---
title: "Vol 1 0"
book: "SLM EME EDUCC 111"
category: "General"
publisher: "Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd."
type: "Educational Material"
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According to Latest Syllabus
Read For Sure Success
In University Examination
RATAN
TEXT BOOK
EDUCATION MEASUREMENT
AND EVALUATION
Vol-1
M.A.Education (Sem-III)
Dr. Nisha Tiwari
Published by
Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd.
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UNIT-1
TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES: COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE AND PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
Structure:

1.1    Introduction

1.2   Learning Objectives

1.3   Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
Self- Check Exercise-1

1.4   Taxonomy of Objectives in Cognitive Domain
Self- Check Exercise-2

1.5   Taxonomy of Objectives in Affective Domain
Self- Check Exercise-3

1.6    Taxonomy of Objectives in Psychomotor Domain Self- Check Exercise-4

1.7   Summary

1.8   Glossary

1.9   Answers to Self- check Exercises

1.10  References/ Suggested Readings

1.11  Terminal Questions

1.1    Introduction:
Teaching and instructions are organized to achieve the educational objectives. The desired behavioral change is brought among the students to realize the educational objectives. The programmed instructional material is designed to specific educational and to some specific instructional objectives. The teaching and instructional objectives are helpful for achieving the educational objectives. Teaching is a purposeful and meaningful process. A teacher has a delimited set of objectives. He should determine the teaching objectives. The educational objectives imply the changes that we try to produce in the child. In the words of B.S.Bloom, “Educational objectives are not only the goals towards which the curriculum is shaped and towards which instruction is guided, but they are also the goals that provide the detailed specification for the construction and use of evaluative techniques”.

1.2    Learning Objectives:
After going through this Unit, learners will be able to:

•     Develop an understanding of taxonomy of objectives in the Cognitive
domain.

•     Develop an understanding of taxonomy of objectives in the Affective
domain.

•     Develop an understanding of taxonomy of objectives in the
psychomotor domain.

•     Explain bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives.

1.3    Taxonomy of Educational Objectives:
Taxonomy means a system of classification and in this sense taxonomy like Bloom’s Taxonomy presents a system of classification of the objectives in the similar way as Dewey’s decimal system tends to classify a number of books in a library.
The taxonomy, of educational objectives has been worked out on the assumption that the teaching-learning process may be conceived as an attempt to change the behavior of the pupils with respect to some subject matter or learning experiences. Behavior is divided into three domains-Cognitive (knowing), affective (feeling) and psychomotor (doing). The taxonomy of educational objectives has also been considered to be belonging to these three domains. Education is a tripolar process and the three poles are Educational Objectives, Learning Experiences and Change in Behaviour.
The learning experiences are provided by teaching activities to bring change in behavior which in turn is evaluated in terms of educational objectives. Thus educational objectives form the basis for teaching activities and evaluation techniques.
Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives:
One of the most widely used ways of organizing levels of expertise is according to Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Bloom's Taxonomy uses a multi-tiered scale to express the level of expertise required to achieve each measurable student outcome. Organizing measurable student outcomes in this way will allow us to select appropriate classroom assessment techniques for the course.
There are three taxonomies. Which of the three to use for a given measurable student outcome depends upon the original goal to which the measurable student outcome is connected. There are knowledge-based goals, skills-based goals, and affective goals (affective: values, attitudes, and interests); accordingly, there is a taxonomy for each. Within each taxonomy, levels of expertise are listed in order of increasing complexity. Measurable student outcomes that require the higher levels of expertise will require more sophisticated classroom assessment techniques.
To determine the level of expertise required for each measurable student outcome, first decide which of these three broad categories (knowledge-based, skills-based, and affective) the corresponding course goal belongs to. Then, using the appropriate Bloom's Taxonomy, look over the descriptions of the various levels of expertise. Determine which description most closely matches that measurable student outcome. Bloom's Taxonomy is a convenient way to describe the degree to which we want our students to understand and use concepts, to demonstrate particular skills, and to have their values, attitudes, and interests affected. It is critical that we determine the levels of student expertise that we are expecting our students to achieve because this will determine which classroom assessment techniques are most appropriate for the course.
Multiple-choice tests also rarely provide information about achievement of skills-based goals. Similarly, traditional course evaluations, a technique commonly used for affective assessment, do not generally provide useful information about changes in student values, attitudes, and interests.
Thus, commonly used assessment techniques, while perhaps providing a means for assigning grades, often do not provide us (or our students) with useful feedback for determining whether students are attaining our course goals. Usually, this is due to a combination of not having formalized goals to begin with, not having translated those goals into outcomes that are measurable, and not using assessment techniques capable of measuring expected student outcomes given the levels of expertise required to achieve them. Using the CIA model of course development, we can ensure that our curriculum, instructional methods, and classroom assessment techniques are properly aligned with course goals.
Note that Bloom's Taxonomy need not be applied exclusively after course goals have been defined. Indeed, Bloom's Taxonomy and the words associated with its different categories can help in the goals-defining process itself. Thus, Bloom's Taxonomy can be used in an iterative fashion to first state and then refine course goals. Bloom's Taxonomy can finally be used to identify which classroom assessment techniques are most appropriate for measuring these goals.
Self- Check Exercise-1
Q.1 Which level of Bloom's Taxonomy involves recalling facts, information, or concepts?

a)    Remembering

b)    Understanding

c)    Applying

d)    Analyzing
Q.2 When learners demonstrate comprehension of the material by explaining ideas or concepts in their own words, they are operating at which level of Bloom's Taxonomy?

a)    Remembering

b)    Understanding

c)    Applying

d)    Evaluating
Q.3 Applying learned information in new situations or solving problems using acquired knowledge corresponds to which level of Bloom's Taxonomy? a) Remembering b) Understanding c) Applying d) Analyzing

1.4 Taxonomy of Objectives in the Cognitive Domain:
Bloom and his associates in 1956 developed the cognitive domain on the basis of complexity of mental activities arranged from the lowest to the highest level of functioning as described below:
| Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for Knowledge-Based Goals |
|---|
| Level of Expertise | Description of Level | Example        of Measurable Student Outcome |
| 1. Knowledge | Recall, or recognition of terms, ideas, procedure, theories, etc. | When is the first day of Spring? |
| 2. Comprehension | Translate, interpret, extrapolate, but not see full implications or transfer to other situations, closer to literal translation. | What does the summer solstice represent? |
| 3. Application | Apply abstractions, general principles, or methods to specific concrete situations. | What would Earth's seasons be like if its orbit was perfectly circular? |
| 4. Analysis | Separation of a complex idea into its constituent parts and an understanding of organization and relationship between the parts. Includes realizing the distinction between hypothesis and fact as well as between relevant and extraneous variables. | Why  are  seasons reversed    in    the southern hemisphere? |
| 5. Synthesis | Creative, mental construction of ideas and concepts from multiple sources to form | If the longest day of the year is in June, why is the northern |


|  | complex ideas into a new, integrated, and meaningful pattern subject to given constraints. | hemisphere hottest in August? |
|---|---|---|
| 6. Evaluation | To make a judgment of ideas or methods using external evidence or self-selected criteria substantiated by observations or informed rationalizations. | What would be the important variables for predicting seasons on a newly discovered planet? |


Let us try to elaborate the above taxonomy of objectives of cognitive domain given by Bloom for its clarity and understanding

1.    Knowledge-It represents the lowest level ofobjectives belonging to cognitive domain and primarily aims for the acquisition of the knowledge concerning.

i.    Specific facts, terminology, methods and processes and

ii.    Generalized principles, theories and structures.

2.    Comprehension- comprehension is based upon the knowledge. If there is no knowledge, there will be no comprehension. On the ladder of the acquisition of cognitive abilities its level is little higher than the knowledge. Specifically, it means the basic understanding of the facts, ideas, methods, process, principles or theories, etc. as a result, what is communicated to learner, he may-

i.    Translate or summarize the communicated knowledge in hisown words. ii. Interpret i.e. cite examples, discriminate, classify, verify or generalize and

iii.    Extrapolate i.e. understand by use of knowledge and extend it to other subjects and fields.

3.    Application- The knowledge is useful only when it is possible to make it employed. The application of an idea, principle or theory may be made possible only when it is grasped and understood properly. Therefore, the category of application automatically involves both the earlier categories i.e. knowledge and comprehension. Under this objective the learner is required to acquire the ability to make use of abstract or generalized ideas, principles in the particular and concrete situations.

4.    Analysis- analysis refers to an understanding at higher level. It is a complex cognitive process that involves knowledge, comprehension as well as application of an idea, fact, principles or theory. Though the realization of these objectives the learner is expected to acquire the necessary skills in drawing inferences, discriminating, making choices and selection and separating apart the different components or elements of a concept, object or principle.

5.    Synthesis- The objective belonging to this category aim to help the learner to acquire necessary ability to combine the different elements or
components of an idea, object, concept, or principle as to produce an integrated picture i.e. a figure of wholeness. As a result he may be expected to propagate or present a theory or principle by combining     different
approaches, ideas or viewpoints.

6.     Evaluation- Evaluation is the highest level of cognitive domain. It is
defined as to take decision in regard to some aim, thought, solution, method, material, etc. The structure of human being is such that he cannot step himself to evaluate everything and take decision. Thus, the thought, decisions and things, which he thinks are beneficial, he evaluates them at higher level and those which are beneficiary are evaluated at lower level. The external and internal evidences are taken into consideration while taking the decision.
Example:   Let’s take a concept like photosynthesis and create examples of
learning objectives aligned with each level of Bloom's Taxonomy in the cognitive domain:

1.    Remembering:
Define photosynthesis.
List the raw materials required for photosynthesis.
Recall the chemical equation for photosynthesis.

2.    Understanding:
Explain the process of photosynthesis in your own words.
Summarize the role of chlorophyll in photosynthesis.
Describe how light intensity affects the rate of photosynthesis.

3.     Applying:
Predict how a decrease in carbon dioxide concentration would affect the rate of photosynthesis.
Design an experiment to investigate the effect of different colored lights on photosynthesis.
Calculate the amount of glucose produced during photosynthesis given a certain amount of carbon dioxide and water.

4.    Analyzing:
Compare and contrast photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Analyze the factors that limit the rate of photosynthesis in plants.
Examine the adaptations of plants in different environments related to photosynthesis.

5.     Evaluating:
Evaluate the importance of photosynthesis in the ecosystem.
Assess the effectiveness of different methods for increasing crop yield through manipulation of photosynthesis.
Critique a  scientific study investigating the effects of pollutants on
photosynthesis.

6.     Creating:
Design a model illustrating the process of photosynthesis, including all key components and their interactions.
Develop a multimedia presentation explaining the importance of photosynthesis to a non-scientific audience.
Propose a solution for improving photosynthetic efficiency in crops to address food security issues.
Self- Check Exercise-2
Q.1 Which level of Bloom's Taxonomy involves breaking down information into its component parts and understanding the relationships between them? a) Understanding

b)    Applying

c)    Analyzing

d)    Evaluating
Q2. Making judgments based on criteria and standards, such as assessing the value or effectiveness of ideas or solutions, is associated with which level of Bloom's Taxonomy?

a)    Analyzing

b)    Evaluating

c)    Creating

d)    Remembering
Q3. Synthesizing information to generate new ideas, products, or ways of thinking is characteristic of which level of Bloom's Taxonomy?

a)    Analyzing

b)    Evaluating

c)    Creating

d)    Remembering

1.5 Taxonomy of Objectives in the Affective Domain:
Affective domain can be categorized into the following categories. These categories are given in sequence of development and they can be arranged on a continuum from lowest to highest level.
| Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for Affective Goals |
|---|
| Level of Expertise | Description of Level | Example           of Measurable Student Outcome |
| 1.Receiving | Demonstrates a willingness to participate in the activity | When I'm in class I am attentive to the instructor, take notes, etc. I do not read the newspaper instead. |
| 2.Responding | Shows interest in the objects, phenomena, or activity by seeking it out or pursuing it for pleasure | I complete my homework and participate in class discussions. |


| 3.Valuing | Internalizes an appreciation for (values) the objectives, phenomena, or activity | I seek out information in popular media related to my class. |
|---|---|---|
| 4.Organization | Begins to compare different values, and resolves conflicts between them to form an internally consistent system of values | Some of the ideas I've learned in my class differ from my previous beliefs. How do I resolve this? |
| 5.Characterization by a Value or Value Complex | Adopts a long-term value system that is "pervasive, consistent, and predictable" | I've decided to take my family on a vacation to visit some of the places I learned about in my class. |


Let us elaborate the above classification for its better understanding:

1.     Receiving-It represents the initial category for the objectives belonging
to affective domain. For the inculcation of certain interest, attitudes, values or ideas it is essential that learner should be made to receive or attend the desired ideas events or objectives. This category points out towards this necessity and takes into consideration three types of following sequential activities:

i.     Firstly, the learner is sensitized or made aware about the existence of
certain stimuli.

ii.     Then the desired intension or willingness for receiving for receiving or
attending the stimuli is created in the learner.

iii.     Lastly, the efforts are made for the control of the attention of the learner.
He may be trained to pay selective attention and sustain it for a desired period. 2.    Responding-Once the learner receives or attends to a particular ideas,
event or thing he must be made to respond to it as actively as possible. The responses here do not confine itself in just paying attention or arousal of a simple intention or desire of getting a thing, as in the first category or receiving but manifest themselves in the active behavior like obeying, answering, reading, discussing, recording, writing and reaching to a stimulus, etc.

