. Furthermore, women face barriers to accessing credit, owning property, and starting businesses, limiting their economic empowerment. In many cases, women’s unpaid domestic and care work is not recognized or compensated, further exacerbating their economic vulnerability.

3.    Political Disempowerment
Women’s underrepresentation in political decision-making bodies is both a cause and consequence of gender inequality. Globally, women are significantly underrepresented in leadership positions in government, law, and corporate sectors. This lack of representation results in policies that often fail to address the specific needs and challenges faced by women. Without sufficient female participation in governance, issues such as reproductive rights, healthcare access, and gender-based violence are either inadequately addressed or sidelined. Political disempowerment also perpetuates a lack of role models for young girls, reinforcing the notion that leadership roles are reserved for men.

4.    Educational Disparities
Education is a key driver of economic and social mobility, yet girls in many parts of the world still face significant barriers to accessing quality education. Societal expectations often prioritize boys' education over girls', particularly in regions with limited resources. Early marriage, domestic responsibilities, and cultural biases can force girls to drop out of school. Without education, women have fewer opportunities for gainful employment, which perpetuates cycles of poverty and inequality. Moreover, the lack of education for women impacts their ability to make informed decisions about their health, family planning, and political participation.

5.    Legal and Institutional Discrimination
In many countries, legal frameworks and institutions still discriminate against women. Laws governing inheritance, property rights, divorce, and custody often favor men, leaving women economically disadvantaged. Even in countries with progressive legal frameworks, weak enforcement mechanisms and judicial bias undermine women's access to justice. Furthermore, institutional discrimination within law enforcement, healthcare, and other public services often results in women receiving inadequate protection and services, particularly in cases of gender-based violence.

18.3.3    Consequences of Gender Inequality
Gender inequality has far-reaching consequences for both individuals and societies:

•    Economic Impact: Excluding women from the formal workforce or paying them less than men results in significant economic losses. According to studies, bridging the gender gap in the workforce could add trillions of dollars to global GDP.

•    Social Inequality: Gender inequality perpetuates cycles of poverty, particularly among women, who often bear the brunt of caregiving responsibilities and unpaid labor.

•    Political Disempowerment: Limited female representation in politics hampers progress toward inclusive governance and policies that reflect the needs of all citizens.

•    Violence and Discrimination: Gender inequality is strongly linked to genderbased violence, including domestic violence, sexual harassment, and human trafficking.
Self-Check Exercise 18.1
Q1. What is gender inequality?
Q2. How does economic inequality contribute to gender disparity?
Q3. What is a major economic consequence of gender inequality?

18.4    GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE ON GENDER EQUALITY


18.4.1    International Frameworks
Global efforts to reduce gender inequality are grounded in several international frameworks and conventions:

•    The United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW): This treaty, adopted in 1979, is often described as an international bill of rights for women. It calls for countries to implement measures to eliminate discrimination against women in all forms.

•    The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995): A comprehensive policy agenda for achieving gender equality, this declaration emphasizes women's rights in areas such as education, health, and employment, while also addressing issues like gender-based violence.

•    The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Goal 5 of the SDGs aims to achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls by 2030. It includes targets such as ending violence against women, eliminating harmful practices like child marriage, and ensuring equal participation in leadership.

18.4.2    Best Practices from Other Countries
Several countries around the world have successfully implemented policies that have significantly reduced gender inequality, setting examples of how effective public policies, legal reforms, and societal change can improve gender equity. Below are some
notable countries and the key policies they have adopted to close gender gaps across various domains:

1.    Iceland: Gender Equality in the Workplace
Iceland has consistently ranked as one of the most gender-equal countries in the world. The country has implemented a series of progressive policies to promote gender equality, particularly in the workplace. In 2018, Iceland became the first country to legally mandate equal pay for men and women. Under this law, companies with more than 25 employees are required to prove that they offer equal pay for equal work, or face fines. This policy, combined with strong parental leave laws and a culture of shared responsibility between men and women for domestic work, has significantly narrowed gender wage gaps in Iceland.

2.    Sweden: Parental Leave and Work-Life Balance
Sweden is known for its generous parental leave policies, which encourage both men and women to take time off work after the birth of a child. The country offers 480 days of paid parental leave, which parents can split between them, with at least 90 days reserved specifically for fathers. This policy promotes gender equality in the labor market by ensuring that women do not bear the sole burden of childcare and allows men to take on more caregiving responsibilities. This has helped reduce the career penalties women face due to maternity leave, contributing to greater female participation in the workforce.

3.    Rwanda: Women’s Political Representation
Rwanda has made remarkable strides in promoting women’s political representation. Following the 1994 genocide, Rwanda enacted constitutional reforms that mandated at least 30% of parliamentary seats to be held by women. As of today, Rwanda has the highest percentage of women in its national parliament, with over 60% of seats held by women. This policy has not only transformed the political landscape but has also inspired changes in other sectors, encouraging women's participation in leadership roles across society and the economy.

4.    New Zealand: Legal Reforms and Leadership
New Zealand has been a global leader in promoting gender equality through legal reforms and political leadership. In 1893, it became the first country to grant women the right to vote, and since then, it has continued to push for women’s rights in various spheres. The country’s strong anti-discrimination laws, comprehensive parental leave policies, and high female political representation, including having had several female prime ministers, have contributed to a reduction in gender inequality. New Zealand has also taken significant steps to address domestic violence, with extensive legal frameworks in place to protect women and support survivors.

5.    Norway: Boardroom Gender Quotas
Norway has pioneered policies to promote gender diversity in corporate leadership. In 2003, Norway became the first country to introduce mandatory quotas requiring that at least 40% of board members in publicly listed companies be women. This policy has not only increased the presence of women in senior management positions but has also
sparked a broader conversation about the role of women in corporate governance worldwide. The quota system has been credited with changing corporate cultures and promoting greater inclusivity in decision-making processes.

6.    Germany: Parental Benefits and Childcare Support
Germany has introduced a series of policies to promote gender equality, particularly in the context of work-life balance and family support. The introduction of "Elterngeld" (parental benefits) in 2007 has encouraged both parents to share childcare responsibilities by offering income replacement for up to 14 months, provided both parents take at least two months off. The government has also expanded access to affordable childcare, making it easier for women to return to work. These measures have led to an increase in female workforce participation and a reduction in gender disparities in employment.

7.    Canada: Gender-Responsive Budgeting
Canada has made significant strides in integrating gender equality into its national budgetary processes through gender-responsive budgeting. This approach involves analyzing the impact of government spending on men and women and ensuring that policies promote gender equity. Canada's government, led by Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, has also made gender parity in the federal cabinet a priority, which has helped set an example for gender equality in leadership roles. Additionally, the country has implemented strong anti-harassment laws, making workplaces safer and more equitable for women.

8.    Finland: Universal Access to Education and Healthcare
Finland is renowned for its emphasis on universal access to education and healthcare, both of which have played a significant role in reducing gender inequality. Finland offers free education for all, including higher education, which has led to high levels of female literacy and participation in the labor force. Finnish women have access to extensive healthcare services, including maternal care and family planning, which have contributed to better health outcomes and increased life expectancy for women. Finland also has a high level of female representation in politics and corporate leadership.

9.    Denmark: Comprehensive Childcare and Work-Life Policies
Denmark has made significant progress in achieving gender equality through policies that support work-life balance. The country offers comprehensive childcare services, which are heavily subsidized by the government, allowing women to return to work after childbirth without the burden of high childcare costs. Denmark also provides flexible working hours and promotes shared parental leave, helping to ensure that caregiving responsibilities are more equally distributed between men and women. These policies have contributed to high levels of female labor force participation and low gender pay gaps.
Self-Check Exercise 18.2
Q1. What is CEDAW?

Q2. What unique law did Iceland implement regarding pay?

Q3. How does Sweden promote work-life balance?

18.5    NATIONAL GENDER POLICY FRAMEWORK
India has a rich history of women’s movements advocating for gender equality. From the early 20th century, when women’s participation in the freedom struggle highlighted issues of gender injustice, to the post-independence period, when the Constitution of India guaranteed equality before the law, the country has seen various phases of gender policy evolution. In the 1970s and 80s, debates on dowry deaths, women's health, and political participation gave rise to national discussions on gender equity. The National Policy for the Empowerment of Women (2001) marked a major milestone in India’s policy landscape, but the need for a more robust and comprehensive gender policy was still felt.

18.5.1    Objectives of the National Gender Policy
The NGP aims to address gender inequality by focusing on several key areas:

•    Equal access to education and healthcare: Ensure that girls and women have equal opportunities to pursue education and receive adequate healthcare services.

•    Economic empowerment: Promote equal pay for equal work, support female entrepreneurship, and improve women's access to financial services and employment opportunities.

•  Political empowerment: Increase women’s participation in decision-making
processes at all levels of government.

•  Eradication of gender-based violence:  Implement stricter laws and
enforcement mechanisms to prevent and punish acts of violence against women, such as domestic violence, sexual harassment, and human trafficking.

•    Legal and policy reforms: Eliminate discriminatory laws and practices that hinder gender equality and ensure women have equal access to justice.

18.5.2    Key Components
The National Gender Policy focuses on the following key components to reduce gender inequality:

•    Education: Implementing policies to increase female enrollment and retention in schools, particularly in rural and marginalized communities. The policy also focuses on vocational training for women to enhance their employability.

