--- title: "Vol 2 1" book: "Plag Pedagogy of languages 206" category: "General" publisher: "Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd." type: "Educational Material" --- According to Latest Syllabus Read For Sure Success In University Examination RATAN TEXT BOOK PEDAGOGY OF LANGUAGES Vol-2 M.A.Education (Sem-IV) Dr. Vandna Tyagi Published by Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd. 2nd Floor, Centre Plaza, Parinay Kunj, Lajpat Kunj Marg, Agra-282002 Copyright Authors & Publishers Published by Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd. 2nd Floor, Centre Plaza, Parinay Kunj, Lajpat Kunj Marg, Agra-282002 ISBN :978-93-0970-955-5 Price 395.00 only Printed at : KIDS INTERNATIONAL PVT. LTD. C-60, 61, 62, 63, EPIP, Shastripuram, Agra - 282007 Ph. : +91 9719004921 UNIT-10 Qualities of a Good Language Text Book Structure 10.1    Introduction 10.2    Objectives 10.3    Qualities of a Good Text- book Self- Check Exercise 10.4   Summary 10.5   Glossary 10.6   Answers to Self- Check Exercise 10.7   References \ Suggested Readings 10.8    Terminal Questions 10.1  Introduction English is a foreign language, and designing an effective language textbook is a complex, multi-dimensional task. It requires a deep understanding of language curriculum objectives, language learning theories, and their pedagogical implications. Additionally, textbook design must align with examination board requirements and government language policies. To create a result-oriented language textbook, the author must bridge the gap between theoretical principles and practical curriculum development. A language textbook is not just a collection of texts from different genres; it embodies a specific pedagogical approach. This approach is determined by textbook designers who consider the broader educational goals set within a particular learning context. The presentation of subject matter plays a crucial role in textbook writing. Presentation refers to how knowledge is communicated to learners. In most cases, teachers introduce new concepts directly or indirectly, making effective presentation essential. A skilled teacher can deliver lessons effectively regardless of the textbook being used. However, a well-structured textbook can greatly facilitate this process. Modern language teaching has increasingly emphasized the inductive approach to grammar instruction. Instead of presenting rules first and then providing examples, this method introduces multiple examples from which students derive general rules. When evaluating a textbook, contextualization is a key factor in assessing its effectiveness. A good textbook does more than simply provide examples of grammatical structures—it ensures that those examples are meaningful to students. It is through meaningful context that students grasp linguistic concepts, rather than memorizing abstract rules in isolation. 10.2    Objectives By the end of this lesson, you should be able to: •    Define and explain the meaning of a textbook. •    Identify and describe the characteristics of a textbook. •    Discuss the essential qualities of an effective textbook. 10.3    Qualities of a Good Text-Book A well-designed textbook possesses several essential characteristics that enhance both teaching and learning experiences. Below are the key qualities that define an effective textbook: •    Relevance to Students and Teachers – A textbook should be beneficial to both students and teachers, catering to their respective needs in the learning process. •    Psychological and Pedagogical Suitability – The content should be structured to align with the psychological needs of students while also aiding teachers in delivering knowledge effectively and engagingly. •    Manageable Size – The textbook should be convenient to carry, particularly for younger students. It should not be excessively bulky, making it easy to handle. •    Appealing Print and Design – The book should have a visually appealing layout with clear, readable fonts that do not strain the eyes. The overall print quality should be high, ensuring accuracy and clarity. •    Attractive Cover Design – A well-designed cover encourages students to take interest in their books, especially at the primary level. •    Alignment with Subject Goals – The textbook should be developed in accordance with the educational objectives and the specific aims of the subject it covers. •    Accuracy and Up-to-Date Content – The information presented should be factually correct, relevant, and regularly updated to reflect the latest developments in the subject. •    Appropriate Writing Style – The writing style should cater to the cognitive level of the students. For primary learners, a story-based approach may be effective, while higher-level textbooks can adopt a more structured methodology. •    Engaging and Lucid Presentation – The content should be presented in a clear, simple, and engaging manner to maintain students' interest and facilitate comprehension. •    Comprehensive Coverage – A good textbook should include all essential information relevant to a particular stage of education, ensuring students gain a complete understanding of the subject. •    Continuity Across Educational Stages – Textbooks should be structured in a way that ensures progression from one academic level to another. For example, primary-level books should connect with junior high school textbooks to provide a seamless learning experience. •    Unbiased Content – The material should be objective, free from prejudice, and inclusive, ensuring fair representation of different cultures, societies, and perspectives. •    Incorporation of Visual Aids – The inclusion of charts, maps, diagrams, and illustrations is essential, particularly in subjects like Geography, where visual representation enhances understanding. •    Incorporation of Latest Research – In subjects that evolve rapidly, such as Geography and Science, textbooks should include the latest research findings to keep students informed of new developments. •    Chapter-End Questions for Review – Each chapter should conclude with a set of review questions to help students revise and reinforce key concepts. •    Summaries for Quick Revision – When necessary, textbooks should provide concise summaries at the end of each chapter to aid students in grasping the main ideas effectively. Self- Check Exercise 1.    Authentic materials refers to: a)    Any text developed by text- book writers. b)    Any text audio, video or object development or written c)    contrived natural language and context. d)    Any creative text written by literary authors and poets. e)    Any text, audio, video , or object developed written in natural language and context. 2.    The purpose of illustrations in the text- book at primary level is to a) Make the text-book attractive. b)Make the text -book colorful. c) Understand ideas and concepts. d)Understand the story. 3.    In teaching of language the textbook is a)    The only means. b)  An important resource. c)  Not important. d)    The end of resource. 4.    Which is Not a characteristic of a good textbook? a)    Adequate subject - matter. b)  Suitable structure. c)  Suitable vocabulary. d)  Frequently mis-spelt words. 5.    