3.    Valuing-When one attends as well as responds to a particular thing,
idea or event he is naturally drifted towards taking value judgment about that thing; idea or event. Therefore, this category of valuing depends upon both the former categories i.e. receiving and responding. Here the learner is expected to imbibe a definite value pattern towards different ideas, events and objects. In practice the objectives belonging to this category are usually concerned with the development of typical value patterns attitudes, etc.

4.    Organizing-The category of objectives concern with the construction of
relatively enduring value structure in the learner by organizing and synthesizing the different value patterns imbibed by him from time to time. Ultimately this category of objective leads the learner to form a set value structure or philosophy of life.

5.    Characterizing by a value or value complex-It is the highest level
category of objectives of affective domain. At this stage, the learner is destined to imbibe typical characteristics of his individual character i.e. life style of his own. In fact it is end point or ultimate goal of the process of education.
Example: Let's use the topic of environmental conservation to create examples of learning objectives aligned with each level of Bloom's Taxonomy in the affective domain:

1.    Receiving (Receiving the message):
Listen attentively during a presentation on the importance of environmental conservation.
Read an article about the impact of deforestation without interruption.

2.    Responding (Responding to the message):
Participate actively in a class discussion about different environmental issues. Express agreement or disagreement with a peer's viewpoint on sustainable living practices.

3.    Valuing (Valuing the message):
Express appreciation for the beauty of nature during a field trip to a national park.
Demonstrate a commitment to recycling by consistently separating recyclables from regular waste.

4.    Organizing (Organizing values into a system):
Create a personal action plan outlining specific steps to reduce carbon footprint at home and in the community.
Develop a presentation advocating for the implementation of renewable energy sources in the local area.

5.    Characterizing (Internalizing values and integrating them into
one's behavior):
Act as a leader in organizing a community cleanup event to promote environmental stewardship.
Serve as a mentor to educate others about the importance of biodiversity conservation and sustainable living practices.
Self- Check Exercise-3

Q. 1 Which level of the affective domain involves actively engaging with and responding to stimuli or messages?

a)    Receiving

b)    Responding

c)    Valuing

d)    Organization
Q.2 When a person demonstrates an appreciation for diversity and cultural differences, they are operating at which level of the affective domain?

a)    Receiving

b)    Responding

c)    Valuing

d)    Organization
Q.3 Which level of the affective domain involves adopting a particular belief or attitude as one's own?

a)    Receiving

b)    Responding

c)    Valuing

d)    Organization

1.6 TAXONOMY OF OBJECTIVES IN THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN: The classification of psychomotor objectives was first produced by Simpson (1966) and later modified by Harrow (1972). These given by harrow are being described under six different categories arranged from lowest to the highest level of functioning:

1.    Reflex movements- Reflex movements may be considered as the
involuntary motor responses to the various stimuli in the environment. Examples of such reflex movements or actions are: the jerking of hands, the closing of eye lid, stretching of the arms, etc. these movements represents the lowest level of the psychomotor behavior. They are largely controlled by the autonomous nervous system. However, they are very much essenti9al not only for the development of psychomotor abilities but also for the survival of the human beings.

2.    Basic Fundamental Movements- These fundamental movements are
just a step ahead of the simple reflex movements. They are not as inborn and innate as the reflex movements but a child may be seen to demonstrate such movements in his very early days of life. Their movements in the form of kneeling, creeping, stumbling, walking, jumping, moving hands, neck, head, etc. may be named as basic fundamental movements. They represent the simple basic movements of the body almost requiring no serious attempts or skilled practice for their occurrence.

3.     Perceptual Abilities- the development of motor abilities related with
the phenomenon of perception belongs to this category of objectives. When some meaning is attached to sensation, it is termed as perception. As a result, the learner is able to derive useful meaning out of the exposure of their senses to various stimuli in the environment. Whatever is perceived by him through his senses becomes an ignition point for the motor behavior. Such type of behavior is a learned behavior. It is always acquired through experience and systematic training.

4.    Physical Abilities- there is an urgent need of the development of desirable physical abilities for an effective motor behavior. If one has adequate physical stamina and abilities, he may go ahead in the task of improving his psychomotor behavior. Therefore this category of objectives aims to develop the various physical abilities of the learner like tolerance to bear and stand against rough weather; to do hard labor, to carry the large load, to bend an article, to demonstrate one’s physical power in starting, stopping or running an object or machine, etc.

5.    Skilled movements- Skilled movements are those complex bodily movements which help in performing the skilled tasks. These movements are to be acquired through an organized and systematic learning process. Their acquisition requires an intelligent understanding and sufficient drill or practice work on the part of the learner. The art of dancing, diving, playing the musical organs, skating, typing, swimming, tailoring, etc. represent such skilled movements. The development of the abilities concerning such skilled movements depends upon the development of the motor abilities described under all the earlier four categories.

6.    Non Discussive Communication- this category represents the highest level of the psychomotor behavior. The bodily movements are hereby integrated with the inner feeling and affective behavior of the learner. In this way the non-discussive communication may be defined in terms of the overt behavior activities related with the communication of affective behavior feelings or emotions. This communication may range from a simple behavior express able through posing or facial expression to a complex behavior performed through a highly sophisticated classical dance, sketching, painting or acting.
| Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives for Skills-Based Goals |
|---|
| Level     of Expertise | Description of Level | Example  of  MeasurableStudent Outcome |
| Perception | Uses sensory cues to guide actions | Some of the colored samples you see will need dilution before you take their spectra. Using only observation, how will you decide which solutions might need to be diluted? |
| Set | Demonstrates a readiness to take action to perform the task or objective | Describe how you would go about taking the absorbance spectra of a sample of pigments? |
| Guided Response | Knows steps required to complete the task or objective | Determine the density of a group of sample metals with regular and irregular shapes. |
| Mechanism | Performs   task   or | Using the procedure described below, |


|  | objective in a somewhat confident, proficient, and habitual manner | determine the quantity of copper in your unknown ore. Report its mean value and standard deviation. |
|---|---|---|
| Complex Overt Response | Performs task or objective in a confident, proficient, and habitual manner | Use titration to determine the Ka for an unknown weak acid. |
| Adaptation | Performs task or objective as above, but can also modify actions to account for new or problematic situations | You are performing titrations on a series of unknown acids and find a variety of problems with the resulting curves, e.g., only 3.0 ml of base is required for one acid while 75.0 ml is required in another. What can you do to get valid data for all the unknown acids? |
| Organization | Creates new tasks or objectives incorporating learned ones | Recall your plating and etching experiences with an aluminum substrate. Choose a different metal substrate and design a process to plate, mask, and etch so that a pattern of 4 different metals is created. |


Example: Let's use the skill of swimming to create examples of learning objectives aligned with each level of the taxonomy of objectives in the psychomotor domain:

1.    Perception (Awareness of the skill):

•      Identify the different parts of a swimming pool and their functions.

•     Recognize the safety rules associated with swimming.

2.    Set (Readiness to perform the skill):

•     Demonstrate the ability to wear appropriate swimming attire and gear.

•     Express willingness to learn and practice swimming strokes.

3.    Guided Response (Imitation of the skill):

•     Mimic the arm movements of the instructor during a demonstration of
the  freestyle stroke.

•     Follow step-by-step instructions to perform a proper forward dive into
the water.

4.    Mechanism (Basic proficiency in the skill):

•     Perform the breaststroke with coordinated arm and leg movements.

•     Execute a shallow dive from the edge of the pool with proper body
position and entry technique.

5.    Complex Overt Response (Skillful performance of the skill):

•     Swim multiple laps using various strokes (e.g., freestyle, backstroke,
butterfly) with proficient technique.

•     Perform a flip turn at the end of each lap while maintaining speed and
efficiency.

6.    Adaptation (Ability to modify the skill as needed):

•     Adjust swimming technique based on water conditions (e.g., currents,
waves) to maintain control and efficiency.

•     Modify stroke mechanics to conserve energy during long-distance
swimming.

7.    Origination (Creation of new movements or skills):

•     Develop a synchronized swimming routine incorporating creative
movements and formations.

•     Invent a new swimming stroke or technique aimed at improving speed
or reducing drag.
Self- Check exercise-4
Q.1 Which level of the psychomotor domain involves basic proficiency in performing a skill?

a)    Perception

b)    Set

c)    Mechanism

d)    Complex Overt Response
Q.2 When a learner imitates the movements of an instructor during a demonstration, they are operating at which level of the psychomotor domain? a) Perception

b)    Guided Response

c)    Mechanism

d)    Adaptation
Q.3 Which level of the psychomotor domain requires skillful performance of the task?

a)    Set

b)    Mechanism

c)    Complex Overt Response

d)    Adaptation

1.8    Summary:
Bloom’s taxonomy serves as the backbone of many teaching philosophies, in particular those that lean more towards skills rather than content. These educators would view content as a vessel for teaching skills. The emphasis on higher-order thinking inherent in such philosophies is based on the top levels of the taxonomy including analysis, evaluation, synthesis and creation. Bloom’s taxonomy can be used as a teaching tool to help balance
assessment and evaluative questions in class, assignments and texts to ensure all orders of thinking are exercised in student’s learning, including aspects of information searching.

1.9    Glossary:
Educational Objectives: Statements that describe the intended learning outcomes of an educational program, course, or lesson, typically based on Bloom's Taxonomy and specifying what students should know or be able to do.
Learning Outcomes: Statements that describe what students are expected to know, understand, or be able to do as a result of instruction, typically based on educational objectives and aligned with Bloom's Taxonomy.
Cognitive Domain: Refers to the domain of Bloom's Taxonomy that encompasses intellectual skills and abilities related to thinking, understanding, and problem-solving.
Affective Domain: Refers to the domain of Bloom's Taxonomy that encompasses attitudes, beliefs, values, and emotions, influencing students' motivation, engagement, and behavior.
Psychomotor Domain: Refers to the domain of Bloom's Taxonomy that encompasses physical skills and abilities related to movement, coordination, and manual dexterity.

1.10    Answers to Self-Check Exercises
Self Check exercise-1

1.    a) Remembering

2.    b) Understanding

3.     c) Applying
Self Check exercise-2

1     c) Analyzing

2     b) Evaluating

3     c) Creating
Self Check exercise-3

1.    b) Responding

2.     c) Valuing

3.     c) Valuing
Self Check exercise-4

1.      c) Mechanism

2.      b) Guided Response

3.      c) Complex Overt Response

1.11 References/ Suggested Readings:

•     Ebel, Robert L.(1966) “Measuring Educational Achievement, Prentice
Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. Pp. 481

•     Gronlund, N. E. (1976), Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching.
McMillan, USA.

•     Hopkins, C.D. and Antes, R.L. (1990).Classroom measurement and
evaluation. Itasca, Illinois: Peacock.

•     Izard, J. (1991). Assessment of learning in the classroom. Geelong,
Vic.: Deakin University.

•      Izard, J. (1997). Content Analysis and Test Blueprints. Paris:
International Institute for Educational Planning.

•     Mehrens, W.A. and Lehmann, I.J. (1984).Measurement and evaluation
in education and psychology.(3rd Ed.) New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

•     Nandra, I.D.S.(2011). Learning Resources and Assessment of
Learning.Patiala, 21st Century Publications.

•     Taiwo, Adediran A. (2005). Fundamentals of Classroom Testing. New
Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

•     Walter W. Cook (1958). Educational Measurement. Washington D.C.:
American Council on Education.

•     Withers, G. (1997).Item Writing for Tests and Examinations. Paris:
International Institute for Educational Planning.

1.12
Q1.
Q2.
Q3.

Terminal Questions:
Discuss briefly the taxonomy of objectives in the cognitive domain.. Describe the of taxonomy of objectives in the Affective domain Discuss the taxonomy of objectives in the Psychomotor domain.
UNIT-2
EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENT: CONCEPT, NEED AND SCOPE Structure:

2.1    Introduction

2.2   Learning Objectives

2.3   Concept of Educational Measurement
Self- Check Exercise-1

2.4   Need, Purpose and Scope of Educational Measurement
Self- Check Exercise-2

2.5   Functions of Educational Measurement
Self- Check Exercise-3

2.6  Summary

2.7   Glossary

2.8   Answers to Self-Check exercises

2.9   References/ Suggested Readings

2.10  Terminal Questions

2.1   Introduction:
The term measurement and evaluation are often used in Psychology and education. Measurement and evaluation are the very old processes which are not only used in behavioural science but it is an origin of physical sciences and arithmetic. The development of measurement goes side by side the human development. Measurement may be understood as the comparison of a quantity with an appropriate scale for the purpose of determining the numerical value on the scale that corresponds to the quantity to be measured. Measurement is the process of systematically assigning numbers to objects and their properties, to facilitate the use of mathematics in studying and describing objects and their relationships. Some types of measurement are fairly concrete: for instance, measuring a person’s weight in pounds or kilograms, or their height in feet and inches or in meters. Note that the particular system of measurement used is not as important as a consistent set of rules: we can easily convert measurement in kilograms to pounds, for instance. Although any system of units may seem arbitrary (try defending feet and inches to someone who grew up with the metric system!), as long as the system has a consistent relationship with the property being measured, we can use the results in calculations.