•  Healthcare: Ensuring accessible and affordable healthcare for women, with
special attention to reproductive and maternal health. The policy also addresses mental health issues and access to sexual and reproductive rights.

•    Economic Empowerment: Promoting women’s participation in the labor force, addressing the wage gap, and ensuring equal pay for equal work. The policy also supports women entrepreneurs through access to credit and training programs.

•    Political Representation: Increasing the representation of women in political and administrative positions through affirmative action, such as reservation quotas in parliament and local governance bodies.

•    Gender-Based Violence: Strengthening legal frameworks to combat violence against women and girls, including domestic violence, sexual harassment, trafficking, and honor crimes. The policy also emphasizes rehabilitation and support for survivors of violence.

•    Legal Reforms: Reviewing and amending laws that discriminate against women, including property rights, marriage, and divorce laws. The policy advocates for greater legal awareness among women to empower them to fight for their rights.
Self-Check Exercise 18.3
Q1. What is one objective of India's National Gender Policy?
Q2. How does the National Gender Policy aim to address gender-based violence?

18.6    POLICY IMPLEMENTATION MECHANISMS


18.6.1    Institutional Framework
The implementation of the NGP requires the establishment of institutional mechanisms at various levels:

•    Ministry of Women and Child Development (MWCD): The MWCD is responsible for formulating and coordinating the implementation of the NGP across different sectors and levels of government.

•    National and State Women’s Commissions: These bodies are tasked with monitoring the enforcement of gender-related laws, investigating complaints of gender discrimination, and advising governments on policy formulation.

•    Local Governance Bodies: Panchayats and Municipal Corporations play a key role in implementing gender-sensitive policies at the grassroots level, particularly in rural and semi-urban areas.

18.6.2    Gender Budgeting
Gender budgeting is a critical tool for the implementation of the NGP. It involves analyzing the impact of government expenditure and revenue policies on gender inequality and making necessary adjustments to ensure equitable allocation of resources. In India, gender budgeting has been integrated into the annual budgetary process since 2005, and the NGP seeks to strengthen this practice by ensuring that all ministries and departments incorporate a gender lens in their budgetary allocations.

18.6.3    Monitoring and Evaluation
A robust monitoring and evaluation system is essential to track the progress of the NGP. Key indicators for monitoring include:

•    Education: Female literacy rates, school enrollment, and dropout rates.

•    Healthcare: Maternal mortality rates, access to reproductive health services, and incidence of gender-based diseases.

•    Economic Participation: Labor force participation rates, wage gaps, and access to financial services for women.

•    Political Representation: Proportion of women in leadership positions at national, state, and local levels.

•    Gender-Based Violence: Rates of reported violence against women, conviction rates for perpetrators, and availability of support services for survivors.
Regular evaluations, including mid-term reviews and end-of-policy assessments, are necessary to assess the effectiveness of the NGP and make necessary adjustments to policy interventions.
Self-Check Exercise 18.4
Q1. What is the role of the MWCD in the NGP?
Q2. What is gender budgeting?
Q3. Why are regular evaluations important for the NGP?

18.7    CHALLENGES IN IMPLEMENTING THE NATIONAL GENDER POLICY

•    Cultural and Social Barriers
One of the biggest challenges in implementing the NGP is overcoming deeply entrenched cultural and social norms that perpetuate gender inequality. Patriarchal attitudes, especially in rural areas, often hinder the effective implementation of gender-sensitive policies. For example, despite laws mandating equal access to education for girls, societal pressures such as early marriage, domestic responsibilities, and gender stereotypes often prevent girls from completing their education.

•    Lack of Political Will
While the NGP provides a comprehensive framework for reducing gender inequality, its success depends on the commitment of political leaders at all levels. In some cases, a lack of political will or resistance from vested interests can hinder the effective implementation of gender policies.

•    Economic Constraints
The successful implementation of the NGP requires significant financial resources, particularly for programs related to education, healthcare, and economic empowerment. In many cases, budgetary constraints limit the scope of these initiatives, particularly in states with limited financial capacity.

•    Weak Enforcement Mechanisms
Although India has a robust legal framework to protect women’s rights, enforcement remains a challenge. Corruption, inadequate training of law enforcement personnel, and lack of awareness among women about their rights contribute to the weak enforcement of gender-related laws.
Self-Check Exercise 18.5
Q1. What cultural barrier affects NGP implementation?
Q2. How does lack of political will hinder gender policies?

18.8    POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS AND WAY FORWARD

•    Strengthening Legal Frameworks
To effectively reduce gender inequality, India must strengthen its legal frameworks by addressing loopholes and ensuring stricter enforcement of gender-related laws. This includes enhancing the capacity of law enforcement agencies to investigate and prosecute cases of gender-based violence and discrimination.

•    Promoting Public Awareness Campaigns
Raising public awareness about gender equality is essential to changing societal attitudes and norms. Government campaigns, media engagement, and civil society initiatives can play a critical role in shifting perceptions about gender roles and empowering women to claim their rights.

•    Enhancing Economic Opportunities for Women
Policies that promote women’s economic empowerment should be a priority. This includes creating more opportunities for women in the formal labor market, promoting entrepreneurship, and addressing the wage gap through legislative reforms.

•    Expanding Access to Education and Healthcare
Education and healthcare are foundational to gender equality. Expanding access to quality education for girls, particularly in rural areas, and improving healthcare services, including reproductive health, should be key priorities.

•    Increasing Women’s Political Representation
Efforts to increase women’s representation in politics and decision-making bodies should be strengthened. This can be achieved through affirmative action measures such as quotas and by creating an enabling environment for women to participate in politics.

•    Strengthening Gender-Responsive Budgeting
Gender-responsive budgeting should be institutionalized across all levels of government. Ministries and departments should be required to allocate resources with a gender lens and track the impact of these allocations on gender equality outcomes.
Self-Check Exercise 18.6
Q1. What should be strengthened to reduce gender inequality?
Q2. How can public awareness campaigns help gender equality?

18.9    SUMMARY
The National Gender Policy is a critical tool in India’s efforts to reduce gender inequality. By focusing on education, healthcare, economic empowerment, political representation, and gender-based violence, the policy provides a comprehensive framework for addressing the multifaceted nature of gender inequality. However, effective implementation requires overcoming cultural and social barriers, strengthening legal frameworks, enhancing economic opportunities, and ensuring political will. Genderresponsive budgeting and robust monitoring mechanisms are essential for tracking progress and making necessary adjustments. By committing to these efforts, India can move closer to achieving gender equality and empowering all its citizens, regardless of gender.

18.10    GLOSSARY

•    Gender Inequality: The unequal treatment or perception of individuals based on their gender, often manifesting in disparities in education, employment, healthcare, and political representation.

•    National Gender Policy (NGP): A strategic framework aimed at reducing gender inequality through government measures, laws, and programs, focusing on areas like education, healthcare, and economic and political empowerment.

•    Patriarchy: A social system where men hold primary power, often leading to the marginalization of women and perpetuating gender inequality.

•    CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women): A UN treaty that defines gender-based discrimination and calls for action to eliminate it in all forms, globally.

•    Gender-Based Violence (GBV): Acts of violence directed at individuals based on their gender, including domestic abuse, sexual harassment, and human trafficking, which perpetuates inequality.

•    Economic Empowerment: Efforts to provide women equal access to financial resources, employment, and entrepreneurship opportunities, crucial for reducing economic gender disparities.

18.11    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISE
Self-Check Exercise 18.1
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 18.3.1
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 18.3.2
Ans. Q3. Refer to Section 18.3.3
Self-Check Exercise 18.2
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 18.4.1
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 18.4.2
Ans. Q3. Refer to Section 18.4.2
Self-Check Exercise 18.3
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 18.5.1
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 18.5.2
Self-Check Exercise 18.4
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 18.6.1
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 18.6.2
Ans. Q3. Refer to Section 18.6.3
Self-Check Exercise 18.5
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 18.7
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 18.7
Self-Check Exercise 18.6
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 18.8
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 18.8

18.12    REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

•    Banarjee, S. (2005). Role of Women in Development Sector. Mangal Publication, Jaipur.

•    Chandra, S. (2001). Women and Economic Development. B.R. Publication, Delhi.
Elango, K., Perumal, A. and Raj, M. (2008). Emerging Issues in Gender and Women Development. Abhijeet Publication, New Delhi.
Government of India (2001). National Policy for the Empowerment of Women.
Jain, D. (2006). Women, Development and the UN. Orient Longman, Hyderabad.
Jayasuriya, S. and Jayasuriya, D.C. (1999). Women and Development- The Road from Beijing. Har Anand Publication, New Delhi.
Kalpagam, U. (2011). Gender and Development in India – Current Issues. Rawat Publication, Jaipur.
Ministry of Women and Child Development (MWCD), Government of India (2020). National Gender Policy.
Narayana, E.A. and Lakshmi, E.V. (2011). Women development in India. Regal Publication, New Delhi.
Roy, S.M. (2008). The Gender Politics of Development. Zubaan Publication, New Delhi.
Rustagi, P. (2000). Gender Development Indicators : Issues, Debates and Ranking of Districts. CWDS, New Delhi.
Seth, M. (2001). Women Development. Sage Publication, New Delhi.
Sinha, R. (2004). Status of Women and Economic Development. RBSA Publication, Jaipur.

•    Thakur, S. (2012). Women Empowerment in Rural India. Abhijeet Publication, New Delhi.