A good English textbook should primarily: a)  Maintain the standard language. b)    Have contents in deductive order. c)  Consists of unique stories. d)  Provide comprehensive inputs. 6.    The following is Not an intrinsic criteria of a good textbook? a)    Language and vocabulary. b)    Subject matter. c)    Style and planning. d)    Printing and binding. 10.4    Summary In this chapter we studied about textbook, its qualities and characteristics. The most important things which should be checked in evaluating a book for good presentation is contextualization. It is not enough for an author to provide a dozen examples of how a grammatical construction works. 10.5    Glossary • Textbook: A textbook is a book that contains comprehensive information about a course or a subject that a student needs, to get through the academic year. This has a set of chapters, question- answers, and exercises included in the curriculum to improve learning standards of a student. 10.6    Answers to Self- Check Exercise 1.    d 2. c 3. b 4. d 5. d 6. d 10.7    References \ Readings Suggested Baruah, T. C. (1993). The English Teacher's Handbook. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Bose, K. (1979). Teaching of English Language A Modern Approach Doaba House Book Sellers and Publisher, New Delhi. Chaudhary, N.R. (2002): English Language Teaching, Himalaya Publish House. Mumbai Dave, Pratima S. (2002): Communicative Approach to the Teaching of English as a Second Language, Himalaya Publish House, Mumbai David, E. (1977): Classroom Techniques- Foreign Languages and English as a Second Language, New York, Harcourt Brace. Grillett, M. (1983): Developing Reading Comprehension, London, CUP. Halbe Malati, (2005): Methodology of English Teaching, Himalaya Publish House Mumbai Johnson, K. (1983): Communicative Approach to the Teaching of English as a Second Language, Himalaya Publish House, Mumbai Sharma, R.N. (2008). Principles and Techniques of Education. Delhi: Surjeet Publications. Sharma, R.N. (2008). Contemporary Teaching of English. Delhi: Surjeet Publications. 10.8    Terminal Questions 1.    Explain the various characteristics and qualities of textbook. UNIT - 11 TEACHING OF PROSE Structure : 11.1    Introduction 11.2   Learning Objectives 11.3   Teaching of Prose Self- Check Exercise(1) 11.3.1    Aims of Teaching of Prose Self- Check Exercise (2) 11.3.2    Steps involved in teaching of Prose Self-Check Exercise (3) 11.4    Summary 11.5    Glossary 11.6    Answer to Self- Check Exercises 11.7    References \ Suggested Readings 11.8    Terminal Questions 11.1    Introduction Teaching prose is not easy as it used to be earlier. Prose is read intensively and extensively as well. Teaching of prose aims at presenting the language material for intensive reading. In intensive reading emphasis is given on how much we profit out of reading not how much we read. There is need of pre- planned lesson plan for teaching prose. The lesson plan should be based on the teaching learning principles of psychology. 11.2    Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to – •    Understand the steps of Teaching prose •    Enumerate the Aims and objectives of teaching prose 11.3    Teaching of Prose According to Coleridge, “prose is words in their best order“ Prose is meant for learning a language. Teaching prose means teaching reading with Comprehension. The learners are taught the skill of reading. Having taught the students how to read a language, the next logical step is to teach them reading with comprehension. Teaching prose enables the students to understand the passage, to read fluently, to enrich their vocabulary and to enjoy reading and writing. It enables the learners to extend their knowledge of vocabulary and structures and to become more proficient in the four language skills. It develops the ability of speaking English correctly and fluently. The main aims of teaching of prose are: •    Literary enrichment and •    Content knowledge To achieve these aims of the teaching of prose should be intensive and extensive also. Self-Check Exercise(1) 1.    Why is story telling most important in English language class at primary level? a)    It is useful for developing integrated language skills. b)    It develops moral values among the students. c)    It improves student vocabulary. d)    It creates fun in the class. 2.    What is the meaning of theme? a)    A central topic. b)    Story. c)    Plot. d)    None of these. 3.    A story may have: a)    One theme. b)    Several themes. c)    No theme. d)    None of these. 4.    What is the meaning of point of view? a)    A way of looking situation. b)    A way of looking outside. c)    A way of looking inside. d)    None of these. 5.    What is the meaning of sentence pattern? a)    An arrangement of words. b)    Sentence. c)    An arrangement of events. d)    None of these. 6.    How many sentence patterns are: a)    One. b)    Two. c)    Three. d)    Four. 7.     The 'tone' originally applied for: a)    Wealth. b)    Music. c)    Health. d)    None of these. 8.    What is anecdote? a)    Medicine. b)    Argument. c)    Story. d)    None of these. 9.    What is an Aphorism? a)    Imagine. b)    General truth. c)    False talk. d)    None of these. 10.      The function of humour is to: a)    To please of audience. b)    To hurt the audience. c)    To show the path of reality. d)    None of these. Intensive Reading: Intensive reading or reading for accuracy involves approaching a text under the close guidance of a teacher, or through a task that forces the student to pay attention to the text. It involves a profound and detailed understanding of the , text not only in terms of ‘what’ it says but also ‘ how ‘ it says it . An intensive reading lesson is primarily concerned with the developing of reading strategies in the learners. 1.    Judgment 2.    Reasoning 3.    Interpretation and 4.    Appreciation Generally, a short text, which can be finished in a lesson or two, is considered Suitable for scanning for information, paying attention to writer’s intention arguments, ideas, style, etc. Students while reading a text do not simply look for any specific piece of information. They read it thoroughly so that they can pass their exam which, they know, will contain question involving their understanding of the text as a whole. In all respects, intensive reading is more an exercise in accuracy. The text books prescribed for general English courses at the secondary level are all meant to be read intensively. Students are supposed to read them in detail so that they can answer the questions given at the end of each text, question on comprehension grammar, vocabulary, writing etc. The intensive reader should be based on the structural syllabus containing interesting and well graded reading material accompanied by colorful pictures to create an interest in the lessons. All reading lessons should be preceded by plenty of oral discussions in which difficult words, phrases and ideas should be clearly explained by the teacher. Lessons based on the intensive reader should have provision for both reading aloud and silent reading, to give the greatest benefit to a learner of English. 