2.2   Learning Objectives:
After going through this Unit, learners will be able to:

•     Develop an understanding of educational measurement.

•     Develop an understanding of need, purpose and scope of educational
measurement.

•     Explain the functions of educational measurement.

2.3    Concept of Educational Measurement:
Educational measurement refers to the use of educational assessments and the analysis of data such as scores obtained from educational assessments to infer the abilities and proficiencies of students. Educational measurement is the assigning of numerals to traits such as achievement, interest, attitudes, aptitudes, intelligence and performance.
The aim of theory and practice in educational measurement is typically to measure abilities and levels of attainment by students in areas such as reading, writing, mathematics, science and so forth. Traditionally, attention focuses on whether assessments are reliable and valid. In practice, educational measurement is largely concerned with the analysis of data from educational assessments or tests. Typically, this means using total scores on assessments, whether they are multiple choice or open-ended and marked using marking rubrics or guides.
Let us make the meaning of term measurement more clear with the help of definitions given below:
Carter V Good. “Measurement may be understood as the comparison of a quantity with an appropriate scale for the purpose of determining the numerical value on the scale that corresponds to the quantity to be measured.”
Remmers, Gaze and Rummel. “Measurement refers to observations that can be expressed quantitatively and answers the question, how much.”
Mahesh Bhargava.“Measurement is the process of assigning symbols or numerical to observations, objects or events in some meaningful or consistent manner according to rule.”
The analysis of above definition may clearly reveal that measurement is nothing but a process of quantification i.e. assigning units of measurements or numerical values to the types of characteristics observed in the behavior or nature of an individual or object during some observation or testing.
Measurement in education refers to the process of assessing students' knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics relevant to learning and academic achievement. It involves the systematic collection of data to evaluate students' progress, diagnose areas of strength and weakness, inform instructional decision-making, and determine the effectiveness of educational programs. Here are some key concepts related to measurement in education: 1.    Assessment: Assessment is the process of gathering information
about students' performance, typically through various methods such as tests, quizzes, projects, observations, and portfolios. Assessment can be formative (ongoing and used to provide feedback for improvement) or summative (evaluative, used to make judgments about student achievement).

2.    Validity: Validity refers to the extent to which an assessment measures what it is intended to measure. A valid assessment accurately reflects the knowledge, skills, or attributes it is designed to assess.

3.    Reliability: Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of assessment results. A reliable assessment produces consistent scores when administered repeatedly under similar conditions.

4.    Norm-Referenced vs. Criterion-Referenced:   Norm-referenced
assessment compares a student's performance to the performance of a larger group (norm group), whereas criterion-referenced assessment measures a student's performance against a predetermined set of criteria or standards.

5.    Standardized Testing: Standardized tests are assessments administered and scored under uniform conditions, with established procedures for administration and scoring. They are often used for large-scale assessments to compare students' performance across schools, districts, or regions.

6.    Formative Assessment: Formative assessment occurs throughout the learning process to provide feedback for improvement. It helps teachers identify students' strengths and weaknesses and adjust instruction accordingly.

7.    Summative Assessment: Summative assessment occurs at the end of a learning period to evaluate students' overall achievement. It is typically used for grading, promotion, or certification purposes.

8.    Rubrics: Rubrics are scoring guides that outline criteria for evaluating students' performance on tasks or assignments. They provide clear expectations and criteria for assessment, facilitating consistent and fair evaluation.

9.    Authentic Assessment: Authentic assessment tasks mirror real-world situations and require students to apply knowledge and skills in meaningful contexts. Examples include projects, performances, and portfolios.

10.    Data-Informed Decision Making: Measurement data are used to inform instructional decisions, curriculum development, and educational policy. By analyzing assessment results, educators can identify areas for improvement, monitor progress, and make evidence-based decisions to enhance student learning outcomes.
Measurement in education plays a crucial role in promoting accountability, ensuring educational equity, and supporting continuous improvement in teaching and learning practices. Effective measurement practices help educators tailor instruction to meet students' diverse needs, foster academic growth, and prepare students for success in school and beyond.
Self- Check Exercise-1
Q.1   ____________ refers to the process of assessing students' knowledge,
skills, and abilities.
Q.2  ____________ is the extent to which an assessment measures what it
is intended to measure.
Q.3 Standardized tests are administered and scored under ____________ conditions.
Q.4  ____________ assessment occurs throughout the learning process to
provide feedback for improvement.
Q.5 Rubrics provide ____________ for evaluating students' performance
on tasks or assignments.

2.4    Need, Purpose and Scope of Educational Measurement:
To explain the need of measurement, three assumptions must be made.
First, the schools exist in order to accomplish certain aims and these aims can be expressed in terms of desired changes in pupil behavior.
Second, instructional programs in schools are formulated in order to accomplish these objectives.
Third, objectives or aims are not likely to be accomplished successfully unless provision is made for continuing evaluation of the instructional programs.
Measurement, therefore, looks to be essential if evaluative process is to be accurately and effectively carried out. Measurement can be useful not only in evaluating a total program of instruction but also in providing information concerning the progress and development of the individual pupil. More specifically as indicated by Lindeman and Merenda (1979), it can answer the questions such as given below:

1.     What are the characteristics of pupils at the time they enter the system
(to know the status).

2.     Considering the general ability and aptitudes of the pupils in a given
school system, how does their achievement in various subject-matter areas compare with that of students of similar ability and aptitude in other school system (to compare the statuses).

3.     To what extent are the instructional objectives of the school and the
individual classroom teacher being achieved through the instructional processes and methods employed (to assess the efficacy of teaching methods in the light of instructional objectives).

4.    Which children entering the school system require a specialized
instruction in order to take the fullest advantage of their exceptional ability or to deal effectively with special learning problems? Which special instructional processes and methods and what special programmes must be developed for achieving maximum individualization of instruction (to match instruction with student ability and to provide remedial teaching).

5.    What advice should be given to individual students as they develop
educational and vocational plans for the future (to provide educational and vocational guidance).

6.    How can students are helped to develop realistic self-images so that
they will be able to formulate goals that are consistent with their aptitude and abilities.

7.     How can new students be properly [placed so that their instruction will
be consistent prior learning and with their aptitude and ability?

8.     How can information concerning the characteristics of individual pupils
be made available in suitable form to outside agencies such s colleges, universities and prospective employers?

9.    How can information concerning school programmes policies and
objectives be best gathered and conveyed to parents, community and the school management or the government?

10.    When more than one method of instruction is available which one tends to be most effective in maximizing pupil achievement?
Questions such as above may be adequately answered by measurement. Prof. A.K. Singh (1986) has enlisted the following functions of measurement:

•     Selection of students and school personnel.

•     Classification of students and teachers into various categories.

•     Comparison of students, classes, programmers and methods of
teaching etc.

•     Guidance and counseling, both to pupils and teachers.

•     Research.

•      Improving class-room instruction.
Purpose of Educational Measurement:

1.    Assessing Student Learning: The primary purpose of educational
measurement is to evaluate students' knowledge, skills, abilities, and other attributes relevant to learning and academic achievement. This assessment helps educators understand students' strengths and weaknesses, identify areas for improvement, and tailor instruction to meet individual needs.

2.    Monitoring Progress: Educational measurement provides a means for
monitoring students' progress over time. By assessing students at regular intervals, educators can track their growth, identify learning trends, and intervene when necessary to support struggling students or challenge high achievers.

3.    Informing Instructional Decision-Making: Measurement data inform
instructional decision-making by providing valuable insights into students' learning needs and preferences. Educators use assessment results to design and adjust instructional strategies, differentiate instruction, and provide targeted support to address students' diverse learning styles and abilities.

4.    Evaluating Educational Programs: Educational measurement helps
evaluate the effectiveness of educational programs, curriculum, and instructional interventions. By assessing students' learning outcomes, educators and policymakers can determine whether educational initiatives are achieving their intended goals and make evidence-based decisions to improve program quality and effectiveness.

5.    Promoting Accountability: Educational measurement promotes
accountability by holding educators, schools, and educational systems accountable for student learning outcomes. Assessment data are used to assess the performance of educational institutions, inform stakeholders about
progress and challenges, and guide resource allocation and policy development to improve educational outcomes for all students.
Scope of Educational Measurement:

1.    Formative Assessment: Formative assessment occurs during the
learning process to provide ongoing feedback for improvement. It focuses on identifying students' strengths and weaknesses, monitoring progress, and guiding instructional adjustments to enhance learning outcomes.

2.    Summative Assessment: Summative assessment occurs at the end
of a learning period to evaluate students' overall achievement. It typically involves assessing students against predetermined standards or criteria and making judgments about their proficiency or readiness for advancement.

3.    Standardized Testing: Standardized tests are used for large-scale
assessments to compare students' performance across schools, districts, or regions. These tests are administered and scored under uniform conditions, allowing for consistent evaluation and benchmarking of student achievement.

4.    Authentic Assessment: Authentic assessment tasks mirror real-world
situations and require students to apply knowledge and skills in meaningful contexts. Examples include projects, performances, portfolios, and simulations, which assess students' ability to transfer learning to authentic situations and solve real-world problems.

5.    Individualized Assessment: Individualized assessment involves
tailoring assessment strategies to meet the unique needs and characteristics of individual students. It may include alternative assessments, accommodations, and modifications to ensure equitable access to assessment opportunities for all learners.
Overall, the purpose and scope of educational measurement encompass a wide range of assessment practices aimed at promoting student learning, informing instructional decision-making, evaluating program effectiveness, and fostering accountability in educational settings.
Self- Check Exercise-2
Q.1 Which of the following best describes the need for educational measurement?

a)    To rank students based on their intelligence.

b)    To evaluate students' learning and academic achievement.

c)    To enforce strict discipline in schools.

d)    To create competition among students.
Q.2 Which aspect falls within the scope of educational measurement?

a)    Evaluating teachers' performance.

b)    Assessing students' progress over time.

c)    Deciding school holidays.

d)    Promoting extracurricular activities.
Q.3 What is the primary purpose of educational measurement?

a)    To create standardized tests for all students.

b)    To evaluate the effectiveness of educational programs.

c)    To increase workload for teachers.

d)    To discourage students from learning.

2.5 Functions of Educational Measurement:
Findly (1963) has classified the purposes served by tests and measurement under three inter-related categories:

a.     Instructional functions,

b.     Administrative functions, and

c.     Guidance functions.

a.    Instructional functions:
One great function of measurement and testing is the improvement of instruction in the class-room. The programme of measurement serves this function in the following manner:

1.    Measurement stimulus teachers to clarify and refine meaningful course
objectives:
Participation of teaching staff in selecting as well as constructing measuring tools has resulted in improved instruments on one hand and on the other hand, it has resulted in clarifying objectives of instruction and in making them real and meaningful. Dr. Benjamin S. Bloom observed that when teachers have actively participated in defining objectives and construction of evaluating tools, they return to the learning problems with great vigor and remarkable creativity, their teaching is greatly improved.

2.    Measurement provides a means of feedback to the teacher:
Feedback from measurement helps the teacher provide more appropriate instructional guidance for individual students as well as for the class as a whole. Well-designed tests may also be of value for pupil self-diagnosis since they help students’ identity areas of specific weaknesses.

3.    Measurement motivates Learning and teaching:
As a general rule, students pursue their studies more diligently if they expect to be evaluated. In the intense competition for a student’s time course without examinations are often squeezed out of priority and usually ignored by students and teachers alike. When queried students have consistently reported greater study and learning. The anticipation of a forthcoming test affects pupil’s intention to remember instructional content.

4.    Measurement influences Retention Positively:
Kruger’s classical study shows that examination not only stimulate review (learning and over-learning), but also positively influence retention performance.

b.    Administrative Functions:
Apart from instructional advantages of measurement and examination, there are quite a few administrative benefits accruing from it. Some of such functions are summarized below:

1.    Measurement Provides a Mechanism for Quality Control for a school or
school system:
Measurement provides local, state or national norms which form dependable basis for assessing certain curricular strengths and weaknesses. In the absence of such norms, instructional inadequacies maybe go unnoticed and school system, though deficient, may feel contented with what is going therein. 2.    Measurement is useful for research in education and psychology:
Measurement is the back-bone of all educational research. Tests provide useful data for deciding which innovative programmes are better or poorer than the conventional ones in facilitating the attainment of specific goals. Research in the process of learning and teaching employing different models and strategies very largely depends upon objectives and comprehensive measurement and testing.

3.    Measurement enables better decisions on classification and placement:
Grouping children by their ability levels is an example of classification for which tests can be of immense value. Educational and vocational placements are also facilitated by measurement and testing.