•    United Nations (1995). Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action.

•    United Nations Development Programme (2021). Gender Inequality Index.

•    World Economic Forum (2023). Global Gender Gap Report.

18.13    TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q1. Discuss the definition of gender inequality and elaborate on its causes.
Q2. Analyze the consequences of gender inequality and their impacts on societal development.
Q3. Evaluate the objectives and key components of India's National Gender Policy Framework, detailing its focus areas such as education, healthcare, economic empowerment, political participation, and the eradication of gender-based violence.
UNIT-19
SOCIAL SECURITY AND SOCIAL PROTECTION FOR WOMEN
STRUCTURE

19.1    Introduction

19.2    Learning Objectives

19.3    Social Security


19.3.1    Social Security for Women

19.3.2    Constitutional Provisions for Social Security in India

19.3.3    Entitlements, Economic Independence, and Risk Coverage for Women

19.3.4    Key Areas of Social Security for Women
Self-Check Exercise 19.1

19.4    Women in Difficult Circumstances


19.4.1    Role of Voluntary Organisations and SHGs in Providing Social Security

19.4.2    Labour Market Biases and Gender Discrimination

19.4.3    Effectiveness of Collective Bargaining
Self-Check Exercise 19.2

19.5    Review of Legislations for Women’s Entitlements


19.5.1    Legal Framework and Consitutional Support for Gender Equality Self-Check Exercise 19.3
19.6    International Commitments to Gender Equality
Self-Check Exercise 19.4

19.7    Role of the Women’s Movement and Civil Society
Self-Check Exercise 19.5

19.8    Summary

19.9    Glossary

19.10    Answers to Self-Check Exercise

19.11    References/Suggested Readings

19.12    Terminal Questions

19.1    INTRODUCTION
Social security and social protection for women are critical components in addressing gender inequality and ensuring the overall well-being of women across various socioeconomic contexts. These measures aim to provide a safety net for women, safeguarding their rights and ensuring access to essential resources such as property, healthcare, employment, and legal protection. In many parts of the world, women face systemic challenges, including unequal property rights, limited access to social benefits, and vulnerabilities during social and natural disasters. Recognizing these issues, governments and organizations have implemented laws, policies, and schemes to protect women’s rights, particularly in areas like land ownership, labor rights, and safety from domestic violence.
In India, for instance, initiatives such as the Domestic Violence Prevention Act, 2005, and various state laws on land rights for women have been introduced to empower women and provide legal backing to their claims. Women’s organizations have played a pivotal role in pushing for reforms and advocating for stronger social protection measures. Despite these efforts, challenges persist, particularly in the context of economic reforms and globalization, which have often neglected the social security needs of labor, especially for women. Strengthening social security frameworks is essential for advancing women's economic and social status, ensuring equity, and fostering inclusive development.

19.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:

•  Understand the concept of social security, specifically its implications and
provisions for women in India, including constitutional support and entitlements.

•  Explore the key areas of social security for women, focusing on economic
independence, risk coverage, and the role of voluntary organizations, self-help groups (SHGs), and collective bargaining in addressing labour market biases and gender discrimination.

•    Examine the legal framework, international commitments, and the role of the women's movement in promoting gender equality and ensuring women's rights and entitlements in India.

19.3    SOCIAL SECURITY
The International Labour Organization (ILO) defines social security as a system of public measures designed to protect people from economic and social hardships caused by events like sickness, maternity, work-related injuries, unemployment, disability, old age, or death. This protection comes through financial support and services like healthcare and child benefits, helping to prevent loss or significant reduction in income. This definition assumes that most people are regularly employed and able to earn enough to meet their basic needs. However, for developing countries, this definition may not fully address their reality, where many people do not have stable employment and face challenges like food insecurity.
Alternate definitions of social security broaden its scope:

•    Social security can be understood as a commitment by the entire community to ensure that all its members can maintain at least a decent living standard, through income redistribution based on national unity and shared responsibility.

•    It can also be defined as the assistance provided by society to individuals, helping them reach a reasonable standard of living and ensuring they do not fall below this level due to unexpected events.

•    In simpler terms, social security refers to any collective efforts or actions aimed at ensuring that all people have access to their basic needs (such as enough food, shelter, healthcare, and clean water), while also providing protection against risks like illness, disability, death, unemployment, or aging. This allows individuals to maintain a standard of living that aligns with societal expectations.

19.3.1    Social Security for Women
Social security for women is a crucial component in ensuring that they have a stable and dignified life. It can be broadly categorized into three key aspects. First, there is the protective aspect, which is aimed at preventing any decline in their living standards, particularly during challenging times such as illness, unemployment, or retirement. This component ensures that women are protected from economic vulnerability. Second, there is the promotive aspect, which focuses on enhancing the normal living conditions of women. It works to improve their quality of life by promoting access to education, healthcare, housing, and employment opportunities. Finally, there is the aspect of income maintenance and support, which ensures that women receive consistent income, whether through employment, pensions, or other social benefits, especially during periods of unemployment or life transitions like motherhood or widowhood.
Social security measures for women are not just limited to governmental efforts but are implemented through a collaboration of the state, communities, NGOs, Self-Help Groups (SHGs), and employers. These groups work together to create a robust support system that addresses women's needs and helps them live with dignity and security.

19.3.2    Constitutional Provisions for Social Security in India
India has enshrined several provisions in its Constitution that serve as a foundation for social security for all citizens, including women. These provisions play a pivotal role in ensuring that women have access to economic stability, health, and social welfare.

•    Article 38 of the Indian Constitution emphasizes that the state should strive to promote the welfare of people by securing a social order that upholds justice— social, economic, and political. It aims to inform all institutions of national life with these principles, which can ensure that women are not left behind in the progress of the nation.

•    Article 41 mandates the state to secure the right to work, education, and public assistance in situations like unemployment, old age, sickness, and disability. This
provision ensures that women, regardless of their social or economic background, have the right to seek help and assistance in times of need.

•    Article 42 underscores the need for the state to ensure just and humane working conditions, along with maternity relief. This article is particularly relevant for women who balance work and family responsibilities and require support in terms of paid maternity leave and safe working environments.

•    Article 47 directs the state to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living, while also working to improve public health. Since women are often primary caregivers, improving public health and nutrition directly benefits women and their families.

19.3.3    Entitlements, Economic Independence, and Risk Coverage for Women
Social security for women involves three main components, each playing a critical role in their well-being:

1.    The promotional component aims to improve women's access to resources, boost their real incomes, and enhance their social consumption. This includes measures to provide education, healthcare, and employment opportunities that uplift women's social and economic status.

2.    The preventive component is focused on averting deprivation in specific ways, such as ensuring access to healthcare, pensions, and unemployment benefits. This helps prevent women from falling into poverty due to life changes or unexpected crises.

3.    The protective component provides relief against deprivation, offering support in times of illness, old age, or unemployment. This is crucial for ensuring that women, especially those who are vulnerable or marginalized, are not left without resources during difficult times.
In India, social security measures for women aim to address their overall needs— employment, sustainable income, ownership of assets, food, healthcare, childcare, maternity care, old age support, housing, and other locally defined needs such as transport, water, and skills development. Economic and social security are deeply interconnected, as economic stability is a key means by which women can access the benefits of social security.
Social security also enhances productivity by providing women with the necessary support to contribute effectively to the workforce. The Government of India’s Women Empowerment Policy of 2001 highlights the importance of social empowerment for women, which includes ensuring social security in various critical areas such as education, health, nutrition, housing, and environment.

19.3.4    Key Areas of Social Security for Women

1.    Education: Education is one of the most important aspects of social security for women. The government aims to ensure equal access to education for women and girls by eliminating discrimination, eradicating illiteracy, and creating a gendersensitive educational system. Special efforts are made to improve enrollment and retention rates of girls, particularly those from weaker sections of society such as Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes, and minorities. There is a focus on reducing the gender gap in secondary and higher education.
The government also strives to provide girls with opportunities to develop vocational, technical, and occupational skills that will help them lead independent lives. Gender-sensitive curricula are developed to address sex stereotyping, which remains one of the root causes of gender discrimination.

2.    Health: A holistic approach to women's health is crucial. This includes not just healthcare services but also ensuring proper nutrition at all stages of life—from childhood and adolescence to motherhood and old age. The reduction of infant and maternal mortality rates is a priority, as these are key indicators of human development. Comprehensive and affordable healthcare services must be made accessible to women, addressing their reproductive rights and vulnerabilities to various diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria, and HIV/AIDS. Additionally, family planning services, education about reproductive health, and efforts to eliminate child marriages are key areas of focus. Good data on birth, death, and marriage registration is necessary to address these issues effectively.

3.    Nutrition: Women face a high risk of malnutrition at critical stages of their lives, especially during childhood, adolescence, and pregnancy. Malnutrition during pregnancy and lactation can lead to severe health complications for both the mother and the child. Social security policies focus on addressing these nutritional deficiencies by providing access to healthy food and nutrition education, particularly for pregnant and lactating women. Women’s participation in the planning and delivery of nutrition programs is crucial to ensure these needs are met.

4.    Drinking Water and Sanitation: Access to clean drinking water and proper sanitation facilities is an essential part of social security for women, especially in rural areas and urban slums. Women’s participation in the planning, delivery, and maintenance of water and sanitation services is key to ensuring their effectiveness. Having safe, accessible toilet facilities close to home is particularly important for women, who are more vulnerable to health risks associated with poor sanitation.