11.3.1    Aims of Teaching of Prose: Teaching of prose is the intensive study of language, structure and vocabulary. It main objective is to develop the language ability of the students. This ability makes the child understand and use English language without any problem. Thus a detailed study concentrates both on language study and comprehension of ideas or linguistic skills. The general aims are as follows: General Aims Of Teaching of Prose : To enable the students •    To understand the passage and grasp its meaning. •    To read with correct pronunciation, stress, intonation pause and articulation of voice. •    To understand the passage by silent reading. •    To enrich their active and passive vocabulary. •    To express the ideas of the passage orally and in writing. •    To enjoy reading and writing. •    To develop their imagination. •    To prepare for world citizenship. Specific Aims: These vary according to the subject matter depending upon whether it is a story, biography, play Or an essay. For these the specific aims are as follows: Story: To enable the students •    To learn a few facts through the story. •  To teach some morals •  To mould ones character •    To acquaint with the style of story writing Self-Check Exercise(2) 1.    The aim of teaching prose is to enrich their ___________ & . 2.    To develop their . 3.    To develop the habit of reading . 4.    To develop understanding of ____________ language. 5.    To enable the students for getting___________ with . Essay: •    To get students to grasp a few facts through the essay. •    To make students curious about the subject of the essay. •    To acquaint students with the style of essay – writing. •    To enable students to arrange ideas in organized manner. Biography: •    To get students acquainted with the lives and deeds of great men. •    To reveal to the students the path of character building. •    To make them aspire for better things in life. •    To inculcate in them desirable sentiments. Play: 1.    To provide the students with opportunities for self- expression. 2.    To make them speak English in the conversational style. 3.    To make them play different roles. 4.    To build their character. 11.3.2 The Steps Involved in Teaching of Prose : A prose lesson contains structures, vocabulary and ideas for comprehension. The students must have a mastery over the sounds, structure and vocabulary before reading the passage / lesson. The main objective of teaching prose is to help the students use the structures and vocabulary he can read with comprehension and write a few sentences about the lesson using the appropriate structures and content words . Therefore a prose lesson is not for memorizing question and answers but for learning a language. The steps for teaching of prose may be summed up as follows: 1.    Introducing the Prose Lesson The introduction has two purposes i.    To bring the past knowledge to consciousness. ii.    To win students attention to the new subject English is a foreign language and India students find it difficult. So teachers should try to motivate students to study the lesson. All the efforts made by the teacher to attract students to learn the lesson. It includes the material aids, previous knowledge of the students and introduction. The teacher can introduce the lesson through appropriate question or through showing pictures models etc. However he should not start the topic directly. The introductory question arouses curiosity among the students for the new lesson. Hence the teacher should first ask some question to test the previous knowledge of the students and then link that to the subject to be taught. 2.    Teaching Structures : When presenting new structural items, we should primarily achieve two things: a.    To enable the students to identify the new structures. b.    To make absolutely clear its meaning and use. To achieve (a) above, the teacher must supply clear models of the structures. Some believe that plenty of examples should be given bringing the pattern out clearly .In this connection substitution table is of great help as it highlights the elements of the pattern and their order and nature. One of the ways of achieving (b) is to present the structures in readily understandable situation. This helps the students not only to understand the meaning of the new item but also its use in different contexts. Later they are provided with opportunities to use the structures themselves. 3.    Dividing the Text in to Smaller Units: Reading passages sometimes happen to be very long making it tiresome to work though them from beginning to end. In such a case the text will have to be split up in to shorter, more manageable units or sections. This will facilitate the teacher to present the lesson before the students interestingly and efficiently. 4.    Teaching Vocabulary : The teacher selects the new words from the subtopic and exposes their meaning one after the other. To give clear ideas to students he may use an object, a model or a picture. Sometimes through situation he may explain the meaning. The purposes of exposition are; i.    To clear the meaning of difficult words, phrases and India. ii.    To make the comprehension of the passage easy. iii.    To pave way for intensive reading. 5.    Model Reading by the Teacher : In this step, the teacher should read out his selected passage loudly before the students. At the time of reading he/she should be very careful about the pronunciation, words phrases and intonation. Since the students learn to read through imitation the teacher should take the utmost pains to impose his / he own reading aloud. This mode l reading helps the students for aural comprehension. Before doing model reading, the teacher should give instructions to students regarding postures, opening of the book and attention. While reading he should not completely absorb himself in the book. 6.    Silent Reading by the Students : Here the teacher gives time for the students to read the passage silently such type of reading is helpful for rapid reading, learning of new words and a quick grasp of meaning. Silent reading should continue for a limited time, say for 5 or 10 minutes for a single passage. 7.    Testing Comprehension: In this step the teacher asks some question from the present passage to the students to text to what extent the students have comprehended the meaning of the passage. These questions should be based on the very passage taught by the teacher and they should be direct, short and objective based. The same procedure (step 4, 5, 6, 7) can be followed for the rest of the lesson. 8.    Testing Application: The main aims of application test is to evaluate to what extent the objectives of a lesson have been achieved. the question may be of oral or written type . After the teaching of structure or vocabulary teaching to do the exercises at the end of the lesson. 9.    Loud Reading by the Students: Now is the time when the teacher can ask the students to read out the passage loudly one by one? This loud reading is very much helpful to the students for clear pronunciation. It also improves the rhythm and fluency. But a student should read long passage. Each student should read a few lines from the passage. In the regard the following points can be given special consideration. i.    The errors of pronunciation must be corrected at the end of the reading. ii.    Students should be asked to keep the books 25/30 cm. away from the eyes. iii.    