4.    Measurement increases the quality of selection decisions:
Scholastic aptitude and achievement test scores have repeatedly demonstrated their value in identifying who are or are not likely to succeed in various classes, or schools or colleges or programmes. Certain jobs require special skills that are best assessed by well-designed tests. Tests are the primary criteria for identifying the gifted or retarded children, or the recipients of various awards, prizes and distinctions.

5.    Measurement can be useful means of accreditation, mastery or
certification:
Tests on which standards of performance has been established allow the demonstration of competence or knowledge that may have been acquired in an unconventional way. The examinee may thereby receive some deserved credit, or certificate or authorization. Such certification serves a useful purpose for further admissions, selections or jobs.

c.    Guidance Functions:
The third major function of measurement or testing is in the field of educational and vocational guidance. Some important advantages are as follows:

1.     Tests can be of value in diagnosing an individual’s special aptitudes
and abilities:
Obtaining measures of scholastic aptitude, achievement, interest and personality is often an important aspect of counseling process. The use of information from standardized test and inventories can be helpful for guiding the selection of a school or college, the choosing of an appropriate course of study, discovering unrecognized abilities, and so on. Fickle and Millman (1957) have remarked that:
“when a student because of proper use of test results, is well adjusted and challenged in his school classes, happy with his curriculum and aware of his abilities and interests with respect to his educational and vocational future, then not only he himself benefits, but in the long run teachers, counselors, school administrators, college personnel employers and other benefit.”

2.    Tests and examination provide measurements upon which school
decisions are based.
Instructionally tests provide feedback, motivation and retention. Administratively tests facilitate quality control, programme evaluation, research, classification, comparison, placement, selection, accreditation, mastery and certification. In guidance, measurement serves to diagnose special aptitudes or abilities and thus facilitate course choices remedial teaching and career preparation.
To Summarize, the functions of educational measurement are diverse and integral to the educational process. Here's an overview of its key functions:

1.    Assessing Learning: One of the primary functions of educational
measurement is to assess students' learning and academic achievement. Through various assessment methods such as tests, quizzes, projects, and presentations, educators gauge students' understanding of concepts, mastery of skills, and application of knowledge.

2.    Monitoring Progress: Educational measurement enables educators to
monitor students' progress over time. By assessing students at regular intervals, educators can track their growth, identify areas for improvement, and provide timely interventions or support to ensure continued progress.

3.    Informing Instructional Decision-Making: Measurement data provide
valuable insights into students' learning needs, preferences, and challenges, which inform instructional decision-making. Educators use assessment results to design and adjust instructional strategies, differentiate instruction, and provide targeted support to meet students' diverse learning styles and abilities.

4.    Evaluating Educational Programs: Educational measurement helps
evaluate the effectiveness of educational programs, curriculum, and instructional interventions. By assessing students' learning outcomes, educators and policymakers can determine whether educational initiatives are achieving their intended goals and make evidence-based decisions to improve program quality and effectiveness.

5.    Promoting Accountability: Measurement data are used to hold
educators, schools, and educational systems accountable for student learning outcomes. Assessment results are used to assess the performance of educational institutions, inform stakeholders about progress and challenges, and guide resource allocation and policy development to improve educational outcomes for all students.

6.    Facilitating Differentiation: Educational measurement supports
differentiation by providing information about students' individual learning needs, strengths, and weaknesses. Educators can use assessment data to
tailor instruction, provide additional support or enrichment opportunities, and personalize learning experiences to meet the diverse needs of students.

7.    Supporting Educational Planning and Policy Development:
Measurement data inform educational planning and policy development at various levels, from classroom instruction to district-wide initiatives and national education policies. By analyzing assessment results, policymakers can identify areas for improvement, allocate resources effectively, and develop evidence-based policies to enhance educational quality and equity.

8.    Promoting Continuous Improvement: Educational measurement
fosters a culture of continuous improvement by providing feedback on students' progress, instructional effectiveness, and program outcomes. Educators use assessment data to identify areas for growth, set goals for improvement, and implement targeted interventions or initiatives to enhance teaching and learning practices.
Overall, the functions of educational measurement are multifaceted, encompassing assessment for learning, accountability, program evaluation, instructional improvement, and educational policy development. By providing valuable information about student learning and performance, measurement plays a crucial role in promoting educational excellence, equity, and innovation.
Self- Check exercise -3

Q.1 One of the primary functions of measurement in education is to assess students' learning and academic ___________.
Q.2 Measurement data provide valuable insights into students' learning needs, preferences, and challenges, which inform ___________ decision
making.
Q.3 Educational measurement helps evaluate the effectiveness of educational programs, curriculum, and instructional interventions by assessing students' learning ___________.

2.6    Summary:
Measurement in education is a vital process aimed at assessing students' knowledge, skills, abilities, and other attributes relevant to learning and academic achievement. Its primary purpose is to evaluate student learning, monitor progress, inform instructional decision-making, evaluate program effectiveness, and promote accountability. Educational measurement encompasses various assessment practices, including formative assessment, which provides ongoing feedback for improvement, and summative assessment, which evaluates overall achievement. Standardized testing is often used for large-scale assessments, while authentic assessment tasks mirror real-world situations to assess students' ability to apply knowledge and skills authentically. Measurement data help educators understand students' learning needs, identify areas for improvement, tailor instruction, and support
struggling students. Overall, measurement in education plays a crucial role in promoting student learning, fostering continuous improvement, and ensuring accountability in educational settings.

2.7    Glossary:

•     Assessment: The process of gathering information about students'
knowledge, skills, abilities, and other attributes relevant to learning and academic achievement.

•     Validity: The extent to which an assessment measures what it is
intended to measure.

•     Reliability: The consistency and stability of assessment results,
indicating the degree to which the assessment produces consistent scores under similar conditions.

•     Formative Assessment: Assessment conducted during the learning
process to provide ongoing feedback for improvement and guide instructional decision-making.

•    Summative Assessment: Assessment conducted at the end of a
learning period to evaluate students' overall achievement and make judgments about proficiency or readiness for advancement.

2.8    Answers to Self- Check Exercises:
Self- check Exercise-1
Answer1.   Assessment
Answer2.    Validity
Answer3.   Uniform
Answer4.   Formative
Answer5.    Criteria
Self- check Exercise-2
Answer1:    b) To evaluate students' learning and academic achievement.
Answer2:    b) Assessing students' progress over time.
Answer3:    b) To evaluate the effectiveness of educational programs.
Self- check Exercise-3
Answer 1:   Achievement
Answer 2:   Instructional
Answer 3:   Outcomes

2.9    References/ suggested Readings:

•     Ebel, Robert L.(1966) “Measuring Educational Achievement, Prentice
Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. Pp. 481

•     Gronlund, N. E. (1976), Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching.
McMillan, USA.

•     Hopkins, C.D. and Antes, R.L. (1990).Classroom measurement and
evaluation. Itasca, Illinois: Peacock.

•     Izard, J. (1991). Assessment of learning in the classroom. Geelong,
Vic.: Deakin University.

•      Izard, J. (1997). Content Analysis and  Test Blueprints. Paris:
International Institute for Educational Planning.

•     Mehrens, W.A. and Lehmann, I.J. (1984).Measurement and evaluation
in education and psychology.(3rd Ed.) New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

•     Nandra, I.D.S.(2011). Learning Resources and Assessment of
Learning.Patiala, 21st Century Publications.

•     Taiwo, Adediran A. (2005). Fundamentals of Classroom Testing. New
Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

•     Walter W. Cook (1958). Educational Measurement. Washington D.C.:
American Council on Education.

•     Withers, G. (1997).Item Writing for Tests and Examinations. Paris:
International Institute for Educational Planning.

2.10    Terminal Questions:
Q.1   What is the primary function of measurement in education?
Q.2   How does measurement in education support instructional decision
making?
Q.3 Explain the role of measurement in evaluating educational programs. Q.4 How does measurement contribute to promoting accountability in education?
UNIT-3
CRITERION AND NORM REFERENCED MEASUREMENT Structure:

3.1    Introduction

3.2   Learning Objectives

3.3   Criterion Referenced Tests
Self-Check Exercise-1

3.4   Norm referenced Tests
Self-Check Exercise- 2

3.5   Comparison of Criterion Referenced and Norm Referenced Tests
Self- Check Exercise- 3

3.6  Summary

3.7   Glossary

3.8   Answers to self- Check exercises

3.9   References/ Suggested Readings

3.10  Terminal Questions

3.1   Introduction:
Measurement/Assessment in education refers to the process of gathering and analyzing information about students' knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics relevant to learning and academic achievement. It plays a crucial role in evaluating students' progress, diagnosing areas of strength and weakness, informing instructional decision-making, and measuring the effectiveness of educational programs. Assessment in education is a multifaceted process that encompasses various methods, purposes, and considerations. When used effectively, assessment promotes student learning, informs instructional decision-making, and contributes to educational improvement and accountability. Measurement in education is essential for promoting student learning, guiding instructional practices, and improving educational outcomes. By employing valid, reliable, and fair assessment methods aligned with educational objectives, educators can effectively measure student progress and make informed decisions to support student success.

3.2   Learning Objectives:
After going through this Unit, learners will be able to:

•     Understand criterion referenced tests.

•     Develop an understanding of norm referenced test.

3.3   Criterion Referenced Tests:
A criterion-referenced test is a style of test which uses test scores to generate a statement about the behavior that can be expected of a person with that score. Most tests and quizzes that are written by school teachers can be considered criterion-referenced tests. In this case, the objective is simply
to see whether the student has learned the material. Criterion-referenced assessment can be contrasted with norm-referenced assessment Criterion-referenced testing was a major focus of psychometric research in the 1970s.
Definitions: Criterion-referenced tests measure how well a test taker has mastered a specific set of learning objectives or criteria. Instead of comparing students' performance to that of others, the focus is on whether they meet predefined standards of performance.

•    American Educational Research Association (AERA), American
Psychological Association (APA), & National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME) (2014): Criterion-referenced tests are assessments that measure the extent to which a test taker has mastered particular learning objectives or content, without reference to the performance of others. These tests are designed to determine whether a test taker has achieved a particular level of proficiency or mastery of specific skills, knowledge, or competencies, as defined by predetermined criteria or standards.

•     Educational Testing Service (ETS): Criterion-referenced tests are
assessments that provide information about an individual's performance in relation to clearly defined criteria or standards. The focus of these tests is on whether the test taker has attained specific learning objectives or competencies, rather than comparing their performance to that of others. CRTs are used to evaluate mastery of content, skills, or competencies and to inform decisions about instructional planning, curriculum development, and student progress.
A common misunderstanding regarding the term is the meaning of criterion. Many, if not most, criterion-referenced tests involve a cut score, where the examinee passes if their score exceeds the cut score and fails if it does not (often called a mastery test). The criterion is not the cut score; the criterion is the domain of subject matter that the test is designed to assess. For example, the criterion may be "Students should be able to correctly add two single-digit numbers," and the cut score may be that students should correctly answer a minimum of 80% of the questions to pass.
The criterion-referenced interpretation of a test score identifies the relationship to the subject matter. In the case of a mastery test, this does mean identifying whether the examinee has "mastered" a specified level of the subject matter by comparing their score to the cuts core. However, not all criterion-referenced tests have a cut score, and the score can simply refer to a person's standing on the subject domain Because of this common misunderstanding, criterion-referenced tests have also been called standards-based assessments by some education agencies, as students are assessed with regards to standards that define what they "should" know, as defined by the state.
Criterion Referenced Test
A criterion-referenced test is a test that provides a basis for determining a candidate's level of knowledge and skills in relation to a well-defined domain of content. Often one or more performance standards are set on the test score scale to aid in test score interpretation. Criterion-referenced tests, a type of test introduced by Glaser (1962) and Popham and Husek (1969), are also known as domain-referenced tests, competency tests, basic skills tests, mastery tests, performance tests or assessments, authentic assessments, objective-referenced tests, standards-based tests, credentialing exams, and more. What all of these tests have in common is that they attempt to determine a candidate's level of performance in relation to a well-defined domain of content. This can be contrasted with norm-referenced tests, which determine a candidate's level of the construct measured by a test in relation to a well-defined reference group of candidates, referred to as the norm group. So it might be said that criterion-referenced tests permit a candidate's score to be interpreted in relation to a domain of content, and norm-referenced tests permit a candidate's score to be interpreted in relation to a group of examinees. The first interpretation is content-centered, and the second interpretation is examinee-centered.
Criterion-Referenced Tests (CRTs) are assessments designed to measure whether students have achieved specific learning objectives or criteria. Unlike norm-referenced tests, which compare students' performance to that of a norm group, CRTs focus on evaluating students' mastery of predefined standards or criteria. Here's an overview of Criterion-Referenced Tests:
Purpose:

1.    Assessing Mastery: CRTs are used to determine whether students have mastered specific learning objectives, competencies, or standards.

2.    Evaluating Curriculum Alignment: CRTs help educators assess the alignment between instructional objectives, curriculum, and assessment practices.