5.    Housing and Shelter: Women’s perspectives must be included in housing policies, particularly in terms of planning housing colonies and providing shelter in both rural and urban areas. Special attention is given to the housing needs of single women, heads of households, working women, students, apprentices, and
trainees. Ensuring that women have safe and adequate housing helps to enhance their social and economic security.

6.   Environment:  Women’s involvement in environmental conservation and
restoration is critical, as environmental factors directly impact their livelihoods, especially in rural areas. Women’s participation in programs that promote the use of sustainable energy sources, such as biogas and solar energy, can make a significant difference in both the environment and the quality of life for women. In many rural areas, women are still reliant on non-commercial sources of energy like firewood, which can be damaging to their health and the environment. Encouraging the use of environmentally friendly energy alternatives benefits both women and the broader ecosystem.

7.    Science and Technology: Increasing women's participation in science and technology is essential for both their empowerment and the development of society as a whole. Programs that encourage girls to pursue education in science and technology fields, as well as development projects that involve women, help to create opportunities for women to contribute to these vital sectors. Training in communication and information technology is especially important, as these areas offer significant opportunities for women to gain employment and improve their economic independence.
Self-Check Exercise-19.1
Q1. What is social security, and why is it important for women?
Q2. List any two constitutional provisions for social security in India.
Q3. What are some key entitlements that promote economic independence for women?
Q4. Identify two key areas of social security that are critical for women.

19.4    WOMEN IN DIFFICULT CIRCUMSTANCES
In India, women often face challenges that vary widely depending on their economic, social, and cultural contexts. These challenges are sometimes intensified for specific groups of women, such as those living in poverty or experiencing extreme hardship. To address this, special programs and policies are put in place to provide support for women in difficult circumstances. These women include those living in extreme poverty, who lack basic resources like food, shelter, and healthcare. Destitute women, who have no means of financial support, face similar hardships.
Women who find themselves in conflict zones or regions affected by violence and war also require significant help. In these situations, many women are forced to flee their homes, becoming refugees or internally displaced persons, which leads to a loss of safety and stability. Another group of women that faces severe challenges are those affected by natural disasters, such as floods, earthquakes, or droughts. In these times, women often shoulder the responsibility of caring for their families, even as their own lives are disrupted.
Other disadvantaged groups include disabled women, who often struggle with mobility, access to healthcare, and social isolation. Widows, especially in less developed regions, may face discrimination, social exclusion, and financial difficulties. Older women, too, may face neglect or lack of support in their later years. Single women without familial support or resources, whether they are unmarried, divorced, or abandoned, also experience significant difficulties in navigating everyday life.
Women who are the heads of their households, often due to the absence of a male partner, bear the double burden of caregiving and earning a livelihood. Displaced women, who may have lost their jobs or homes, struggle to re-enter the workforce and regain stability. Migrant women, who move from rural to urban areas in search of better opportunities, frequently face exploitation and unsafe working conditions. Victims of domestic violence endure both emotional and physical trauma, which can leave them feeling powerless and unsupported. Similarly, deserted women, abandoned by their spouses without legal recourse, suffer from a lack of financial and emotional security. Lastly, prostitutes and women forced into sex work face immense social stigma, health risks, and violence, all of which demand comprehensive support systems.

19.4.1    Role of Voluntary Organisations and SHGs in Providing Social Security
Voluntary organizations and Self-Help Groups (SHGs) play a critical role in supporting women, particularly those in vulnerable situations. One prominent example is the SelfEmployed Women's Association (SEWA), founded in 1972 in Gujarat. SEWA began as a trade union that represented self-employed women working as vegetable vendors, garment workers, and rag-pickers. Over time, it expanded its roles, now functioning as a bank, a cooperative marketing agency, a service provider, an educator, and an advocate for policy changes. SEWA's approach combines advocating for women's rights through unionism with promoting development through cooperatives.
At the time SEWA was founded, the women it represented were trapped in extreme poverty despite working long hours each day. They were vulnerable to exploitation because they had no protection under social security or minimum wage laws. Organizing these women into a union was a significant challenge, as they did not have a single employer to negotiate with. Yet, SEWA persevered, helping these women become more financially independent.
A key problem SEWA addressed was the lack of access to capital for women. Commercial banks often refused to lend money to poor women, forcing them to borrow from money lenders at exorbitant interest rates. SEWA countered this by establishing its own bank, offering loans at market rates, which are far lower than those charged by money lenders. These loans have helped women increase their productivity and income. For example, one woman who used a SEWA loan to install a tile floor in her home found that she could work more efficiently, as her sewing machine no longer wobbled. Another woman, after fixing a leaky roof, was able to sell more snacks because her food stayed dry.
SEWA also acted as a marketing cooperative when its members faced issues with local merchants who refused to trade with women active in the union. This cooperative structure enabled women to market their goods independently, without relying on exploitative middlemen. SEWA’s influence extends into political advocacy. In one instance, SEWA successfully lobbied for the rights of women street vendors, ensuring they could continue working in designated areas. The organization also made use of media, presenting a video to the Prime Minister of India summarizing the issues faced by self-employed women when he was unable to read a full report.
In addition to SEWA, other voluntary organizations have also played an important role in promoting women’s social security. The Mandeshi Mahila Sangh in Maharashtra has empowered rural women by establishing banks specifically for them, providing them with smart cards that only they can use, preventing male relatives from misusing their funds. Similarly, the organization Sakti in Bangalore has helped form numerous SHGs in rural areas, ensuring that women have access to microcredit and other forms of social protection.
Voluntary organizations provide crucial advocacy for women, pushing for the enforcement of minimum wage laws and the Employment Guarantee Act, 2005. They also address environmental issues that affect poor and marginalized women, such as access to fuel, fodder, and water, and land rights for agrarian and tribal women. These organizations fight against deforestation, often caused by corrupt officials and contractors, which disproportionately affects women who rely on natural resources for their livelihoods.
Public education and awareness campaigns about social security are often led by community organizations. However, the media—both print and electronic—should also take a more active role in these efforts, ensuring that information about women’s rights and available resources reaches those who need it most.

19.4.2    Labour Market Biases and Gender Discrimination
Gender discrimination in the labor market is another significant challenge that women face. The labor market is divided into two sectors: the primary sector, which offers steady jobs with good wages, opportunities for advancement, stable employment, and a role in the organizational structure; and the secondary sector, characterized by temporary, low-paying jobs with little to no security or prospects for career growth. Women are largely segregated into the secondary sector, where jobs are often unattractive and come with poor working conditions.
Even when men and women have similar levels of education and skills, women tend to receive lower wages. This disparity begins during the hiring process, with women often facing discrimination in the pre-entry phase. Once hired, they continue to experience wage discrimination and are more likely to be fired during economic downturns. Women are also more likely to be hired last when the economy improves. Social institutions like
extended families, caste networks, and village connections play a significant role in women’s migration and recruitment into jobs, often limiting their opportunities.

19.4.3    Effectiveness of Collective Bargaining
Collective bargaining has proven to be a powerful tool for improving working conditions and securing better wages for women. For instance, the Indian government established the Beedi Welfare Fund, which collects a small tax on the production of bidis (traditional Indian cigarettes) to provide welfare for beedi workers, many of whom are women. This fund was created in response to pressure from organizations like SEWA and the Belgaum Beedi Workers’ Association.
However, women’s participation in trade unions has declined over the years. Male-dominated unions often neglect the concerns of women workers, and issues such as inter-union rivalry, violence, and the use of abusive language discourage women from participating. Additionally, women face hostility from their families when they become involved in union activities.
In response, some progressive unions have formed women’s cells or caucuses to address women-specific issues. However, many women still oppose the patriarchal structure of these unions, where male leaders tend to dominate and treat women as secondary workers who can be hired last and fired first. The division of labor within unions often mirrors broader societal norms, with men holding leadership positions while women are relegated to supportive roles.
Women’s unions, such as SEWA, have taken a different approach. In these unions, women play a central role in collective bargaining, and their demands are reflected in the union’s agenda. Women in these unions also challenge communal and caste-based biases during workers' education programs. However, trade unions, in general, have been slow to address issues such as the exploitation of child labor, dowry practices, pre-birth gender selection, violence against women, and sexual harassment in the workplace.
Self-Check Exercise-19.2
Q1. What are the challenges faced by women in difficult circumstances?
Q2. How do voluntary organizations and SHGs contribute to providing social security for women?
Q3. Explain the impact of labour market biases on gender discrimination.
Q4. How can collective bargaining help in addressing gender discrimination?