They should hold the book in the left hand while the right hand should be kept free. The teacher will therefore need to exercise great care whenever the students are asked to read aloud. As the students have already learnt all the new words, structures and as they have also understood the text, the chances for success in reading aloud are greater than they are at the beginning. 10.    Giving Assignment: After the classroom tasks are completed the teacher can give some assignment which could be of the following types: i.    To remember the meaning and spelling of new words. ii.    To use the words in sentences iii.    To write the gist of the passage. iv.    To answer questions on the passage. v.    To do the exercises based on the structures taught. Self- Check Exercise(3) 1.    Prose is taught primarily for a)    Literature. b)    Language. c)    Reading. d)    Vocabulary. 2.    Detailed prose lesson develops a)  Intensive Reading. b)  Extensive Reading. c)    Rapid Reading d)    All of the above. 3.     Objectives are decided on a)    Theme. b)  Language. c)    Both a and b. d)  None of these. 4.    Students explore meaning and information a)    During silent reading. b)    After silent reading. c)    Before silent reading. d)    None of these. 5.    New knowledge is put forth during a)    Introduction. b)    Presentation. c)  Evaluation. d)  None of these. 6.    Extension activities are taken up during a)    Engagement. b)    Explanation. c)    Elaboration. d)    Evaluation. 7.    The aims of teaching prose are: a)    To develop knowledge of history. b)    To learn writing good English. c)    To develop thinking power, imaginative power and develop interest for the reading. 8.    Arrange the major steps in teaching a prose passage. a)    Exploiting the text orally and in writing. b)    Introduction & task - setting. c)    Reading & listening. d)    Writing & going beyond the text. Select the answer from the options provided below: I.    a, c, d, b. II. d, d, a,b. III. b, c, a,d. IV. c, d, a,b. 9.    Essay Teaching: a)    Enables students to arrange the ideas in a systematic way. b)    Makes students good essayists. c)    Helps students in building their character. 10.    A prose lesson should include: a)    History. b)    Geography. c)    Novel. d)    A story, biography, an essay and a dialogue. 11.    Teaching comprehension is difficult because the reader is not familiar: a)    With the use of idiomatic phrases in the passage. b)    With the author. c)    With the age in which the piece is written. d)    With the passage. 12.    The teaching of composition is related: a)    Listening skills. b)    Speaking skills. c)    Reading skills. d)    Writing skills. 13.    The teaching of biography is useful for: a)    Acquainting students with the life of the nation. b)    Acquainting students with the life, deeds & teachings of great men. c)    Acquainting students with the style of the writer. 14.    Autobiography denotes: a)    Story of one's life written by oneself. b)    Story of another person's life written by oneself. c)    Story of another person's life written by that person. d)    Story of one's life written by another person. 11.4    Summary In this chapter we studied about prose and its steps in detail. In writing, prose refers to any written work that follows a basic grammatical structure as words and phrases arranged into sentences and paragraphs. Prose is verbal or written language that follows the natural flow of speech. 11.5    Glossary ■ Prose : It is meant for learning a language. Teaching prose means teaching reading with Comprehension. The learners are taught the skill of reading. Having taught the students how to read a language, the next logical step is to teach them reading with comprehension. 11.6    Answer to Self- Check Exercise(1) 1.    b 2. a 3.b 4. a 5. a 6. d 7. b 8. c 9. b 10. a Answer to Self -Check Exercise(2) 1.    Active, passive vocabulary 2. Human morals, creativity, imagination, power. 3. Silently. 4. Written 5. Meaning, context. Answer to Self- Check Exercise(3) 1.    b 2. b 3. c 4. a 5. b 6. c 7.c 8. c9. a 10. d 11. a 12. d 13. b 14. a 11.7    References / Suggested Readings Bereiter, Carl & Scardamlia, Marlene (1987). The Psychology of Written Composition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Bereiter, Carl & Scardamalia, Marlene(1993). Surpassing ourselves: An inquiry into the nature and implictions of expertise. Chicago: Open Court Press. Coetzee- Lachman, Debbie (2006): "Eine Definition Fachspezifischer Diskurskompetenz". In: Johannes- Peter Timm (ed.), Fremdsprachenlernen undFremsdsprachenforschung: Kompetenzen, Standards, Lernformen, Evaluation. Festschrift fur Helmut Johannes Vollmer. Tubingen: Narr, 249-265. Coetzee, Debbie (2006). " Methodological considerations in assessing task- based subject- specific writing: The case of bilingually trained geography trained learners of grade 10 in Germany". In: Vollmer, Helmut Johannes (Hrsg.). Empirische Zugange in der Fremdsprachenforschung. Herausforderugen und perspektiven. Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 6588 ( to appear). Corson, David (1990). "Language across the curriculum (LAC)". In: Corson, David (ed.), Language Policy Across the curriculum. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 72-140. Cummins, James (1979). " Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children". Review of Educational Research, 49. 222-251. Kress, Gunther R. (2003). Literacy in the new media age. London: Routledge. Rosebrock, Cornelia (2006). "Socio-economic Background & Reading. Reading attitudes, fluency and literacy education in the German Hauptschule". Preliminary Study, Council of Europe, Language Policy Division. Strasbourg. www. coe.int\lang. Schnotz, Wolfgang (2005). "An Integrated Model of Text & Picture Comprehension". In: Mayer, Richard E. (ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 49-70. Vollmer, Helmut J. (2006). " Fachlernen und Sprachlichkeit:Aufgabenbasierte Kognition, Kooperation & kommunikation bei bilingualen und monolingualen lernern". In: Hahn, Angela 7 Kippel, Friederike (Hrsg.), Sprachen schaffen Chancen.Munchen: Oldenbourg, 121-135 (in print). 11.8    Terminal Questions 1.    Explain prose in detail. 2.    Explain steps of Prose in detail. UNIT - 12 Teaching of Poetry Structure 12.1    Introduction 12.2    Objectives 12.3    Teaching of Poetry; Teaching Rhymes; Teaching Poems Self- Check Exercise(1) 12.4   Difference between Prose and Poetry Self- Check Exercise (2) 12.5   Summary 12.6   Glossary 12.7  Answer to Self- Check Exercises 12.8   References \ Suggested Readings 12.9   Terminal Questions 12.1    Introduction : "Poetry begins in delight and ends in wisdom." – Robert Frost According to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, a poem is “a piece of creative writing in verse, especially one expressing deep feelings or noble thoughts in beautiful language, written with the intention of communicating an experience.” S. T. Coleridge defines poetry as “the best words in their best order.” Poetry is primarily for pleasure. As Robert Frost puts it, "Poetry begins in delight and ends in wisdom." We read poetry not only to experience pleasure and admire the beauty of language but also to appreciate the depth of ideas and emotions it conveys. It is the artful presentation of thoughts and emotions that makes poetry a unique and profound literary form. 12.2    Objectives After completing this lesson, students will be able to: •    Practice listening skills effectively. •    Enhance their speaking abilities. •    Recite the poem with proper rhythm and expression to appreciate its musical quality. •    Understand the beauty of the poem’s thought and message. •    Develop their power of imagination. •    Appreciate the poem by cultivating an aesthetic sense of literary appreciation. •    Familiarize themselves with the background of the poem. •    Develop a love for the English language. 