3.    Informing Instruction: Results from CRTs provide valuable feedback to educators, informing instructional decision-making and guiding targeted interventions or support.
Key Features:

1.    Criteria-Based: CRTs are designed based on specific criteria or standards that students are expected to achieve.

2.    Objective-Referenced: Performance on CRTs is compared against predetermined performance standards rather than other students' performance.

3.    Absolute Interpretation: Scores on CRTs are interpreted in absolute terms, indicating whether students have met, exceeded, or not met the established criteria.

4.    Directly Aligned with Curriculum: CRTs are closely aligned with
instructional objectives, ensuring that assessment measures what is taught.
Examples:

1.    State Standards Tests: Assessments aligned with state academic
standards, measuring students' proficiency in specific subject areas.

2.    End-of-Chapter Assessments: Assessments administered at the end
of a unit or chapter to evaluate students' mastery of learning objectives.

3.    Performance Tasks: Tasks or projects designed to assess students'
ability to apply knowledge and skills in authentic contexts, with scoring rubrics tied to specific criteria.

4.    Skills Assessments: Assessments designed to measure students'
proficiency in specific skills or competencies, such as writing, problem-solving, or scientific inquiry.
Benefits:

1.    Clear Feedback: CRTs provide clear feedback to students and
educators about students' strengths and areas for improvement.

2.    Curriculum Alignment: CRTs help ensure that instruction and
assessment practices are aligned with curriculum objectives and standards.

3.    Individualized Instruction: Results from CRTs inform individualized
instruction, allowing educators to tailor interventions to meet students' specific learning needs.
Considerations:

1.     Validity and Reliability: CRTs must be valid and reliable, accurately
measuring what they intend to measure and producing consistent results.

2.     Fairness: CRTs should be fair and equitable for all students, free from
bias or discrimination.

3.    Interpretation of Scores: Educators must understand how to interpret
CRT scores in relation to established criteria or standards.
Criterion-Referenced Tests play a crucial role in assessing student learning and informing instructional decision-making by providing clear, objective measures of students' mastery of specific learning objectives or standards.
Self-Check Exercise-1
Q.1 Which of the following best describes the function of Criterion-Referenced Tests (CRTs)?

a)    Comparing students' performance to that of a norm group.

b)    b) Measuring mastery of specific learning objectives or criteria.

c)    c) Ranking students based on their performance relative to peers.

d)    d) Providing feedback on students' progress over time.
Q.2 Criterion-Referenced Tests focus on evaluating individual students' performance against predetermined standards or criteria. True or False?
Q.3 Match the following terms:
| a) Criterion-Referenced Tests | 1.    Measures whether students  have achieved particular standards or criteria. |
|---|---|
| b) Mastery | 2.     The level of proficiency or expertise demonstrated by students. |
| c) Specific learning objectives | 3. Clearly defined goals or targets for student learning. |
| d) Individual performance | 4. Focuses on how well students perform relative to predetermined criteria, rather than comparing them to others. |



3.4 Norm Referenced Test
Norm-referencing is based on the assumption that a roughly similar range of human performance can be expected for any student group. There is a strong culture of norm-referencing in higher education. It is evident in many commonplace practices, such as the expectation that the mean of a cohort’s results should be a fixed percentage year-in year-out (often this occurs when comparability across subjects is needed for the award of prizes, for instance), or the policy of awarding first class honours sparingly to a set number of students, and so on. In contrast, criterion-referencing, as the name implies, involves determining a student’s grade by comparing his or her achievements with clearly stated criteria for learning outcomes and clearly stated standards for particular levels of performance. Unlike norm-referencing, there is no predetermined grade distribution to be generated and a student’s grades is in no way influenced by the performance of others. Theoretically, all students within a particular cohort could receive very high (or very low) grades depending solely on the levels of individuals’ performances against the established criteria and standards.
It is not always possible to be entirely objective and to comprehensively articulate criteria for learning outcomes: some subjectivity in setting and interpreting levels of achievement is inevitable in higher education. This being the case, sometimes the best we can hope for is to compare individuals’ achievements relative to their peers. Norm-referencing, on its own — and if strictly and narrowly implemented — is undoubtedly unfair. With normreferencing, a student’s grade depends – to some extent at least – not only on his or her level of achievement, but also on the achievement of other students. This might lead to obvious inequities if applied without thought to any other considerations. For example, a student who fails in one year may well have passed in other years! The potential for unfairness of this kind is most likely in smaller student cohorts, where norm-referencing may force a spread of grades and exaggerate differences in achievement. Alternatively, normreferencing might artificially compress the range of difference that actually
exists. The essential characteristic of norm-referencing is that students are awarded their grades on the basis of their ranking within a particular cohort. Norm-referencing involves fitting a ranked list of students’ ‘raw scores’ to a pre-determined distribution for awarding grades. Usually, grades are spread to fit a ‘bell curve’ (a ‘normal distribution’ in statistical terminology), either by qualitative, informal rough-reckoning or by statistical techniques of varying complexity. For large student cohorts (such as in senior secondary education), statistical moderation processes are used to adjust or standardize student scores to fit a normal distribution. This adjustment is necessary when comparability of scores across different subjects is required (such as when subject scores are added to create an aggregate ENTER score for making university selection decisions). Norm-referenced score interpretations compare test-takers to a sample of peers. The goal is to rank students as being better or worse than other students. Norm-referenced test score interpretations are associated with traditional education. Students who perform better than others pass the test, and students who perform worse than others fail the test.
Definition: Norm-Referenced Tests (NRTs) are assessments that compare an individual's performance to that of a norm group, allowing for the interpretation of scores in relation to the performance of a larger population. The purpose of NRTs is to rank individuals based on their relative standing or performance compared to others in the norm group, rather than evaluating their mastery of specific learning objectives or criteria. NRTs are commonly used for comparative purposes, such as college admissions, selection for gifted programs, or identifying students in need of additional support or intervention.
Norm-Referenced Tests (NRTs) are assessments designed to compare an individual's performance to that of a norm group, typically a representative sample of the population. These tests provide information about how an individual's performance ranks relative to others in the norm group. Here's a brief overview of Norm-Referenced Tests:
Purpose:

1.    Comparative Assessment: NRTs are used to compare an individual's
performance to that of a norm group, allowing for the interpretation of scores in relation to the performance of a larger population.

2.    Ranking and Selection: NRTs rank individuals based on their relative
standing or performance compared to others in the norm group, making them useful for selection purposes, such as college admissions, employment, or program placement.

3.    Identifying Relative Strengths and Weaknesses: NRTs provide
information about individuals' relative strengths and weaknesses compared to their peers, helping identify areas where additional support or intervention may be needed.
Key Features:

1.    Norm Group: NRTs use a norm group, which is a representative sample of the population, to establish norms or reference points for interpreting scores.

2.    Percentile Ranks: Scores on NRTs are often reported as percentile ranks, indicating the percentage of individuals in the norm group who scored at or below a given score.

3.    Comparative Interpretation: Interpretation of scores on NRTs involves comparing an individual's performance to that of the norm group, rather than evaluating mastery of specific learning objectives or criteria.

4.    Standardization: NRTs are typically standardized to ensure consistency in administration, scoring, and interpretation across different test administrations and populations.
Examples:

1.    Standardized Achievement Tests: Tests administered to students to assess their academic achievement in specific subject areas, such as reading, mathematics, or science.

2.    College Entrance Exams: Exams like the SAT or ACT are norm-referenced assessments used for college admissions, with scores compared to those of a national sample of test-takers.

3.    Personality and Aptitude Tests: Some personality and aptitude tests, such as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) or the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), use norm-referenced scoring to compare individuals' results to those of a norm group.
Considerations:

1.    Population Characteristics: The composition of the norm group should be representative of the population of interest to ensure the validity and fairness of score interpretation.

2.    Test Fairness: NRTs should be fair and free from bias to ensure equitable assessment opportunities for all individuals.

3.    Interpretation: It's important to interpret scores on NRTs in context, considering factors such as the characteristics of the norm group and the purpose of the assessment.
In summary, Norm-Referenced Tests provide valuable information about individuals' relative standing or performance compared to a norm group, making them useful for comparative assessment, ranking, and selection purposes. However, it's essential to interpret scores in context and consider the characteristics of the norm group when using NRTs for decision-making.
Self- Check Exercise-2
Q.1 Which of the following best describes the purpose of Norm-Referenced Tests (NRTs)?

a)    Measuring mastery of specific learning objectives.

b)    Comparing an individual's performance to that of a norm group.

c)    Providing feedback on students' progress over time.

d)    Assessing students' relative strengths and weaknesses.
Q.2 Norm-Referenced Tests provide information about how an individual's performance ranks relative to others in the norm group. True or False?
Q.3 Match the following terms:
| a) Norm-Referenced Tests | 1.    Assessments designed to compare an individual's performance to that of a norm group. |
|---|---|
| b) Percentile Ranks | 2. Scores on NRTs often reported as percentile ranks, indicating relative standing compared to the norm group. |
| c) Comparative Assessment | 3.    Purpose of NRTs, such as college admissions or program placement. |
| d) College Admissions | 4.    Examples of NRTs, such as the SAT or ACT. |



3.5    Comparison of Criterion-Referenced and Norm-Referenced Measurement:
In psychology and education the information obtained from the tests are generally evaluated by norm-referenced measurement. One of the criteria of a good psychological test is norms. No test is a good test unless and until the norms are developed for it. On the basis of the test scores of an individual, one knows whether he is below average, average or above average in the group.
Criterion-referenced and norm-referenced measurements are differentiated on the basis of their aim. When the achievement of students has to be done in reference to some specific group then the measurement is norm-referenced. In criterion-referenced measurement the evaluation of ability is done on some criteria, e.g., some cut point for admission to some school or college.
Criterion-referenced and norm-referenced measurement can easily be understood by their comparison. These two measurements can easily be understood by following points:

1.    Criterion and norm-referenced measurements are differentiated on the basis of information received by two measurements. The total attained knowledge of a student is known through norm-referenced measurement, while criterion-referenced measurement tells about specific educational aims. Through criterion-referenced measurement one knows how much of the specific objects of education are attained by the student and what is not attained. Norm-referenced measurement tells the number of questions which a student has solved. For example if a student had solved 7 questions out of
ten, then this information is received through norm-referenced measurement but if the three questions which he had not solved belongs to a particular area then we know that the student has not learned a particular phenomenon. This information is obtained only through criterion-referenced measurement.

2.    The absolute amount of knowledge obtained by a student is known through criterion-referenced measurement, while norm-referenced measurement tells how much a student has attained in comparison to other students in the group.

3.    In criterion-referenced measurement, through the educational methods one tries to know the amount of attained knowledge of a student, while in norm-referenced measurement the success of a student is evaluated in relative terms.

4.    In criterion-referenced measurement certain items are included keeping in mind the specific objectives and they are confined to these objectives only, while in norm-referenced measurement, these items are generally spread over a wider area.
| Dimension | Criterion-Referenced Tests | Norm-Referenced Tests |
|---|---|---|
| Definition | Measures student performance against predetermined criteria or standards. | Compares   individual   student performance to a norm group. |
| Purpose | -    To determine whether each student has achieved specific skills or concepts.  -    To find out how much students know before instruction begins and after it has finished.  -    Determines mastery of specific skills or content. | -    To rank each student with respect to the achievement of others   in   broad   areas   of knowledge.  -    To discriminate between high and low achievers.  -    Ranks students relative to one another. |
| Standards | Predetermined criteria or standards are explicit and specific. | No  predetermined  standards; comparison to norm group. |
| Content | -    Measures specific skills which make up a designated curriculum. These skills are identified by teachers and curriculum experts.  -    Each skill is expressed as an instructional objective. | - Measures broad skill areas ample from a variety of textbooks, syllabus, and the judgments of curriculum experts. |
| Item | - Each skill is tested by at least | - Each skill is usually tested by |


| Characteris tics | four items in order to obtain an adequate sample of student performance and to minimize the effect of guessing. - The items which test any given skill are parallel in difficulty. | less than four items.  -    Items vary in difficulty.  -   Items   are   selected   that discriminate between high and low achievers. |
|---|---|---|
| Score Interpretati on | - Each individual is compared with a preset standard for acceptable achievement. The performance of other examinee is irrelevant. - A student's score is usually expressed as a percentage.  -    Student achievement is reported for individual skills.  -    Based on whether students meet, exceed, or fall short of criteria. | - Each individual is compared with other examinee and assigned a score--usually expressed as a percentile, a grade equivalent score, or a stanine. - Student achievement is reported for broad skill areas, although some norm-referenced tests do report student achievement for individual skills. - Interpretation based on comparison to norm group |
| Feedback | Detailed and specific, highlighting areas of strength and areas needing improvement relative to criteria. | May focus on how a student's performance compares to peers. |
| Application | Common   in   competency based education systems. | Often   used   in   competitive selection processes. |


Self- Check Exercise- 3
Q.1 What is the primary focus of criterion-referenced evaluation?
Q.2 How does norm-referenced evaluation differ from criterion-referenced evaluation in terms of standards?
Q.3   Explain the purpose of norm-referenced evaluation in educational
assessment.