19.5    REVIEW OF LEGISLATIONS FOR WOMEN’S ENTITLEMENTS
India has a history of three decades legislations for women’s entitlements. Equal remuneration Act, 1976 ensures equal opportunity, equal treatment and equal wages for women. The important laws affecting women’s lives are:
| Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1932. | The Minimum Wages Act, 1948 | The Factories Act, 1948 |
|---|---|---|
| Maternity Benefits Act, 1961 | Plantation Labour Act, 1951 | Bidi & Cigar Workers Act, 1996 |
| The Contract Labour Act, 1970 | Bonded  Labour  Act, 1976 | Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 |
| Migrant Workers’ Act, 1976 | Child   Labour  (P&R) Act,1986 | Legal Services Act, 1987 |


Strict enforcement of all relevant legal provisions and speedy redressal of grievances must be ensured, with a special focus on violence and gender related atrocities. Measures to prevent and punish sexual harassment at the place of work, protection for women workers in the organized/ unorganized sector and strict enforcement of relevant laws such as Equal Remuneration Act and Minimum Wages Act must be undertaken.
Crimes against women, their incidence, prevention, investigation, detection and prosecution will be regularly reviewed at all Crime Review fora and Conferences at the Central, State and District levels. Recognised, local, voluntary organizations must be authorized to lodge Complaints and facilitate registration, investigations and legal proceedings related to violence and atrocities against girls and women.
Women’s Cells in Police Stations, Encourage Women Police Stations Family Courts, Mahila Courts, Counseling Centers, Legal Aid Centers and Nyaya Panchayats must be strengthened and expanded to eliminate violence and atrocities against women.
Widespread dissemination of information on all aspects of legal rights, human rights and other entitlements of women, through specially designed legal literacy programmes and rights information programmes mustl be done.
Tribal women’s groups are demanding that for forest dwellers, a comprehensive Minor Forest Produce Workers Act which regulates their work condition and provides social security and accident compensation to the forest workers.
International Labour Organisation has demanded from the nation states that Convention 183 concerning maternity protection be ratified soon as possible. ILO has also demanded comprehensive laws regarding

•     Standardisation of work hours

•     Child labour prevention

•     Occupational health and Safety

•     Compensation for displaced population

•     Human rights of ethnic minorities- wages & safety

•     Economic activities for women refugees

•     Visibility of Women in Statistics and Indicators

19.5.1    Legal Framework and Constitutional Support for Gender Equality
The Indian Constitution enshrines the principle of gender equality in its Preamble, Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties, and Directive Principles. It not only guarantees equal rights to women but also empowers the state to adopt measures that positively discriminate in favor of women. This constitutional backing has shaped various laws, development policies, and programs aimed at advancing women's status across different spheres of life.
From the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-78) onward, there has been a noticeable shift in the government’s approach to women's issues, moving from a focus on welfare to one on development. More recently, the empowerment of women has become a central theme in discussions about women’s status and advancement. To protect the rights and legal entitlements of women, the National Commission for Women (NCW) was established by an Act of Parliament in 1990. This body plays a crucial role in safeguarding women’s rights and ensuring they are not marginalized or excluded from legal protections.
The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments, passed in 1993, were landmark steps that provided for the reservation of seats for women in local governance bodies, such as Panchayats and Municipalities. This laid a strong foundation for increasing women’s participation in decision-making processes at the grassroots level, empowering them to have a greater say in issues that directly affect their communities.
Self-Check Exercise-19.3
Q1. What role does legislation play in ensuring women’s entitlements?

19.6    INTERNATIONAL COMMITMENTS TO GENDER EQUALITY
India has also ratified several international conventions and human rights instruments, committing itself to the protection of women’s rights. Among the most significant of these is the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), which India ratified in 1993. This convention calls for eliminating discrimination and ensuring equal opportunities for women in all aspects of life.
Furthermore, India has endorsed various international action plans and strategies aimed at promoting gender equality. These include the Mexico Plan of Action (1975), the Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies (1985), the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995), and the Outcome Document of the UN General Assembly Session on Gender Equality and Development for the 21st Century. These international agreements demonstrate India’s commitment to advancing gender equality and ensuring that the goals set forth in these documents are followed through with appropriate actions.
Self-Check Exercise-19.4
Q1. Describe any two international commitments to gender equality.
Q2. How does the legal framework in India support gender equality?

19.7    ROLE OF THE WOMEN’S MOVEMENT AND CIVIL SOCIETY
India’s women’s movement, along with a vast network of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), has played a critical role in advocating for women’s social security and protection. These organizations, which have a strong grassroots presence and a deep understanding of women’s issues, have been instrumental in initiating various programs and policies aimed at addressing women’s concerns.
In many instances, social organizations have utilized public interest litigation and the Right to Information Act (2005) to hold the government accountable for its financial allocations and efforts toward ensuring social security and protection for women. These civil society efforts have significantly contributed to raising awareness about women’s rights and securing the necessary resources to support them in times of need.
Through their activism and advocacy, women’s groups have made substantial progress in ensuring that women’s voices are heard and that their rights are protected across various social, economic, and political spheres. This ongoing movement continues to inspire and drive efforts to achieve gender equality and social justice for women in India.
Self-Check Exercise-19.5
Q1. What has been the contribution of the women’s movement and civil society in advocating for gender equality?

19.9    SUMMARY
Social security for women in India is a multidimensional concept that covers a wide range of areas, from education and healthcare to housing and environmental sustainability. The Indian Constitution, along with various governmental policies and initiatives, provides a strong foundation for ensuring that women have access to the resources and support they need to lead secure, dignified lives. By addressing their specific needs and vulnerabilities, social security measures can significantly contribute to the overall empowerment of women, enabling them to participate fully in the economic, social, and political life of the country

19.10    GLOSSARY

•    Social Security: A set of policies and programs aimed at providing financial and social support to individuals, particularly in times of unemployment, illness, disability, old age, or other vulnerabilities.

•    Social Security for Women: Specialized measures designed to address the unique socio-economic challenges faced by women, including maternity benefits, pensions, and protection against gender-based vulnerabilities.

•    Entitlements: Rights and benefits that individuals are legally entitled to, such as healthcare, pensions, unemployment benefits, and maternity leave, particularly focusing on women’s access.

•    Economic Independence: The ability of individuals, especially women, to earn and control their own income, ensuring autonomy and self-sufficiency.

19.11    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISE
Self-Check Exercise-19.1
Ans. Q1. Refer to Sections 19.3 and 19.3.1
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 19.3.2
Ans. Q3. Refer to Section 19.3.3
Ans. Q4. Refer to Section 19.3.4
Self-Check Exercise-19.2
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 19.4
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 19.4.1
Ans. Q3. Refer to Section 19.4.2
Ans. Q4. Refer to Section 19.4.3
Self-Check Exercise-19.3
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 19.5
Self-Check Exercise-19.4
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 19.6
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 19.6
Self-Check Exercise-19.5
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 19.7

19.11    REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

•    Banarjee, S. (2005). Role of Women in Development Sector. Mangal Publication, Jaipur.

•   Chandra, S. (2001). Women and Economic Development. B.R. Publication,
Delhi.

•   Elango, K., Perumal, A. and Raj, M. (2008). Emerging Issues in Gender and
Women Development. Abhijeet Publication, New Delhi.

•    Jain, D. (2006). Women, Development and the UN. Orient Longman, Hyderabad.

•   Jayasuriya, S. and Jayasuriya, D.C. (1999). Women and Development- The
Road from Beijing. Har Anand Publication, New Delhi.

•   Kalpagam, U. (2011). Gender and Development in India – Current Issues.
Rawat Publication, Jaipur.

•    Narayana, E.A. and Lakshmi, E.V. (2011). Women development in India. Regal Publication, New Delhi.

•    Renana, J. and Subramanya, R.K. (2000). The Unorganised Sector: Work, Social Security and Social Protection, Sage Publications, New Delhi.

•    Roy, S.M. (2008). The Gender Politics of Development. Zubaan Publication, New Delhi.

•    Rustagi, P. (2000). Gender Development Indicators : Issues, Debates and Ranking of Districts. CWDS, New Delhi.

•    Seth, M. (2001). Women Development. Sage Publication, New Delhi.

•   Sinha, R. (2004). Status of Women and Economic Development. RBSA
Publication, Jaipur.

•   Thakur, S. (2012). Women Empowerment in Rural India. Abhijeet Publication,
New Delhi.

•    Women Empowerment Policy, 2001, Government of India, 2001

•    Women Networking, Invisible Hands, DRTC, St. Pius College, Mumbai, 2004.

19.12    TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q1. Discuss the constitutional provisions for social security in India, focusing on entitlements, economic independence, and risk coverage for women.
Q2. Examine the role of voluntary organizations, SHGs, and collective bargaining in addressing labor market biases and providing social security for women.
Q3. Review the key legislations and international commitments that support gender equality and women’s entitlements in India.
UNIT-20
WOMEN IN PLANNING AND SOCIAL POLICY
STRUCTURE

20.1    Introduction

20.2  Learning Objectives

20.3  National Planning Committee


20.3.1    Planning Commission and its Role
Self-Check Exercise 20.1

20.4    Planning for Women in Five Year Plans
Self-Check Exercise 20.2

20.5    Institutions for Women’s Development


20.5.1    Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB)

20.5.2    Ministry of Women and Child Development

20.5.3    National Commission for Women

20.5.4    National Mission for Empowerment of Women
Self-Check Exercise 20.3

20.6    National Policy for Empowerment of Women, 2001
Self-Check Exercise 20.4

20.7    Programmes/Schemes for Development of Women
Self-Check Exercise 20.5

20.8    Summary

20.9    Glossary

20.10    Answers to Self-Check Exercise

20.11    References/Suggested Readings

20.12    Terminal Questions

20.1    INTRODUCTION
After independence, India embraced a planned development model through the Five-Year Plans, which were guided by the Directive Principles of State Policy in the Constitution. While the Constitution guarantees equal rights for both men and women, achieving real equality—whether economic, social, or political—has remained elusive for women. Over the course of various plan periods, different strategies were introduced for women's development. Initially, the emphasis was on welfare, which later evolved into development-focused approaches, and ultimately toward a model of empowerment. Over time, the planning process became more participatory and responsive to women's
needs, moving beyond simply viewing women as beneficiaries. In the past two decades, the focus has shifted to empowering women through various social policies, the establishment of institutions, and the creation of targeted programs.