12.3    Teaching of Poetry At the secondary school level, students can easily understand and enjoy poetry in their mother tongue (e.g., Odia) because they: •    Have a strong command of the language. •    Are familiar with the cultural and contextual background of the poem. •  Can relate to the experiences described in the poem. •  Can express their thoughts and interpretations with ease. However, students may struggle to appreciate poetry in a second language like English because they: •    Lack proficiency in the language. •    Are unfamiliar with the poem’s cultural context and themes. •    Have not yet developed sufficient linguistic and communicative skills. •    Find the language, ideas, and context foreign to them. Should Poetry Be Taught in English at the Secondary Level? Some argue that poetry should not be included in English lessons at this stage due to the following reasons: •    Focus on Language, Not Literature: English teachers are primarily responsible for teaching language skills rather than literature. Poetry, being a literary form, may be better suited for advanced levels. •    Prerequisite Language Skills: Teaching poetry requires students to have acquired the four fundamental language skills—Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing (LSRW)—which develop over time. •    Challenges in Appreciation: Since English is a second language in India, students may find it difficult to grasp poetic elements like imagery, figures of speech, figurative meanings, and structural variations. These aspects are more easily understood in their native language. •    Creativity and Expression: Expecting students to engage in deep, creative interpretation of poetry in a second language may be unrealistic and challenging for their level of proficiency. •    Purpose of Poetry: If poetry is used solely as a tool for teaching language, its essence—appreciating beauty, thought, and emotions—gets lost. Instead, simpler forms like rhymes may be introduced to familiarize students with poetic rhythm. The Importance of Poetry Despite these challenges, poetry lessons offer several benefits: •    Foster a positive attitude towards the English language. •    Help students learn idiomatic expressions and grammatical structures in an engaging way. •    Improve pronunciation and rhythm in spoken English. Teaching Rhymes The first and strongest connection between children and the English language is often through nursery rhymes. The term “nursery” is fitting because, much like nurturing young plants, rhymes help lay the foundation for language development. Children naturally enjoy rhymes when taught with enthusiasm, gestures, and expressions. The Importance of Reciting and Singing Rhymes Rhymes: Strengthen and enhance memory power. Develop imitation and imagination skills. Train the ears to recognize subtle sound variations. Expand vocabulary. Build confidence and a sense of achievement. Lay the foundation for clear speech. Serve as effective tools for pronunciation practice. Guidelines for Teaching Nursery Rhymes •    Rhymes are musical, so they should be recited aloud to enjoy their rhythm. •    Avoid explaining words, phrases, or grammatical structures. •  Focus on difficult words, ensuring correct pronunciation through drills. •  Help students recognize beats and rhythm by tapping fingers on their palm. •    Encourage students to feel the musicality of rhymes. •    Start with a moderate pace, gradually increasing speed as confidence builds. Methods for Practicing Rhymes 1.    Call and Response: The teacher says one line, students say the next, alternating roles. 2.    Group Recitation: Different groups take turns saying lines. 3.    Pair Work: Students practice reciting in pairs. 4.    Whole-Class Recitation: The entire class recites together. These techniques help even slow learners gain confidence in reciting rhymes. Things to Avoid While Teaching Rhymes •  Do not ask individual students to recite alone in the early stages. •  Do not attempt to teach moral lessons through rhymes. •    Do not start with singing—focus first on clear pronunciation. •  Limit rhyming activities to three minutes per class to keep students engaged. •  Do not read rhymes from a book—memorize them and use gestures, expressions, and voice modulation to engage students. Teaching Poems The phrase “teaching poetry” can be misleading because poetry is not something to be taught like prose—it should be felt and experienced by students. The goal is to foster an appreciation for poetry rather than force memorization. Poetry lessons can enhance: •    Speech skills in younger students. •    Writing skills in higher classes. However, the poetry class should never turn into a mechanical exercise of rote learning. Instead, teachers should focus on helping students enjoy and appreciate poems naturally. How to Inspire a Love for Poetry •    The teacher should personally enjoy poetry. Enthusiasm is contagious—if the teacher enjoys the poem, students are more likely to engage with it. •    Emotion is key. Poetry appreciation is about feeling, and a teacher’s enthusiasm can inspire students to connect with the poem on an emotional level. •    Encourage personal interpretation. Students should feel free to express their thoughts and emotions rather than just memorizing lines. The Three Main Stages of Teaching Poetry 1.    Preparation •    Help students quickly grasp the central theme of the poem. •    Familiarize them with key words and expressions without excessive explanation. •    Ensure that the poem’s ideas are accessible to their level of understanding. 2.    Presentation •    The teacher should read or recite the poem with proper pronunciation, intonation, and facial expressions. •    If necessary, a second reading can be done for better clarity. 3.    Discussion (Books Open) •    The teacher does not need to explain every word or line. •    Instead, ask simple questions to check comprehension. •    If students struggle with words like catamarans or leaping wealth, the teacher can use pictures or context-based questions to help them understand. Self- Check Exercise(1) 1.    A outline of accented and unaccented syllables_______ in lines of poetry. a)    Rhyme scheme. b)    Meter. c)    Alliteration. d)    All of these. 2.    Which poetry is a lengthy & narrative work of poetry? a)    Elegy. b)    Ode. c)    Ballad. d)    Epic. 3.     A poem that is free from the limitations of a regular meter or rhythm and also does not rhyme with fixed forms is called ________ of poetry. a)    Pastoral. b)    Free verse. c)    Epic. d)    None of these. 4.     Which poetic form deals with the natural world, rural life and landscapes? a)    Ballad. b)    Elegy. c)    Ode. d)    Pastoral. 