3.6  Summary:
Criterion-referenced evaluation and norm-referenced evaluation are two fundamental methods used in educational assessment, each offering unique perspectives on student performance. Criterion-referenced evaluation focuses on measuring individual achievement against predetermined criteria or standards, providing insight into whether students have mastered specific skills or content. In contrast, norm-referenced evaluation compares students' performance to that of a norm group, ranking them relative to their peers.
Criterion-referenced evaluation emphasizes mastery of specific objectives and provides detailed, criterion-based feedback to guide improvement. On the other hand, norm-referenced evaluation is often used for comparative purposes, such as competitive selection processes, where ranking and comparison are essential. While both approaches serve important roles in education, they differ in their emphasis, interpretation, and application, catering to diverse educational contexts and objectives.

3.7    Glossary:
Criterion-Referenced Evaluation: An assessment approach that measures individual student performance against predetermined criteria or standards.
Norm-Referenced Evaluation: An assessment approach that compares individual student performance to that of a norm group, ranking students relative to one another.
Standards: Predetermined criteria or benchmarks that define what students are expected to know or be able to do in criterion-referenced evaluation.
Criteria:  Specific components or elements used to evaluate student
performance in criterion-referenced evaluation.
Mastery: Achievement of a specified level of proficiency or competence in criterion-referenced evaluation, indicating that students have met the predetermined standards or criteria.

3.8    Answers to Self Check Exercises:
Self-Check Exercise-1
Answer1:    b) Measuring mastery of specific learning objectives or criteria.
Answer2:   True.
Answer3:    a) 4 b) 2 c) 3 d) 1
Self- Check Exercise-2
Answer1:    b) Comparing an individual's performance to that of a norm
group.
Answer2:   True.
Answer3:    a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4
Self- Check Exercise-3
Answer1: The primary focus of criterion-referenced evaluation is to measure individual student performance against predetermined criteria or standards, assessing whether students have mastered specific skills or content.
Answer2:  In norm-referenced evaluation, there are no predetermined
standards. Instead, student performance is compared to that of a norm group. In criterion-referenced evaluation, standards are explicit and specific, outlining what students are expected to know or be able to do.
Answer3: The purpose of norm-referenced evaluation is to rank students relative to one another. It provides comparative information about students'
performance within a norm group, helping to identify the highest and lowest performers.

3.9    References/ Suggested Readings:

•     Ebel, Robert L.(1966) “Measuring Educational Achievement, Prentice
Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. Pp. 481

•     Gronlund, N. E. (1976), Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching.
McMillan, USA.

•     Hopkins, C.D. and Antes, R.L. (1990).Classroom measurement and
evaluation. Itasca, Illinois: Peacock.

•     Izard, J. (1991). Assessment of learning in the classroom. Geelong,
Vic.: Deakin University.

•      Izard,  J. (1997). Content Analysis and Test Blueprints. Paris:
International Institute for Educational Planning.

•     Mehrens, W.A. and Lehmann, I.J. (1984).Measurement and evaluation
in education and psychology.(3rd Ed.) New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

•     Nandra, I.D.S.(2011). Learning Resources and Assessment of
Learning.Patiala, 21st Century Publications.

•     Taiwo, Adediran A. (2005). Fundamentals of Classroom Testing. New
Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

•     Walter W. Cook (1958). Educational Measurement. Washington D.C.:
American Council on Education.

•     Withers, G. (1997).Item Writing for Tests and Examinations. Paris:
International Institute for Educational Planning.

3.10    Terminal Questions:
Q.1 Provide an example of a Criterion-Referenced Test and explain how it measures mastery of specific learning objectives.
Q.2 Discuss the benefits and limitations of Criterion-Referenced Tests in educational assessment.
Q.3 Explain how Norm-Referenced Tests are used in college admissions.
Q.4 Discuss the strengths and limitations of Norm-Referenced Tests in educational assessment.
UNIT 4: MEASUREMENT OF ACHIEVEMENT
Structure

4.1    Introduction

4.2   Learning Objectives

4.3   Meaning of Achievement
Self- Check exercise-1

4.4   Measurement of Achievement
Self- Check Exercise-2

4.5   Achievement Tests
Self-Check Exercise-3

4.6  Summary

4.7   Glossary

4.8   Answers to Self Check Exercise

4.9   References

4.10    Terminal end Questions

4.1   Introduction:
Achievement generally refers to the successful accomplishment or attainment of goals, objectives, or standards. In an educational context, achievement specifically relates to the knowledge, skills, or competencies that individuals acquire or demonstrate as a result of their learning experiences. Despite the complexity, intangibility, and delayed fruition of many educational achievements and despite the relative imprecision of many of the techniques of educational measurement, there are logical grounds for believing that all important educational achievements can be measured. To be important, an educational achievement must lead to a difference in behavior. The person who has achieved more must in some circumstances behave differently from the person who has achieved less. If such a difference cannot be observed and verified no grounds exist for believing that the achievement is important.

4.2    Learning Objectives:
After completing this Unit, the learner will be able to;

•    Understand the Concept of Achievement

•    Understand the various dimensions such as academic, personal, and
social achievement.

•    Understand the meaning and significance of achievement tests.

4.3    Meaning of Achievement:
The purpose of achievement testing is to measure some aspect of the intellectual competence of human beings: what a person has learned to know or to do. Teachers use achievement tests to measure the attainments of their students. Employers use achievement tests to measure the competence of prospective employees. Professional associations use achievement tests to
exclude unqualified applicants from the practice of the profession. In any circumstances where it is necessary or useful to distinguish persons of higher from those of lower competence or attainments, achievement testing is likely to occur.
The varieties of intellectual competence that may be developed by formal education, self-study, or other types of experience are numerous and diverse. There is a corresponding number and diversity of types of tests used to measure achievement.
Measurement, in its most fundamental form, requires nothing more than the verifiable observation of such a difference. If person A exhibits to any qualified observer more of a particular trait than person B, then that trait is measurable. By definition, then, any important achievement is potentially measurable.
Many important educational achievements can be measured quite satisfactorily by means of paper and pencil tests. But in some cases the achievement is so complex, variable, and conditional that the measurements obtained are only rough approximations. In other cases the difficulty lies in the attempt to measure something that has been alleged to exist but that has never been defined specifically. Thus, to say that all important achievements are potentially measurable is not to say that all those achievements have been clearly identified or that satisfactory techniques for measuring all of them have been developed.
Here are some key aspects of the meaning of achievement:
Attainment of Goals: Achievement involves reaching specific goals or objectives set by educators, institutions, or individuals themselves. These goals may include mastering academic content, developing critical thinking skills, or demonstrating proficiency in specific subject areas.
Demonstration of Competence: Achievement often involves demonstrating competence or proficiency in a particular domain or skill. This may be assessed through various means, such as tests, projects, presentations, or performance evaluations.
Recognition of Effort and Progress: Achievement recognizes the effort and progress made by individuals in their learning journey. It acknowledges both the process of learning and the outcomes achieved.
Personal Growth and Development: Achievement is not solely about academic success but also encompasses personal growth and development. It may involve overcoming challenges, developing resilience, and acquiring transferable skills that contribute to lifelong learning and success.
Measurement and Evaluation: Achievement is often measured and evaluated through assessments and evaluations. These assessments may include standardized tests, classroom assignments, performance tasks, and teacher observations, among others.
Contextual and Relative: Achievement is contextual and relative, meaning it can vary depending on individual circumstances, cultural backgrounds, and
educational contexts. What constitutes achievement for one person or group may differ from another.
Self- Check Exercise-1
Q.1 What does achievement generally refer to?

a)    Successful accomplishment of goals

b)    Failure to meet expectations

c)    Mediocrity in performance

d)    Lack of effort in learning
Q. 2 In an educational context, achievement specifically relates to:

a)    Accumulation of wealth

b)    Acquisition of material possessions

c)    Attainment of knowledge and skills

d)    Social status
Q. 3 Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of achievement?

a)    Recognition of effort and progress

b)    Personal growth and development

c)    Measurement through subjective criteria

d)    Attainment of specific goals or standards

4.4    Measurement Of Achievement:
"Measurement of achievement" refers to the process of assessing and quantifying a person's performance or proficiency in a particular domain or skill. It involves the use of various assessment tools and techniques to evaluate how well individuals have mastered specific learning objectives or standards. The measurement of achievement plays a crucial role in education and other fields, providing valuable information about students' progress, strengths, and areas needing improvement.
In education, the measurement of achievement encompasses a wide range of assessment methods, including tests, quizzes, projects, presentations, and performance tasks. These assessments may be designed to measure different types of achievement, such as cognitive skills (e.g., problem-solving, critical thinking), academic knowledge (e.g., subject-specific content), or psychomotor skills (e.g., manual dexterity, physical fitness).
The process of measuring achievement typically involves several steps:
Setting Objectives or Standards: Establishing clear learning objectives or standards that define what students are expected to know or be able to do.
Selecting Assessment Methods: Choosing appropriate assessment methods and tools to measure achievement in alignment with the established objectives or standards.
Administering Assessments: Conducting assessments to collect data on students' performance and achievement.
Scoring and Evaluation: Evaluating students' responses or performances based on predetermined criteria or scoring rubrics.
Interpreting Results: Analyzing assessment results to understand students' strengths, weaknesses, and overall achievement levels.
Providing  Feedback: Providing feedback to students based on their
performance to support their learning and growth.
Using Results for Decision-Making: Using assessment data to inform instructional planning, curriculum development, and interventions to enhance student learning and achievement.
Effective measurement of achievement requires careful consideration of assessment validity, reliability, fairness, and authenticity. Valid assessments accurately measure what they are intended to measure, while reliable assessments produce consistent results over time and across different contexts. Fair assessments ensure that all students have an equal opportunity to demonstrate their achievement, regardless of factors such as background or disability. Authentic assessments provide meaningful tasks and contexts that reflect real-world applications of knowledge and skills.
Overall, the measurement of achievement is essential for monitoring progress, guiding instruction, and promoting continuous improvement in education and beyond.
Self-Check Exercise-2:
Q. 1 Learning outcomes of achievement represent the specific knowledge, skills, or competencies that individuals are expected to acquire or demonstrate as a result of their educational ___________.
Q. 2 The objectives of teaching the topic of achievement encompass several key goals aimed at promoting student learning, growth, and
Q.3 Effective measurement of achievement requires careful consideration of assessment validity, reliability, ___________, and authenticity.

4.5    Achievement Tests:
An achievement test is a test of developed skill or knowledge. The most common type of achievement test is a standardized test developed to measure skills and knowledge learned in a given grade level, usually through planned instruction, such as training or classroom instruction. Achievement tests are often contrasted with tests that measure aptitude, a more general and stable cognitive trait. Achievement test scores are often used in an educational system to determine what level of instruction for which a student is prepared. High achievement scores usually indicate a mastery of gradelevel material, and the readiness for advanced instruction. Low achievement scores can indicate the need for remediation or repeating a course grade.
Under No Child Left Behind, achievement tests have taken on an additional role of assessing proficiency of students. Proficiency is defined as the amount of grade-appropriate knowledge and skills a student has acquired up to the point of testing. Better teaching practices are expected to increase the amount
learned in a school year, and therefore to increase achievement scores, and yield more "proficient" students than before.
When writing achievement test items, writers usually begin with a list of content standards (either written by content specialists or based on state-created content standards) which specify exactly what students are expected to learn in a given school year. The goal of item writers is to create test items that measure the most important skills and knowledge attained in a given grade-level. The number and type of test items written is determined by the grade-level content standards. Content validity is determined by the representatives of the items included on the final test. Achievement tests are assessments designed to measure the knowledge, skills, or abilities that individuals have acquired in a specific subject area or domain. There are several types of achievement tests, each tailored to assess different aspects of learning and achievement.
Types of Achievement Tests:
Standardized Achievement Tests: These tests are designed to measure students' performance in a particular subject area using standardized procedures and scoring. They often assess a broad range of content within a specific grade level or educational domain and are administered to large groups of students. Examples include state standardized tests, national assessments (e.g., SAT, ACT), and international assessments (e.g., PISA).
Subject-Specific Achievement Tests: These tests focus on assessing proficiency in a specific subject area, such as mathematics, reading, science, or social studies. Subject-specific achievement tests may cover a range of topics within the subject area and are often used to evaluate students' mastery of curriculum standards or learning objectives in that subject.
Diagnostic Achievement Tests: Diagnostic tests are designed to identify students' strengths and weaknesses in a particular subject area or skill domain. They provide detailed information about students' current levels of understanding and can help educators identify areas where additional instruction or support may be needed. Diagnostic tests may be administered before or during instruction to inform teaching practices and curriculum planning.
Formative Assessment: While not a traditional achievement test, formative assessment techniques are used to monitor students' progress and understanding throughout the learning process. Formative assessments provide feedback to both students and teachers and can help guide instructional decisions in real-time. Examples of formative assessment techniques include quizzes, exit tickets, classroom discussions, and peer/self-assessment.
Summative Assessment: Summative assessments are administered at the end of a unit, course, or school year to evaluate students' overall achievement and mastery of learning objectives. These assessments often take the form of
comprehensive exams, final projects, or standardized tests and are used to assign grades or make decisions about student progression or graduation.
Criterion-Referenced Tests: Criterion-referenced tests measure students' performance against specific learning criteria or standards. These tests assess whether students have mastered predefined objectives or competencies, rather than comparing their performance to that of other students. Criterion-referenced tests are commonly used in competency-based education systems and to assess mastery of specific skills or knowledge.
Norm-Referenced Tests: Norm-referenced tests compare students' performance to that of a norm group, typically a representative sample of students from the same grade level or age group. These tests provide information about how individual students' performance ranks relative to their peers. Norm-referenced tests are often used for comparative purposes, such as identifying high and low achievers or making admissions decisions.
These are some of the most common types of achievement tests used in education. Each type serves different purposes and provides valuable information about students' learning and achievement in various subject areas and skill domains.
Importance and Limitations of Achievement Tests:
Achievement tests play important roles in education, in government, in business and industry, and in the professions. If they were constructed more carefully and more expertly, and used more consistently and more wisely, they could do even more to improve the effectiveness of these enterprises.
But achievement tests also have limitations beyond those attributable to hasty, inexpert construction or improper use. In the first place, they are limited to measuring a person’s command of the knowledge that can be expressed in verbal or symbolic terms. This is a very large area of knowledge, and command of it constitutes a very important human achievement; but it does not include all knowledge, and it does not represent the whole of human achievement. There is, for example, the unverbalized knowledge obtained by direct perceptions of objects, events, feelings, relationships, etc. There are also physical skills and behavioral skills, such as leadership and friendship, that are not highly dependent on command of verbal knowledge. A paper and pencil test of achievement can measure what a person knows about these achievements but not necessarily how effectively he uses them in practice.
In the second place, while command of knowledge may be a necessary condition for success in modern human activities, it is by no means a sufficient condition. Energy, persistence, and plain good fortune, among other things, combine to determine how successfully he uses the knowledge he possesses. A person with high achievement scores is a better bet to succeed than one with low achievement scores, but high scores cannot guarantee success.
Self-Check Exercise-3:
Q 1. Achievement tests are designed to measure:

a)    Personality traits

b)    Physical fitness

c)    Knowledge, skills, or abilities

d)    Social behavior
Q 2. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of achievement tests?

a)    Administered at the end of the school year

b)    Measure specific learning objectives

c)    Provide feedback on student performance

d)    Assess mastery of content or skills
Q 3. Which of the following is an example of an achievement test?

a)    Personality inventory

b)    Physical fitness test c) End-of-course exam d) Career aptitude test
Q 4. The primary purpose of achievement tests is to:

a)    Assess personality traits

b)    Evaluate physical abilities

c)    Measure academic performance

d)    Determine career aptitude

4.6    Summary:
Achievement and achievement tests play integral roles in educational assessment, providing valuable insights into students' learning, growth, and mastery of knowledge and skills. Achievement encompasses the successful accomplishment or attainment of goals, objectives, or standards, reflecting both academic and personal success. Achievement tests are specifically designed assessments that measure individuals' knowledge, skills, or abilities in a particular subject area or domain. These tests can be norm-referenced, comparing students' performance to that of a norm group, or criterion-referenced, measuring performance against specific criteria or standards. They serve various purposes, including diagnosing learning needs, monitoring progress, evaluating mastery of learning objectives, and informing instructional decisions. Achievements tests are administered through standardized procedures, with careful consideration given to validity, reliability, fairness, and authenticity. Feedback from achievement tests guides instruction, supports student learning and growth, and informs educational decision-making. Overall, achievement and achievement tests are essential components of the educational assessment landscape, providing valuable information to educators, students, parents, and policymakers about learning outcomes and academic achievement.

4.7    Glossary:

·    Achievement: The successful accomplishment or attainment of goals, objectives, or standards, often involving the acquisition of knowledge, skills, or competencies.

·    Assessment: The process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information about student learning and performance.

·    Achievement Tests: Assessments designed to measure the knowledge, skills, or abilities that individuals have acquired in a specific subject area or domain.

·    Scoring: The process of assigning numerical or descriptive ratings to student responses or performances based on predetermined criteria or rubrics. · Feedback: Information provided to students about their performance on assessments, highlighting strengths and areas needing improvement to support learning and growth.

·    Fairness: The extent to which an assessment provides all students with an equal opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge, skills, or abilities, regardless of factors such as background or disability.

·    Bias: Systematic errors or inaccuracies in assessment items or procedures that unfairly advantage or disadvantage certain groups of students.

4.8    Answers to Self-Check Exercises:
Self- Check Exercise-1
Answer1: a) Successful accomplishment of goals
Answer2: c) Attainment of knowledge and skills
Answer3: c) Measurement through subjective criteria
Self- Check Exercise-2
Answer1: experiences
Answer2: success
Answer3: fairness
Self- Check Exercise-3
Answer 1: c) Knowledge, skills, or abilities
Answer 2: a) Administered at the end of the school year
Answer3: c) End-of-course exam
Answer4: c) Measure academic performance

4.9   References/Suggested Readings:

•     Ebel, Robert L.(1966) “Measuring Educational Achievement, Prentice
Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. Pp. 481

•    Gronlund, N. E. (1976), Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching.
McMillan, USA.

•    Hopkins, C.D. and Antes, R.L. (1990).Classroom measurement and
evaluation. Itasca, Illinois: Peacock.

•     Izard, J. (1991). Assessment of learning in the classroom. Geelong,
Vic.: Deakin University.

•     Izard, J. (1997). Content Analysis and Test Blueprints. Paris:
International Institute for Educational Planning.

•    Mehrens, W.A. and Lehmann, I.J. (1984).Measurement and evaluation
in education and psychology.(3rd Ed.) New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

•    Nandra, I.D.S.(2011). Learning Resources and Assessment of
Learning.Patiala, 21st Century Publications.

•    Taiwo, Adediran A. (2005). Fundamentals of Classroom Testing. New
Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

•    Walter W. Cook (1958). Educational Measurement. Washington D.C.:
American Council on Education.

•     Withers, G. (1997).Item Writing for Tests and Examinations. Paris:
International Institute for Educational Planning.

4.10    Terminal Questions:
Q.1 What is the definition of achievement in an educational context?
Q.2 What are achievement tests, and what do they measure?
Q.3 What is the purpose of achievement tests in education?
Q.4 How are achievement tests administered, and what factors are considered in their development?
Q.5 What role does feedback from achievement tests play in education?
UNIT 5-    MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDE AND SKILLS
Structure

5.1    Introduction

5.2   Learning Objectives

5.3   Measurement of Attitude
Self-check Exercise-1

5.4   Measurement of Skills
Self- Check Exercise-2

5.5  Summary

5.6   Glossary

5.7   Answers to self-check exercises

5.8   References/ Suggested Readings

5.9   Terminal Questions

5.1   Introduction:
The measurement of attitude and skills plays a crucial role in educational assessment, providing valuable insights into individuals' beliefs, behaviors, competencies, and performance. Attitudes reflect individuals' feelings, beliefs, and behavioral tendencies toward specific objects, people, groups, or situations, while skills represent their abilities or competencies developed through learning, practice, and experience.
Measurement of attitude and skills involves systematically collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data to assess individuals' attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or competencies using standardized procedures and instruments. This process aims to provide accurate and reliable information about individuals' attitudes and skills, informing decision-making in education, training, and professional development.
In educational settings, measuring attitudes helps educators understand students' motivation, engagement, and perceptions of learning experiences, providing insights into their social and emotional development. Assessing skills, on the other hand, enables educators to evaluate students' mastery of specific competencies or learning objectives, guiding instructional planning and support.
Various assessment methods can be used to measure attitudes and skills, including surveys, questionnaires, interviews, observations, performance assessments, and self-assessments. These methods may involve quantitative or qualitative data collection techniques, depending on the nature of the attitudes or skills being assessed and the desired outcomes of the assessment.
Validity and reliability are critical considerations in the measurement of attitude and skills, ensuring that assessment results are accurate, meaningful, and consistent over time and across different contexts. Validity refers to the extent to which an assessment measures what it is intended to measure, while reliability refers to the consistency and stability of assessment results.
Feedback plays a vital role in the measurement of attitude and skills, providing individuals with information about their performance, strengths, and areas needing improvement. Constructive feedback helps individuals reflect on their attitudes and skills, set goals for improvement, and monitor their progress over time.
Overall, the measurement of attitude and skills is essential for promoting learning, growth, and development in educational and professional settings. By systematically assessing individuals' attitudes and skills, educators can identify areas of strength and areas needing improvement, tailor instruction to meet learners' needs effectively, and support their ongoing development and success.

5.2    Learning Objectives:
After completion of this Unit, the learner will be able to;

•    Understand the concept and importance of measuring attitude.

•    Analyse the importance of skill measurement in educational process.

5.3    Measurement of Attitude:
Attitude is such a complex affair that it cannot be completely described. Thurston has used the concept of attitude to denote ‘the sum total of a man’s inclinations and feelings prejudice or bias, pre-conceived notions, ideas, threats and convictions about any specific topic.” Thus a man’s attitude about pacifism means all that he feels and thinks about war and peace. It is obviously a subjective and personal affair.
The concept opinion is used to denote a verbal expression of attitude. If a man says that we made a mistake in entering the U.N.O., it would be called his opinion. But it also shows that his attitude is anti- U.N.O. thus, opinion is a verbal expression of attitude.
“An attitude is essentially a form of anticipatory response, a beginning of action not necessarily completed.” –K. Young.
“An attitude is a mental and neutral state of readiness, exerting directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related.”- BRITT
Characteristics of Attitudes
The following characteristics may be noted:

•      Unlimited range of attitudes; our likes, dislikes, food we take,
everything is an aspect of attitude.

•      It is a position towards outer objects, either for or against.

•      There are individual differences in attitudes.

•     Attitudes are the basis of behavior as they lead to strike, war, voting,
etc.

•     They may be overt or covert.

•     They are integrated into an organized system.

•     They always imply a subject-object relationship.
Measurement of Attitudes
The following dimensions or properties of attitudes are important in the measurement of attitudes:

i.      Direction: i.e., for or against any issue.

ii.     Degree: i.e., amount of favorableness or unfavourableness on a
continuum.

iii.     Strength or Intensity: i.e., how strong an as attitude is.

iv.    Salience: i.e., freedom or spontaneity with which it is manifested.

v.     Contrivance or Consistency: i.e., hoe does an individual maintains
his attitudes under different conditions.
There are various techniques for the measurement of attitudes. The projective techniques include Rorschach, ThematicAppreciation Test (T.A.T), World association Test and sentence Completion Test. All these can be utilized for measuring attitudes. Questionnaires, inventories, situational test and interviews are also helpful. Perhaps the most important technique of measuring attitudes is the ‘scaling’ technique. Thurston and Chave mastered this technique by constructing an unique attitude scale.
Attitude Measurement
Perhaps the most straightforward way of finding out about someone’s attitudes would be to ask them. However, attitudes are related to self-image and social acceptance (i.e. attitude functions).
In order to preserve a positive self-image, people’s responses may be affected by social desirability. They may not well tell about their true attitudes, but answer in a way that they feel socially acceptable.
Given this problem, various methods of measuring attitudes have been developed. However, all of them have limitations. In particular the different measures focus on different components of attitudes – cognitive, affective and behavioral – and as we know, these components do not necessarily coincide. Attitude measurement can be divided into two basic categories o     Direct Measurement (likert scale and semantic differential)
o     Indirect Measurement (projective techniques)
Semantic Differential
The semantic differential technique of Osgood et al. (1957) asks a person to rate an issue or topic on a standard set of bipolar adjectives (i.e. with opposite meanings), each representing a seven point scale.
To prepare a semantic differential scale, you must first think of a number of words with opposite meanings that are applicable to describing the subject of the test.
For example, participants are given a word, for example 'car', and presented with a variety of adjectives to describe it. Respondents tick to indicate how they feel about what is being measured.
In the picture (above), you can find Osgood's map of people's ratings for the word 'polite'. The image shows ten of the scales used by Osgood. The image maps the average responses of two groups of 20 people to the word 'polite'.
The semantic differential technique reveals information on three basic dimensions of attitudes: evaluation, potency (i.e. strength) and activity.

•    Evaluation is concerned with whether a person thinks positively or negatively about the attitude topic (e.g. dirty – clean, and ugly - beautiful).

•    Potency is concerned with how powerful the topic is for the person (e.g. cruel – kind, and strong - weak).