20.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:

•    Explore planning through a gender perspectives specifically within the context of India.

•    Understand the planning strategies used for women's development in India both after independence and during the pre-independence era, and

•    Examine key policies and initiatives aimed at empowering women.

20.3    NATIONAL PLANNING COMMITTEE
The National Planning Committee (NPC) was established in 1938 by the Indian National Congress (INC) under the leadership of Subhash Chandra Bose, the then Congress President. This was during the pre-independence era when India was still under British colonial rule. The primary objective of the NPC was to draft a framework for the socioeconomic development of India, with a focus on addressing poverty, unemployment, and social inequality. The NPC aimed to envision a free India's economic structure and lay the groundwork for planned economic development.
The Committee was formed at a time when nationalist leaders were deeply concerned about the widespread poverty, illiteracy, and underdevelopment that plagued colonial India. Jawaharlal Nehru was appointed as the head of the NPC, and he played a pivotal role in shaping its vision and objectives. Nehru, influenced by socialist and Soviet planning models, believed in a planned economy as a means to ensure equitable distribution of wealth and resources, industrialization, and agricultural development.
The NPC was tasked with studying various aspects of India’s economy, including agriculture, industry, labor, and education. Its recommendations formed the intellectual foundation for post-independence planning, particularly through the establishment of the Planning Commission in 1950, which later implemented India’s Five-Year Plans. Though the NPC's work was disrupted by the outbreak of World War II and the Quit India Movement, its reports and discussions laid the foundation for the idea of planned development in India. It was the first serious attempt to outline a comprehensive national strategy for addressing the socio-economic challenges of a future independent India. The NPC’s vision of state-led development with an emphasis on industrialization and social welfare significantly influenced India’s post-independence planning process.

20.3.1    Planning Commission and its Role
Gender equality is enshrined in the fundamental rights of the Indian Constitution, with specific provisions outlined in Articles 14, 15, 16, 39, 42, and 51. Adopted in 1950, the Constitution guarantees equal rights and opportunities for all citizens, including women. Following this, the Planning Commission was established in March 1950 by a resolution from the Government of India. The Commission’s mandate was to enhance the
standard of living by effectively utilizing the country's resources, boosting production, and creating job opportunities for all Indians.
The Planning Commission was tasked with assessing national resources, addressing deficiencies, and devising strategies for their optimal and balanced use. It was also responsible for setting priorities and formulating development plans. Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s first Prime Minister, served as the first Chairman of the Planning Commission.
Throughout its tenure, the Planning Commission engaged with civil society organizations, media, women's groups, and other stakeholders to address various development issues, including women's advancement. However, in 2014, the Planning Commission was replaced by the NITI Aayog (National Institution for Transforming India). NITI Aayog functions as a policy think tank with a focus on improving economic policymaking and offering strategic and technical advice to both central and state governments. Its role is to foster cooperative federalism and drive inclusive development across India.
Self-Check Exercise 20.1

Q1. Write a brief note on the role of planning commission.

Q2. Distinguish between Planning Commission and NITI Aayog.

20.4    PLANNING FOR WOMEN IN FIVE YEAR PLANS
Planning for women in India has evolved significantly across the Five-Year Plans, reflecting changing priorities and approaches to gender equality and women’s empowerment.

1.    First Five-Year Plan (1951-1956): The initial focus was primarily on agriculture and infrastructure. While specific programs for women were limited, the Plan did acknowledge the need for improving rural conditions, which indirectly benefited women by enhancing their access to resources and services.

2.    Second Five-Year Plan (1956-1961): This Plan marked a shift towards industrialization and included some measures to address women’s issues. It emphasized improving educational and health facilities, with the recognition that such improvements would benefit women, especially in rural areas. However, targeted initiatives for women remained minimal.

3.    Third Five-Year Plan (1961-1966): The focus on economic growth continued, but the Plan also highlighted the importance of social welfare programs. The need for improving women’s participation in development was noted, leading to the initiation of some welfare schemes aimed at women and children, although these were not yet comprehensive.

4.    Fourth Five-Year Plan (1969-1974): This Plan saw a greater emphasis on social sectors, including women’s development. It introduced the concept of ‘integrated rural development,’ which aimed to improve the socio-economic conditions of women in rural areas. The Plan also began to address issues such as maternal and child health more systematically.

5.    Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974-1979): Gender issues gained more prominence in this Plan. It focused on women’s welfare and development through specific programs such as the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), which aimed to provide nutrition, health care, and education to children and mothers.

6.    During the Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-1985), there was a shift in the approach from welfare to development. The plan adopted a multi-pronged strategy for development of women, particularly focusing on three core sectors namely, health, education and employment. For the first time in the history of planning in India, the plan document included a chapter on ‘Women and development’, which emphasized economic independence for women, access to health care and family planning.

7.    In Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1990) Department of Women and Child Development was set up in 1985 as a national coordinating body for women’s programmes and Women’s Cells were created in several ministries. The major objective was to raise the economic and social status of women and facilitate their mainstreaming in the national development agenda. One of the significant step was to promote the concept of ‘beneficiary oriented schemes’ which extended direct benefits to women. In 1989 State sponsored programmes such as Mahila Samakhaya, run by women’s organizations were started in different regions of the country.

8.    Eighth Five-Year Plan (1992-1997): The Eighth Plan aimed to build on previous achievements and introduced targeted programs for women’s development, including the Mahila Samakhya Program, which focused on women’s literacy and empowerment through community-based approaches.

9.    Ninth Five-Year Plan (1997-2002): This Plan emphasized the need for gender mainstreaming in all development programs. It focused on improving women’s access to resources, economic opportunities, and political participation. The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) was expanded to include women as beneficiaries.

10.    Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002-2007): Gender issues were addressed through various initiatives aimed at reducing disparities. The Plan focused on enhancing women’s economic opportunities, improving healthcare, and addressing violence against women. The National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) was launched to improve healthcare services for women, particularly in rural areas.

11.    Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2007-2012): The focus was on making growth more inclusive, with a strong emphasis on women’s empowerment. The Plan aimed to address gender disparities through increased investment in education, health, and employment opportunities. Programs like the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGA) aimed to provide women with better access to employment and income.

12.    Twelfth Five-Year Plan (2012-2017): The Twelfth Plan continued the emphasis on women’s empowerment with a focus on improving gender equity in education, employment, and health. It introduced new schemes and enhanced existing ones
to support women’s economic participation and address violence and discrimination. Key gender issues addressed in the Eleventh Plan is as below:
Economic Participation and Employment:

•    The Eleventh Plan acknowledged that despite India’s economic growth, women’s participation in the workforce remained low, particularly in formal sectors. According to the 2004-2005 National Sample Survey (NSS), the female labor force participation rate (LFPR) was just 33% in rural areas and 17% in urban areas.

•    The Plan aimed to increase women's employment through the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGA), which mandated one-third of
beneficiaries to be women. By 2010, women accounted for 48% of the total employment generated under NREGA, improving access to wage labor for rural women.
Education and Literacy:

•    Women’s literacy rates were still significantly lower than men’s. In 2001, female literacy was 53.7%, compared to male literacy of 75.3%. The Plan aimed to bridge this gap by expanding the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) and Mid-Day Meal Scheme, focusing on retaining girls in schools.

•    The goal was to reduce the gender gap in literacy to less than 10%. By 2011, the female literacy rate had risen to 65.46%, but the gap with male literacy (82.14%) still persisted at around 16.7%.
Health and Maternal Mortality:

•    High maternal mortality remained a serious gender issue. The Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) was 301 per 100,000 live births in 2001-2003, reflecting the poor state of maternal healthcare.

•    The National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) was expanded under the Eleventh Plan to improve healthcare services for women, particularly in rural areas. The goal was to reduce the MMR to 100 per 100,000 live births by 2012. By the end of the Plan, MMR had decreased to 178, though it remained far from the target.
Gender-based Violence:

•    The Plan recognized the pervasive issue of gender-based violence, including domestic violence, dowry-related deaths, and trafficking. The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 was operationalized during this period, aimed at providing legal recourse for women facing domestic violence.

•    Data from the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) showed an increase in reported crimes against women during the Eleventh Plan period, with over 200,000 cases of crimes against women reported annually by 2010. This reflected both rising awareness and the continued prevalence of violence.
Political Participation:

•    The Plan aimed to increase women’s representation in decision-making processes at all levels. Despite the 33% reservation for women in Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), women’s representation in national and state legislatures remained low.

•    As of 2009, women constituted 10.9% of the Lok Sabha and 10.3% of the Rajya Sabha, well below the global average. The Plan advocated for the passage of the Women’s Reservation Bill to reserve 33% of seats in Parliament and state legislatures for women, though it faced significant political opposition and was not passed during the period.
Poverty and Social Security:

•    Women, particularly from marginalized communities (Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and minorities), were disproportionately affected by poverty. The female-headed households often faced higher poverty rates.

•    The Plan promoted expanding microfinance and self-help groups (SHGs) to empower women economically. By 2012, there were nearly 7.5 million women SHGs, but access to credit remained limited, particularly in rural and backward regions.
Unpaid Work and Care Economy:

•    The Plan acknowledged the "invisibility" of women’s unpaid work, including care work, domestic labor, and contributions to family farms and enterprises. Women’s contribution to unpaid household work was seen as a barrier to their economic independence and participation in formal labor markets.