5.      Which poetic form does reflect on death or loss? a)    Epic. b)    Pastoral. c)    Elegy. d)    Ode. 6.      Which poetry is written in 14 lines? a)    Sonnet. b)    Ballad. c)    Elegy. d)    None of these. 7.      Stressed and unstressed syllabic pattern in a verse or within the lines of a poem is called: a)    Metre. b)    Rhythm. c)    Rhyme. d)    Alliteration. 8.       A short traditional and popular story in verse of unknown authorship is called: a)    Lyric. b)    Ballad. c)    Elegy. d)    Sonnet. 9.    Applying human qualities to non- human things, the term is called: a)    Alliteration. b)    Metaphor. c)    Onomatopoeia. d)    Personification. 10.    The repetition of beginning consonant sounds is called: a)    Rhyme. b)    Alliteration. c)    Personification. d)    Simile. 11.     The contrast between expectations and reality. a)    Alliteration. b)    Irony. c)    Soliloquy. d)    Point of view. 12.      An octave is a stanza of          lines. a)    Four lines. b)    Six lines. c)    Eight lines. d)    Fourteen lines. 12.4 Difference Between Prose and Poetry: | Prose | Poetry | |---|---| | According to Coleridge:  prose is words in their best order. | According to Coleridge:   poetry is the best words in their best order. | | Prose is essentially words, structure and grammar. | Poetry is essentially song, rhythm and music | | Prose appeals to the head. | Poetry appeals to the heart. | | It is less powerful. | It is more powerful. | | Prose appeals to the intellect only. | Poetry affects the whole man. | | Prose is more sight than sound. | Poetry is more sound. | | Prose is more information. | Poetry is for share delight. | | Prose is more relevant. | Poetry is less relevant. | | Lesson in prose is taught. | Lesson in poetry is not to be taught. | | Prose consists of philosophical ideas, social problems, historical events, geographical concepts. | Poetry is a thing of beauty of form, beauty of ideas, thoughts and emotions. | | Prose is most important aspect of literature. | Poetry is the soul of English literature. | | Prose develops the expressional ability | Poetry develops the aesthetic sense of | | of the students. | the students. | |---|---| | Prose develops the imagination power of the students. | Poetry   develops   the   power   of appreciation of beauty. | | Prose develops to arrange ideas in a systematic way. | Poetry develops to understand the idea of the poem. | | Prose develops to arrange ideas in a systematic way. | Poetry enables the students to enjoy recitation and individual of the poem. | | Prose trains the student’s character. | Poetry trains the emotions  of the student. | 2.    Difference in Aim of Teaching : •    The aims of teaching prose and poetry are quite different from each other. Poetry is not to  be  taught for developing the  language skills  of the  students. Teaching  of prose is primarily for development of linguistic  skills. Prose is taught  for enrichment and for correct use of grammar. •    Prose belongs to the cognitive domain and poetry falls in the domain of feelings. •    Prose relates to intellect whereas poetry relates to emotions. 3.    Difference in Objectives: •    Language Skills : Poetry is not to be taught for developing the language skills of the | Prose | Poetry | |---|---| | 1.    Prose improves the vocabulary of the students. 2.    While teaching a prose lesson, the teacher   concentrates   upon   the vocabulary and structures. 3.    In the teaching of prose, there are drills and exercises. | 1.    Poetry is taught to train their aesthetic senses. 2.    While teaching a poetry, the teacher concentrates     upon    the    general understanding and appreciation of the poem. 3.    But there are no drills and exercises. | pupils. This purpose can be better served by prose. •    To Enlarge the Vocabulary : Poetry at the early stage is the aim to help the learner to acquire natural speech rhythm. Whereas the aim of prose lesson is to enlarge the vocabulary. •    Language Practices : The purpose of language practice can be better served by teaching prose unlike poetry. Self- Check Exercise (2) 1.    What is a funny poem of five lines called? a)    Quartet. b)    Limerick. c) Sextet. d) Palindrome. 2.    What is the study of poetry's meter and form called? a)    Prosody. b)    Pathology. c)    Rheumatology. d)    Scansion. 3.    A poem that depicts an idealized rural life of shepherds is? a)    Ballad. b)    Idyll. c)    Dirge. d)    Canzone. 4.    A combination of lyric and narrative poems usually put to music a)    Elegy. b)    Sonnet. c)    Narrative. d)    Ballad. 5.    A poem with no meter or rhyme is called: a)    Lyric. b)    Free Verse. c)    Sonnet. d)    Ode. 6.    A form of poetry which is structured in strophe, antistrophe and the epode is? a)    Ode. b)    Epic. c)    Pastoral. d)    Verse. 12.5    Summary In this chapter, we explored the teaching of poetry. Poetry embodies beauty in form, thought, and emotion. It is meant to bring pleasure and allows us to appreciate the richness of language. Beyond understanding the ideas and themes, we also admire the artistic way in which they are expressed. 12.6    Glossary Poetry: Poetry is a type of literature, or artistic writing, that attempts to stir a reader's imagination or emotions. The poet does this by carefully choosing and arranging language for its meaning, sound, and rhythm. 12.7    Answer to Self-Check Exercise(1) 1.    b 2. d 3. b 4. d 5. c 6. a 7. a 8. b 9.d 10. b 11. b 12. c Answer to Self- Check Exercise(2) 1.    b 2. a 3. b 4. d 5. b 6. a 12.8    References \ Suggested Readings Johnson, K (1983): Communicative Syllabus Design & Methodology, Oxford,: Pergamum Press. Mukale, JC. (1998): Approaches to English Language Teaching, New Delhi: Sterling Publishing House. Palmer, Harold E.( 2014): The Principles of Language Study, New York: World Book Company. Kohli, K.L. (2012): Techniques of Teaching English, New Delhi: Dhanpat Rai Publisher. Rai, Geeta (2010): Teaching of English, Meerut: R. Lal book Depot. Sharma, P. (2008): Teaching of English Language, Delhi: Shipra Publications. Sharma Yogendra K., Sharma Madhulika (2011): Teaching of English Language, New Delhi : Kanishka Publishers. Sharma R.A. (2007): Teaching of English Education, Meerut: Lal Book Depot. 12.8    Terminal Questions 1.    Explain Poetry and its steps in detail. UNIT - 13 Teaching of Grammar Structure 13.1    Introduction 13.2    Objectives 13.3    Teaching Grammar Self- Check Exercise(1) 13.4    Methods of teaching Grammer Self-Check Exercise(2) 13.5    Summary 13.6    Glossary 13.7  Answer to Self- Check Exercises 13.8   References \ Suggested Readings 13.9   Terminal Questions 13.1    Introduction "One who climbs the grammar tree distinctly knows where noun, verb, and participle grow." – Dryden Grammar explains how a language functions, guiding us in using its vast resources effectively, with communication as its primary purpose. Dr. Sweet defines grammar as the "practical analysis of a language." It is often referred to as the "anatomy of language," emphasizing its structural role. However, just as language is dynamic and ever-evolving, grammar too is not static. The grammar of any living language continuously adapts to reflect its current usage and development. 