•    Activity is concerned with whether the topic is seen as active or passive (e.g. active – passive).
Using this information we can see if a person’s feeling (evaluation) towards an object is consistent with their behavior. For example, a place might like the taste of chocolate (evaluative) but not eat it often (activity). The evaluation dimension has been most used by social psychologists as a measure of a person’s attitude, because this dimension reflects the affective aspect of an attitude.
Evaluation of Direct Methods
An attitude scale is designed to provide a valid, or accurate, measure of an individual’s social attitude. However, as anyone who has every “faked” an attitude scales knows there are shortcomings in these self report scales of attitudes. There are various problems that affect the validity of attitude scales. However, the most common problem is that of social desirability.
Socially desirability refers to the tendency for people to give “socially desirable” to the questionnaire items. People are often motivated to give
replies that make them appear “well adjusted”, unprejudiced, open minded and democratic. Self report scales that measure attitudes towards race, religion, sex etc. are heavily affected by socially desirability bias.
Respondents who harbor a negative attitude towards a particular group may not wish be admit to the experimenter (or to themselves) that they have these feelings. Consequently, responses on attitude scales are not always 100% valid.
Projective Techniques
To avoid the problem of social desirability, various indirect measures of attitudes have been used. Either people are unaware of what is being measured (which has ethical problems) or they are unable consciously to affect what is being measured.
Indirect methods typically involve the use of a projective test. A projective test is involves presenting a person with an ambiguous (i.e. unclear) or incomplete stimulus (e.g. picture or words). The stimulus requires interpretation from the person. Therefore, the person’s attitude is inferred from their interpretation of the ambiguous or incomplete stimulus.
The assumption about these measures of attitudes it that the person will “project” his or her views, opinions or attitudes into the ambiguous situation, thus revealing the attitudes the person holds. However, indirect methods only provide general information and do not offer a precise measurement of attitude strength since it is qualitative rather than quantitative. This method of attitude measurement is not objective or scientific which is a big criticism.
Examples of projective techniques include:

•    Rorschach Inkblot Test

•    Thematic Apperception Test (or TAT)

•    Draw a Person Task
Thematic Apperception Test
Here a person is presented with an ambiguous picture which they have to interpret. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) taps into a person’s unconscious mind to reveal the repressed aspects of their personality.
Although the picture, illustration, drawing or cartoon that is used must be interesting enough to encourage discussion, it should be vague enough not to immediately give away what the project is about.
TAT can be used in a variety of ways, from eliciting qualities associated with different products to perceptions about the kind of people that might use certain products or services.
The person must look at the picture(s) and tell a story. For example:

•    What has led up to the event shown.

•    What is happening at the moment.

•    What the characters are thinking and feeling, and

•    What the outcome of the story was.
Draw a Person Test
Figure drawings are projective diagnostic techniques in which an individual is instructed to draw a person, an object, or a situation so that cognitive, interpersonal, or psychological functioning can be assessed. The test can be used to evaluate children and adolescents for a variety of purposes (e.g. self-image, family relationships, cognitive ability and personality).
A projective test is one in which a test taker responds to or provides ambiguous, abstract, or unstructured stimuli, often in the form of pictures or drawings.
While other projective tests, such as the Rorschach Technique and Thematic Apperception Test, ask the test taker to interpret existing pictures, figure drawing tests require the test taker to create the pictures themselves. In most cases, figure drawing tests are given to children. This is because it is a simple, manageable task that children can relate to and enjoy.
Some figure drawing tests are primarily measures of cognitive abilities or cognitive development. In these tests, there is a consideration of how well a child draws and the content of a child's drawing. In some tests, the child's self-image is considered through the use of the drawings.
In other figure drawing tests, interpersonal relationships are assessed by having the child draw a family or some other situation in which more than one person is present. Some tests are used for the evaluation of child abuse. Other tests involve personality interpretation through drawings of objects, such as a tree or a house, as well as people.
Finally, some figure drawing tests are used as part of the diagnostic procedure for specific types of psychological or neuropsychological impairment, such as central nervous system dysfunction or mental retardation. Despite the flexibility in administration and interpretation of figure drawings, these tests require skilled and trained administrators familiar with both the theory behind the tests and the structure of the tests
themselves. Interpretations should be made with caution and the limitations of projective tests should be considered.
It is generally a good idea to use projective tests as part of an overall test battery. There is little professional support for the use of figure drawing, so the examples that follow should be interpreted with caution.
The House-Tree-Person (HTP) test, created by Buck in 1948, provides a measure of a self-perception and attitudes by requiring the test taker to draw a house, a tree, and a person.

•      The picture of the house is supposed to conjure the child's feelings
toward his or her family.

•      The picture of the tree is supposed to elicit feelings of strength or
weakness. The picture of the person, as with other figure drawing tests, elicits information regarding the child's self-concept.
The HTP, though mostly given to children and adolescents, is appropriate for anyone over the age of three.
Evaluation of Indirect Methods
The major criticism of indirect methods is their lack of objectivity. Such methods are unscientific and do not objectively measure attitudes in the same way as a Likert scale.
There is also the ethical problem of deception as often the person does not know that their attitude is actually being studied when using indirect methods. The advantages of such indirect techniques of attitude measurement are that they are less likely to produce socially desirable responses, the person is unlikely to guess what is being measured and behavior should be natural and reliable.
Self-Check Exercise-1
Q.1 What is the primary purpose of measuring attitudes in educational settings?

a)    To assess physical fitness

b)    To evaluate academic achievement

c)    To understand students' beliefs and perceptions

d)    To monitor attendance records
Q.2 Which of the following is a common method for measuring attitudes?

a)    Blood pressure monitoring

b)    IQ testing

c)    Surveys and questionnaires

d)    Physical fitness assessments

5.4 Measurement of Cognitive And Non-Cognitive Skills:
Cognitive Skills
Measures of cognition have been developed and refined over the past century. Cognitive ability has multiple facets. Psychologists distinguish between fluid intelligence (the rate at which people learn) and crystallized intelligence (acquired knowledge).Achievement tests are designed to capture crystallized intelligence whereas IQ tests like Raven’s progressive matrices (1962) are designed to capture fluid intelligence.
This new understanding of cognition is not widely appreciated. Many use IQ tests, standardized achievement tests, and even grades as interchangeable measures of “cognitive ability” or intelligence. Scores on IQ tests and standardized achievement tests are strongly correlated with each other and with grades. However, these general indicators of “cognition” measure different skills and capture different facets of cognitive ability.
Measuring Non-cognitive Skills
We use the term non-cognitive skills to describe the personal attributes not thought to be measured by IQ tests or achievement tests. These attributes go by many names in the literature, including soft skills, personality traits, noncognitive abilities, character skills, and socio emotional skills. These different names connote different properties. “Traits” suggests a sense of permanence and possibly also of heritability. “Skills” suggests that these attributes can be learned. In reality, the extent to which these personal attributes can change lies on a spectrum. Both cognitive and non cognitive skills can change and be changed over the life cycle, but through different mechanisms and with different ease at different ages. We use the term skill because all attributes can be shaped.
Although non-cognitive skills are overlooked in most contemporary policy discussions and in economic models of choice behaviour, personality psychologists have studied these skills for the past century. Psychologists primarily measure non-cognitive skills by using self-reported surveys or observer reports. They have arrived at a relatively well-accepted taxonomy of non-cognitive skills called the Big Five, with the acronym OCEAN, which
stands for: Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
A Task-Based Framework for Identifying and Measuring Skills
A leading personality psychologist defines personality (non-cognitive) traits (skills) as follows:
Personality traits are the relatively enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that reflect the tendency to respond in certain ways under certain circumstances.
Roberts’ definition of personality (“non-cognitive” skills) and the one favoured by Almlund et al. suggests that all psychological measurements are calibrated on measured behaviour or “tasks” broadly defined. A task could be taking an IQ test, answering a personality questionnaire, performing a job, attending school, completing secondary school, participating in crime, or performing in an experiment run by a social scientist.
Figure below depicts how performance on a task can depend on incentives, effort, and cognitive and non-cognitive skills. Performance on different tasks depends on these components to different degrees. People can compensate for their shortfalls in one dimension by having strengths in other dimensions.
Figure: Determinants of Task Performance
Many believe that personality skills can only be assessed by self-reported questionnaires that elicit skills like the Big Five. However, performance on any task or any observed behaviour can be used to measure personality and other skills. For example, completing high school requires many other skills besides those measured by
Achievement tests, including showing up in school, paying attention, and behaving in class.
Inferring skills from performance on tasks requires standardizing all of the other contributing factors that produce the observed behaviors. The inability to parse and localize behaviors that depend on a single skill or ability gives rise
to a fundamental problem of assessing the contribution of any particular skill to the successful performance on any task (or measure). This problem is commonly ignored in empirical research that studies how cognitive and noncognitive skills affect outcomes. There are two distinct issues that need to be addressed in designing measures of skills based on performance of any task. First, behaviour depends on incentives created by situations. Different incentives
elicit different amounts of effort on the tasks used to measure skills. Accurately measuring non-cognitive skills requires standardizing for the effort applied in any task. Second, performance on most tasks depends on multiple skills. Not standardizing for incentives and other relevant skills that determine performance on a particular task used to measure a particular skill can produce misleading estimates of that particular skill.
Measuring Skills Using Behaviours
Ralph Tyler, one of the two scholars suggested using measures of behaviour such as performance, participation in student activities, and other observations by teachers and school administrators to complement achievement tests while evaluating students and schools. They develop and apply methods to use high school grades to measure both cognitive and non cognitive skills. They show that non-cognitive skills promote educational attainment, beneficial labour market outcomes, and health.
Some criticize this approach and argue that it is tautological to use measures of behaviour to predict other behaviours even though the measures are taken early in life to predict later life behaviours. As suggested by Figure, all tasks or behaviours can be used to infer a skill as long as the measurement accounts for other skills and aspects of the situation. In addition, many of the recent studies in economics use early measures of behaviours to predict behaviours in adulthood.
Self-reported scales should not be assumed to be more reliable than behaviours, although personality psychologists often assume so. The question is which measurements are most predictive and which can be implemented in practice. The literature suggests that there are objective measurements of non-cognitive skills that are not plagued by reference bias.
Self-Check Exercise-2:
Q.1 What is the primary purpose of measuring skills in educational settings? a) To assess physical health

b)    To evaluate academic knowledge

c)    To understand students' abilities and competencies

d)    To monitor attendance records
Q.2 Which of the following is a common method for measuring skills?

a)    IQ testing

b)    Surveys and questionnaires

c)    Performance assessments d) Blood pressure monitoring

5.5 Summary:
Education is an extensive, diverse and complex enterprise, not only in learns of the achievements it seeks to develop, but also in terms of the means by which it seeks to develop. Our understanding of the nature and process of education is far from perfect. Hens, it is easy to agree that we do not know how to measure all important education outcomes. But, in principle, all important outcomes of education are measurable. They may not even be measurable in principle using only paper and pencil tests. But if they are known to be important, they must be measurable. To be important, an outcome of education must make an observable difference. That is, at some time, under some circumstances a person who has more of it must behave differently from a person who has less of it. If different degree or amounts of an education achievement never make any observation difference, what evidence can be found to show that it is in fact important? But if such difference can be observed, then the achievement is measurable for all that measurement requires is verifiable observation of a more –less relationship.

5.6    Glossary:

·    Attitude: A psychological tendency that reflects an individual's beliefs, feelings, and behavioral tendencies toward a particular object, person, group, or situation.

·    Measurement: The process of assigning numerical or descriptive values to attributes or characteristics of individuals, objects, or phenomena using standardized procedures and instruments.

·    Skills: Abilities or competencies that individuals develop through learning, practice, and experience, enabling them to perform tasks or activities effectively and efficiently.

·    Attitude Measurement: The process of assessing individuals' attitudes toward specific topics, issues, or objects using standardized instruments such as surveys, questionnaires, or scales.

·    Skill Assessment: The process of evaluating individuals' abilities or competencies in specific domains or areas of performance through observation, demonstration, testing, or other assessment methods.

5.7    Answers To Self Check Exercises:
Self-Check Exercise 1:
Answer1:    c) To understand students' beliefs and perceptions
Answer2:    c) Surveys and questionnaires
Self- check Exercise-2
Answer1:    c) To understand students' abilities and competencies
Answer2:   c) Performance assessments

5.8    References/ Suggested Readings:

•    Ebel, Robert L.(1966) “Measuring Educational Achievement, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. Pp. 481

•  Gronlund, N. E. (1976), Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching.
McMillan, USA.

•  Hopkins, C.D. and Antes, R.L. (1990).Classroom measurement and
evaluation. Itasca, Illinois: Peacock.

•    Izard, J. (1991). Assessment of learning in the classroom. Geelong, Vic.: Deakin University.

•    Izard, J. (1997). Content Analysis and Test Blueprints. Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning.

•    Mehrens, W.A. and Lehmann, I.J. (1984).Measurement and evaluation in education and psychology.(3rd Ed.) New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

•    Nandra, I.D.S.(2011). Learning Resources and Assessment of
Learning.Patiala, 21st Century Publications.

•    Taiwo, Adediran A. (2005). Fundamentals of Classroom Testing. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

•  Walter W. Cook (1958). Educational Measurement. Washington D.C.:
American Council on Education.

•  Withers, G. (1997).Item Writing for Tests and Examinations. Paris:
International Institute for Educational Planning.

5.9    Terminal Questions:
Q1.   What is the purpose of measuring attitudes in educational settings?
Q2.   How can attitudes be assessed effectively? Provide examples of
assessment methods.
Q3.   What role does feedback play in skill development and assessment?
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