•    Although the Plan raised the issue, policy interventions to address unpaid care work remained minimal, with little progress in redistributing or recognizing women’s labor in this sector.
Self-Check Exercise 20.2
Q1. Discuss the major strategies adopted for development of women in the earlier Five Year Plans in India?
Q2. What are the gender issues addressed in 12th Five Year Plan?

20.5    INSTITUTIONS FOR WOMEN’S DEVELOPMENT
In this section, we will discuss some of the important institutions set by the government to promote women’s development during different five year plans.

20.5.1    Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB)
The Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB) was established by the Government of India on August 12, 1953, to advance social welfare activities and implement programs for women, children, and the handicapped through voluntary organizations. Initially functioning as a government institution, the CSWB was later registered as a charitable company under the Companies Act in 1969 to formalize its legal status. Its dual mandate was to deliver welfare services to disadvantaged groups, particularly women
and children, and to develop a nationwide network of voluntary agencies to facilitate these services.
In 1954, the CSWB set up State Social Welfare Advisory Boards across States and Union Territories to assist in the expansion and execution of welfare programs. These State Boards recommend financial assistance to voluntary organizations, with 33 State Boards currently operational across India.
Objectives of CSWB:

i)    Promote Voluntarism:  Foster a humanitarian approach by encouraging
voluntary efforts in social welfare.

ii)    Facilitate Networking: Create mechanisms to connect social workers dedicated to empowering women and children.

iii)    Develop Professionals: Build a cadre of professionals with a gender-focused vision committed to equity and social change.

iv)    Policy  Recommendations:  Suggest gender-specific policies to address
emerging challenges for women and children.

v)    Strengthen Voluntary Organizations: Enhance and expand the reach of welfare schemes where they are needed most.

vi)    Monitor and Guide: Strengthen monitoring through social audits and guide voluntary organizations in accessing government funds.

vii)    Raise Awareness: Highlight societal challenges and the impact of technology on the well-being of women and children.
Key Programs Initiated by CSWB:

i)    Rajiv Gandhi National Creche Scheme: Provides daycare services for children
of working or ailing mothers from lower-income families, focusing on children aged 0-6 years.

ii)    Awareness Generation Programme (AGP): Launched in 1986-87, this program aims to identify rural and poor women’s needs and increase their participation in development. It organizes camps to raise awareness about women's rights and social issues, facilitating the exchange of ideas and experiences.

iii)    Condensed Educational Courses for Women: Started in 1958, this scheme offers educational opportunities to adult women and girls who missed out on formal schooling. It combines formal and non-formal education with vocational training tailored to local needs.

iv)    Family Counselling Centres (FCC): Introduced in 1983, these centers provide counseling and rehabilitative services to women and children facing family issues, social ostracism, or trauma. They collaborate with local authorities and institutions for comprehensive support.

v)    Special Category Family Counselling Centres: These specialized centers focus on clients needing extra support due to unique challenges, such as those
at police headquarters, Mahila jails, rape crisis centers, and pre-marital counseling centers.

vi)    Short Stay Homes for Women and Girls: Launched in 1969, these homes offer temporary accommodation and rehabilitative services for women and girls who become homeless due to family problems or crime. They provide shelter for up to three years and allow children to stay until age seven.

vii)    Working Women’s Hostels (WWH): The CSWB supports hostels for working women from lower-income groups by providing maintenance grants. This support covers various expenses, including staff honorariums and recreational facilities.
viii) Mahila Mandals (MM): These local women’s groups organize activities for women and children in their communities. The CSWB covers 75% of the budget for these activities, with the remaining 25% funded by voluntary organizations or state governments. Activities include childcare, craft, social education, and maternity services.
Overall, the CSWB has played a crucial role in advancing social welfare through strategic support to voluntary organizations, directly impacting the lives of women, children, and marginalized communities across India.

20.5.2    Ministry of Women and Child Development
The Ministry of Women and Child Development (MWCD) is a key government department in India, established to address the needs and promote the welfare of women and children. Formed in 2006 by merging the Ministry of Women and Child Development and the Department of Women and Child Development, the MWCD is tasked with formulating and implementing policies, schemes, and programs aimed at enhancing the status and well-being of women and children.
The ministry's core functions include developing and promoting legislation related to women’s rights, child protection, and gender equality. It oversees various initiatives designed to improve women’s economic empowerment, access to education, healthcare, and protection from violence. For children, the MWCD focuses on ensuring their rights, education, and protection from abuse and exploitation.
Key programs under the MWCD include the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), Betti Bachao Betti Padhao (BBBP), and the National Creche Scheme. The ministry also coordinates with state governments, NGOs, and other stakeholders to effectively deliver services and support. Through its comprehensive approach, the MWCD plays a crucial role in advancing gender equality and child welfare in India.

20.5.3    National Commission for Women
The National Commission for Women (NCW) was established in 1992 by an Act of Parliament with the primary goal of addressing issues related to women's rights and welfare in India. The NCW was created to serve as a statutory body responsible for safeguarding and promoting the interests of women across the country. It functions as a platform for addressing grievances, formulating policies, and ensuring the implementation of laws aimed at improving women's status and rights.
The Commission's mandate includes investigating and examining complaints related to the violation of women’s rights, reviewing existing legislation, and making recommendations for legal and policy reforms. It also works to raise awareness about women's issues and collaborates with various stakeholders, including government bodies, NGOs, and civil society organizations, to address gender-based discrimination and violence.
The NCW plays a critical role in advocating for gender equality and empowering women through initiatives such as awareness campaigns, legal aid, and support services. Its efforts contribute to creating a more equitable society by addressing systemic issues and ensuring that women's voices are heard in policy-making processes.

20.5.4    National Mission for Empowerment of Women
The National Mission for Empowerment of Women (NMEW) was launched in 2010 as part of India's efforts to promote gender equality and empower women across the country. This initiative was created to address the multifaceted challenges faced by women and to ensure their full participation in the nation’s development process. Operating under the Ministry of Women and Child Development, the NMEW aims to integrate gender perspectives into various policies and programs and to create a supportive environment for women's empowerment.
The mission focuses on several key areas to achieve its objectives. Firstly, it seeks to enhance the legal and policy framework to safeguard women's rights and ensure their effective implementation. This includes advocating for reforms and developing comprehensive policies that address issues such as gender-based violence, economic inequality, and discrimination.
Secondly, the NMEW emphasizes improving access to essential services for women, including healthcare, education, and vocational training. By strengthening these services, the mission aims to empower women economically and socially, helping them to become active contributors to society.
Another crucial aspect of the NMEW is its commitment to improving governance and administrative structures related to women’s issues. This involves capacity building for government officials and other stakeholders, ensuring that gender considerations are effectively integrated into planning and execution at various levels.
Self-Check Exercise 20.3
Q1. Write a short note on Central Social Welfare Board
Q2. Discuss briefly National Mission for Empowerment of Women

20.6    NATIONAL POLICY FOR EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN, 2001
The National Policy for the Empowerment of Women (NPEW), 2001, was a landmark initiative by the Government of India aimed at promoting the advancement, development, and empowerment of women. Its core objectives were to create a conducive environment for women to realize their full potential in all spheres of life, including economic, social, and political domains. The policy sought to eliminate gender-based discrimination, promote equality, and safeguard the rights and dignity of
women across the nation. The NPEW, 2001, outlined several key objectives which are as below:

i)    Creating an enabling environment through affirmative policies for the full
development of women, ensuring that they realize their full potential.

ii)   Ensuring de-jure and de-facto enjoyment of all human rights and
fundamental freedoms by women on an equal basis with men in all spheres— political, economic, social, cultural, and civil.

iii)    Equal access to participation and decision-making in social, political, and economic life of the nation by women.

iv)    Mainstreaming a gender perspective in the development process, especially focusing on policy formulation and program implementation, so that women's concerns are adequately addressed at all levels.

v)    Eliminating discrimination and all forms of violence against women and the girl child, whether at the workplace, home, or society at large.

vi)    Building and strengthening partnerships with civil society, particularly women’s organizations, and international institutions to further the empowerment agenda.

vii)    Economic empowerment of women, particularly focusing on women's education, skill development, employment, and access to resources to increase their participation in the economy.

viii)    Providing equal access to education, healthcare, and nutrition for women and girls.

ix)   Strengthening legal systems aimed at the elimination of all forms of
discrimination against women, ensuring justice and equal rights for women.

x)    Addressing social evils like child marriage, dowry, and domestic violence,
which perpetuate inequality and disadvantage women.
These objectives are aimed at achieving gender equality and empowering women to become equal partners in nation-building and development.
Since its implementation, the NPEW has contributed significantly to various achievements in women's empowerment. It laid the foundation for several schemes and programs, such as Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, which addresses declining child sex ratios and promotes girls' education, and the National Rural Livelihoods Mission, which empowers women through self-help groups. The policy also led to stronger legal protections for women, including the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005, and the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act, 2013. Furthermore, efforts to increase women’s representation in local governance through Panchayati Raj institutions have seen greater female participation in leadership roles, strengthening their political presence. States like Maharashtra, Chattisgrah and Rajasthan have also enacted State Policies on Women for the development of women.
Self-Check Exercise 20.4
Q1. Write a short note on National Policy for Empowerment of Women, 2001

20.7    PROGRAMMES/SCHEMES FOR DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN
India has implemented a wide range of programmes and schemes for the development of women aimed at addressing various aspects of women’s empowerment, including health, education, employment, financial inclusion, and protection against violence. These schemes, designed by both the Central and State governments, play a crucial role in promoting gender equality and improving the socioeconomic status of women. Below is a detailed note on key programmes and schemes:

1.    Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP)
Launched in 2015, this flagship scheme focuses on addressing the declining child sex ratio (CSR) and promoting the education and survival of the girl child. The objectives include:

•    Preventing gender-biased sex selection.