13.2  Objectives After completing this lesson, you will be able to: •    Classify the different types of grammar. •    Explain various methods of teaching grammar. 13.3    Types of Grammar: Grammar can be categorized into the following types: 1.    Prescriptive (Formula) Grammar Prescriptive grammar establishes fixed rules for language use without considering its evolving nature. It dictates how language should be used, requiring strict adherence to established norms. In classrooms, this approach is known as formal grammar, where teaching progresses from rules and definitions to examples. However, the rigid structure of prescriptive grammar does not account for variations and exceptions in language. For example: •    Plurals: o book → books o boy → boys o  But child → children (irregular form) •    Tenses: o walk → walked (regular past tense) o But go → went (irregular past tense) o talk → talked (regular past tense) o But run → ran (irregular past tense) In this method, the evolving nature of English and its practical usage in communication are often overlooked. 2.    Descriptive (Functional) Grammar Descriptive grammar observes and records how language is actually used over time, adapting to changes in communication. It reflects real-world usage rather than enforcing rigid rules. In classrooms, this is known as functional grammar, which focuses on how grammar operates in speech and writing. This method enables students to communicate effectively. A recommended approach is to teach functional grammar in the initial stages to develop communication skills. Once students are comfortable, formal grammar, which involves rules and classifications, can be introduced. How Much Grammar Should Be Taught? A person’s proficiency in a language is not determined by how much grammar they know but by how effectively they use the language. However, some grammatical knowledge is essential for clear communication. A balanced approach is necessary—neither too much grammar nor too little. The grammar syllabus at the secondary school level generally includes: •    Parts of speech (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.) and their roles in sentences. •    Word formation (prefixes, suffixes, and compound words). •    Phrases (adjective phrases, prepositional phrases, etc.). •    Clauses (noun clauses, adjective clauses, and adverb clauses). •    Sentence structures (simple, complex, and compound sentences). •    Tenses (finite and non-finite verbs, gerunds, participles, and modals). •    Transformation of sentences (active-passive voice, reported speech, simple to complex to compound conversions). •    Prepositions and conjunctions and their correct usage. •    Punctuation rules. While learning rules is not the primary focus, students should engage in exercises that reinforce correct grammar usage. Grammar is often compared to a vitamin—a deficiency can lead to communication problems, but excessive grammar instruction can be unnecessary and even counterproductive. It should be viewed as a supplement to language learning rather than the main focus. The key is to ensure that grammar instruction is functional and helps students enhance their English language skills. Self-Check Exercise(1) 1.    Ms. Nisha is teaching about the types of sentences class seven students. She begins by explaining the grammar rules with regard to sentences and then goes on to give examples of the types of sentences that we commonly hear, which teaching maxim is the following: a)    From deductive to inductive. b)    Concrete to abstract. c)    Analysis to synthesis. d)    Induction to deduction. 2.    Activities which connect grammar points with real-life communication are: a)    Declarative knowledge of grammar. b)    Moving from form to meaning. c)    Grammar in context activities. d)    Grammar for form based focus. . The most useful method for teaching grammar is: a) Lecture method. b) Inductive method. c) Direct method. d) Communication method. . A teacher in grammar class introduces rules of the grammar first and makes them understand how the world behaves nd how to use it in context. she then gives lots of tasks for learners to practice the language item. What is the process of eachinglearning rammar is known as? a) Content knowledge. b) Procedural knowledge. c) Declarative knowledge. d) Process knowledge. 5.     Understanding how a grammatical form is applying the same in use is__________. a)    Procedural knowledge of grammar. b)    Declarative knowledge of grammar. c)    Knowledge about language. d)    Learning the rules of grammar & reproduce it later. 6.     Declarative knowledge in learning grammar is: a)    Knowledge about the form, describing and apply it later in structured practice. b)    Understanding how a grammatical form functions in use & apply same. c)    Using the form in creative writing and communication for day-to-day purposes. d)    Mastering the rules of grammar & applying it in real communication. 7.      The emphasis of grammar in context is on: a)    Internalizing the rules of language. b)    Memorizing the rules of language. c)    Translating the content. d)    Overgeneralization of rule. 8.       Activities which connect grammar points with real- life communication are: a) Declarative knowledge of grammar. b)Moving from form to meaning. c) Grammar in context activities. d)Grammar for form based focus. 9.      Grammar learning is: a)    Learning the rules of grammar. b)    Learning the rules first and be able to use later. c)    Learning from meaning to use the form in context. d)    Finding errors in a written and spoken language in any language. 10.      Moving from meaning to form in grammar learning is: a)    Learners use the grammatical item with understanding and discover the rules later. b)    Learners are made to learn the rule first and apply them later. c)    Teacher teaches the rules first and learners use the rules through drills. d)    Learners understand rules of the grammatical item first and use them later in isolation. 11.    In order to make the students understand the grammatical structures, a language teacher should: a)    Provide which written material and let the students discover different structures. b)    Provide extensive grammatical exercise to the students. c)    Ask students to memorize structures from the book. d)    Given assignment to the students over different structures. 12.      Which one of the ways is ideal for teaching learning grammar? a)    Presenting the grammatical form in natural discourses and let the learner notice it. b)    Presenting the form first and provide a detailed explanation to learner followed by activities. c)    Providing the form in sentences and drill them as much as possible. d)   Presenting the form and support learn to memorize the form. 13.      Which of the following is not the objective of learning of grammar? a)    Using the grammar item in real life situation. b)    Understanding the form through use in context. c)    Grammar is learnt by mastering the rules of the language. d)    Discovering the form through language use in context. 14.        Mr. Rahul, a teacher in his grammar class introduces rules of the grammar item, voice and tenses first and makes them understand how the form behaves and how to use it context. He then gives lots of tasks for learners to practice the language item. What is the process of teaching learning grammar known as? a)    Content knowledge. b)    Procedural Knowledge. c)    Process knowledge. d)    Declarative knowledge. 