•    Ensuring the survival and protection of the girl child.

•    Promoting the education and participation of girls in various fields.

2.    Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY)
PMMVY, launched in 2017, provides financial support to pregnant women and lactating mothers for their first live birth. The scheme ensures improved maternal and child health outcomes by:

•    Offering cash incentives of ₹5,000 in installments for pregnancy care and postdelivery expenses.

•    Encouraging early registration of pregnancy, institutional delivery, and immunization.

3.    Mahila Shakti Kendra (MSK)
Introduced in 2017, Mahila Shakti Kendra aims to empower rural women through community participation and provides support services at the grassroots level. The key features include:

•    Strengthening existing women’s collectives, Self-Help Groups (SHGs), and other community institutions.

•    Offering skill development, capacity building, and employment opportunities to women, particularly in rural areas.

4.    National Creche Scheme
This scheme provides daycare facilities for children of working women, especially from low-income families, to help women balance work and family responsibilities. Key services include:

•    Daycare, nutrition, and early childhood education for children below six years.

•    Health check-ups and immunization facilities.

5.    Working Women’s Hostel Scheme
This scheme supports the construction of safe and affordable accommodation for working women, with provisions for daycare for their children. Objectives include:

•    Providing secure housing options to working women, particularly those migrating from rural to urban areas for employment.

•    Facilitating women’s mobility and encouraging workforce participation.

6.    One Stop Centre Scheme (Sakhi)
Launched in 2015, the One Stop Centre Scheme aims to provide integrated services to women affected by violence. Services include:

•    Medical aid, legal assistance, police help, counseling, and shelter under one roof.

•    Empowering women by offering immediate and effective access to support mechanisms.

7.    Swadhar Greh Scheme
The Swadhar Greh Scheme provides temporary shelter, food, and rehabilitation services to women in distress, such as survivors of violence, abandoned or homeless women, and those facing social ostracism. Key features include:

•    Offering psychological counseling, legal aid, and vocational training to help women regain their independence.

•    Providing support to marginalized women and facilitating their reintegration into society.

8.    Ujjawala Scheme
The Ujjawala Scheme addresses the issue of trafficking of women and children for sexual exploitation. The key objectives include:

•    Prevention of trafficking through awareness generation and social mobilization.

•    Rescue and rehabilitation of victims, providing shelter, medical care, legal aid, and vocational training.

•    Repatriation of trafficked women and children to their families and communities.

9.    Support to Training and Employment Programme for Women (STEP)
STEP focuses on enhancing the skills of women and providing them with opportunities for sustainable employment. The programme targets marginalized and disadvantaged women, including those in rural areas, and offers training in various sectors such as agriculture, handloom, handicrafts, and service industries. Objectives include:

•    Promoting entrepreneurship and self-employment.

•    Enhancing income generation for women by upgrading their skills.

10.    Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK)
Rashtriya Mahila Kosh is a micro-finance initiative aimed at providing financial services to poor women. RMK supports women’s economic empowerment by offering:

•    Low-interest loans to women’s SHGs for starting micro-enterprises.

•    Facilitating women’s financial inclusion and improving their access to credit.

11.    Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY)
Under this scheme, women entrepreneurs receive financial support to start or expand small businesses. The scheme offers three categories of loans—Shishu, Kishor, and Tarun—based on the stage of business development, encouraging women’s entrepreneurship and self-reliance.

12.    Nai Roshni Scheme
This scheme focuses on leadership development among minority women, providing them with knowledge and skills necessary for their empowerment. The scheme includes training on:

•    Health and hygiene, legal rights, financial literacy, and digital literacy.

•    Encouraging women from minority communities to participate actively in the social, political, and economic life of the nation.

13.    National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM)
NRLM, under the Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana, is aimed at improving the livelihood of rural women by promoting SHGs and women’s collectives. Key objectives include:

•  Organizing rural poor women into SHGs for capacity building and economic
empowerment.

•  Providing access to financial services, markets, and skill development for
enhanced livelihoods.

14.    Poshan Abhiyan
Launched in 2018, Poshan Abhiyan aims at improving nutritional outcomes for women and children through a multisectoral approach. Objectives include:

•    Reducing malnutrition and anemia among women and children.

•    Promoting awareness about health, nutrition, and hygiene practices.

15.    Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana (SSY)
A savings scheme designed to secure the financial future of the girl child, SSY encourages parents to save for their daughters’ education and marriage. Key features include:

•    Offering high interest rates on savings for girls below 10 years.

•    Ensuring financial security and promoting gender equality through targeted financial support.

16.    Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY)
Under PMAY, women are given priority in the allotment of affordable housing, with mandatory ownership or co-ownership of the house for women beneficiaries. The scheme promotes:

•    Economic independence and security for women through home ownership.

•    Inclusive urban and rural housing solutions aimed at women.

17.    Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017
This legislation increased maternity leave from 12 weeks to 26 weeks for working women in the organized sector. Key provisions include:

•    Extending leave benefits to adoptive and commissioning mothers.

•    Encouraging employers to set up crèche facilities to support working mothers.
These programmes and schemes, implemented across sectors, aim to holistically address the development needs of women in India. They focus on areas such as health, education, employment, financial independence, and protection from violence, working towards empowering women and fostering gender equality in all spheres of life. The Government of India continues to refine and expand these initiatives to adapt to emerging challenges and ensure that women, especially those from marginalized communities, receive the support they need to improve their socio-economic conditions and fully participate in the country’s growth.
Self-Check Exercise 20.5
Q1. Discuss any two government programmes/schemes implemented for the development of women
Q2. Write a short note on Rashtriya Mahila Kosh

20.8    SUMMARY
After independence, India adopted a planned approach to development in line with its constitutional mandate, which emphasized equal rights and the need for legislative action to uplift marginalized groups, including women. Even before independence, there was a focus on women's rights, advocating for equal opportunities, affirmative action, and a common civil code. Since then, social policies aimed at women's development have evolved over time, with various plans, schemes, and programmes being introduced and implemented through different institutions. These initiatives have been dynamic, adapting to the changing needs of society. India’s planning framework has progressively become more inclusive of gender concerns through strategies like women component planning and gender budgeting.
The institutions responsible for framing policies on women’s issues have taken a comprehensive and holistic approach, setting clear goals and objectives to address women's needs. Efforts to develop and empower women have been undertaken at both the national and state levels, reflecting the government's commitment to advancing gender equality and women's empowerment across the country.

20.9    GLOSSARY

•    Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR): is the number of female deaths from pregnancy-related causes per 100,000 live births in a given year.

•    Unpaid Work: is work that produces goods or services without receiving any direct compensation or payment

•    Care Economy: is the sector of the economy that provides care and support services, including health, education, childcare, and eldercare

•    Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS): is a government program in India that provides services for the health and development of children and mothers.

20.10    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISE
Self-Check Exercise 20.1
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 20.3.1
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 20.3.1
Self-Check Exercise 20.2
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 20.4
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 20.4
Self-Check Exercise 20.3
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 20.5.1
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 20.5.4
Self-Check Exercise 20.4
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 20.6
Self-Check Exercise 20.5
Ans. Q1. Refer to Section 20.7
Ans. Q2. Refer to Section 20.7 (10)

20.11    REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS

•    Banarjee, S. (2005). Role of Women in Development Sector. Mangal Publication, Jaipur.

•   Chandra, S. (2001). Women and Economic Development. B.R. Publication,
Delhi.

•   Elango, K., Perumal, A. and Raj, M. (2008). Emerging Issues in Gender and
Women Development. Abhijeet Publication, New Delhi.

•    Jain, D. (2006). Women, Development and the UN. Orient Longman, Hyderabad.

•   Jayasuriya, S. and Jayasuriya, D.C. (1999). Women and Development- The
Road from Beijing. Har Anand Publication, New Delhi.

•   Kalpagam, U. (2011). Gender and Development in India – Current Issues.
Rawat Publication, Jaipur.

•    Narayana, E.A. and Lakshmi, E.V. (2011). Women development in India. Regal Publication, New Delhi.

•    Roy, S.M. (2008). The Gender Politics of Development. Zubaan Publication,
New Delhi.

•    Rustagi, P. (2000). Gender Development Indicators : Issues, Debates and Ranking of Districts. CWDS, New Delhi.

•    Seth, M. (2001). Women Development. Sage Publication, New Delhi.

•   Sinha, R. (2004). Status of Women and Economic Development. RBSA
Publication, Jaipur.

•   Thakur, S. (2012). Women Empowerment in Rural India. Abhijeet Publication,
New Delhi.

•  www.egyankosh.ac.in

•   https://pib.gov.in

•  www.india.gov.in/topics/social-development/women

20.12    TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q1. Discuss the major strategies adopted for development of women in the Five Year Plans in India?
Q2. Discuss National Policy for Empowerment of Women.
Q3. Discuss the various government programmes and schemes implemented for the development of women.
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