15.         In the grammar class, we should first: a)    Explain how the form is made. b)    Present the grammar form in natural discourse. c)    Explain irregular forms, if any. d)    Describe its social function. 16.        Which one of the following is most appropriate regarding the task we design for learners to support grammar learning? a)    It should be meaningful. b)    It should be highly informative. c)    It should be purposeful from teacher's perspective. d)    It should not have a social function. 17.       The grammar tasks are: a)   To be contextualized. b)   To be life- oriented. c)   To be form focused. d)   Memory focused. 18.        The emphasis of grammar in context is on: a)    Internalizing the rules of language. b)   Memorizing the rules of language. c)   Translating the content. d)   Over generalizing the rules. 19.        Which of the following is true about grammar teaching? a)    Teachers themselves should improve their knowledge of grammar. b)    Grammar is to be treated in isolation. c)    Grammar is to be treated in context. d)    Grammar is to be built in by the teacher in every sphere of life. 20.        Beginning by giving the rules first through an isolated illustration and then drilling the rules through practice is the: a)   Merit of grammar in context. b)    Limitation of grammar in context. c)    Merit of deductive approach. d)    Limitation of deductive approach. 21.     As a teacher of language we should have ______ knowledge of grammar. a)    Implicit and overt. b)    An explicit. c)    Both implicit and explicit. d)    A vast. 22.      Grammar of a language is best learnt through: a)    Integration with text and noticing forms. b)   Practicing grammatical concepts separately. c)   Memorizing the grammatical structures. d)    Following structural approach. 23. 24. To make grammar teaching effective: a)    The material should not be taken from learner's textbook. b)    More attention should be paid to vocabulary enrichment. c)    Grammar teaching should be done with lots of practice and exercises. d)    Use of visual aids is not very effective in teaching grammar. Which of the following grammar is taught incidentally? a)    Prescriptive grammar. b)    Traditional grammar. c)    Functional grammar. d)    Theoretical grammar. 25.      Grammar teaching is more meaningful when: a)    Grammar is taught in context. b)    Rules a explained before communication. c)    Grammar is taught deductively. d)    Grammar is taught first and grammar is taught later. 26.      Which of the following types of grammar emphasize on rules? a)    Descriptive grammar. b)   Prescriptive grammar. c)    Scholarly traditional grammar. d)    Structural grammar. 13.4 Methods of Teaching Grammar: Grammar instruction can be broadly categorized into two main approaches: Deductive and Inductive. A third approach, the Inductive-Deductive Method, combines elements of both. 1.    Deductive Method This method is typically used for older students who already have some knowledge of the language. It follows a rule-first, example-later approach. The teacher begins by explaining a grammatical rule or definition, such as the Present Continuous Tense. For example: •    This tense is used for actions happening at the moment of speaking. •    The teacher provides examples: o  I am running. o  You are running. o He/She is running. Students are then asked to apply the rule through exercises or visual aids, ensuring correct subject-verb agreement. While this method appears straightforward and time-saving, it often lacks engagement. Traditional formal grammar was taught this way, where students simply memorized rules and examples without active participation, leading to limited practical understanding. 2.    Inductive Method In contrast, the Inductive Method follows an example-first, rule-later approach. Students are first exposed to multiple examples before they derive a general rule. For instance, to introduce the phrase "used to" (which expresses a past habit), the teacher might provide examples: •    I used to play football at school. (But I no longer play.) •  Mr. Nayak used to take cold water baths at 4 AM. (But he no longer does.) •  My uncle used to hunt when he was in service. (Now that he is retired, he no longer hunts.) After multiple examples, students are guided to formulate the rule themselves: •    "Used to" expresses a past habit or repeated action that no longer happens. The teacher also warns against incorrect usage: X I use to take coffee every day. (Incorrect - should be "I drink coffee every day.") The Inductive Method actively engages students, encouraging them to think critically and participate in the learning process. Grammar is learned incidentally within real-life contexts, making it more meaningful. This method is highly effective, especially for beginners, as it promotes functional grammar and provides ample practice in sentence patterns. However, it requires skilled teachers with strong language proficiency. 3.    Inductive-Deductive Method This approach combines the strengths of both methods. It involves: 1.    Presenting examples (Inductive approach). 2.    Deriving general rules based on observations. 3.    Applying the rules through exercises (Deductive approach). By following this balanced approach, students not only understand grammatical concepts but also learn how to apply them effectively in speech and writing. This method ensures that grammar instruction is practical, engaging, and result oriented. As the saying goes: "Teach grammar inductively and apply it deductively." Self- Check Exercise(2) 1.    Which method is built around the coordination of speech and action and it attempts to teach language through motor activity? a)    The silent way. b)    Total physical response. c)    Community language learning. d)    Bilingual method. 2.    There is heavy dependence on imitating language models and memorization of dialogues: a)    Grammar -Translation method. b)    Audio- Lingual Method. c)    CLT. d)    CLL. 3.    Which method of teaching grammar in which learners must discover the rules in context themselves while reading or listening? a)    Grammar Translation Method. b)    Deductive Method. c)    Inductive Method. d)    Direct Method. 4.    In Grammar - Translation Method a)    Lessons are in the target language. b)    New material is presented in dialogue form. c)    Translation of texts. d)    All of the above. 5.    Which of the following method emphasizes the use of vernacular? a)    Direct Method. b)    Grammar- Translation Method. c)    Bilingual Method. d)    None of the above. 6.    The method emerged as a reaction of the various demerits of the Grammar Translation Method is: a)    Bilingual Method. b)    Play and Learn Method. c)    The Sentence Method. d)    Direct Method. 7.    In a language class students are memorizing the dialogues through drill and practice and the teacher is correcting their pronunciation, mistakes immediately. They are practicing the dialogues in chorus. The teacher is following the: a)    Audio- Lingual Method. b)    CLT Method. c)    Direct Method. d)    Natural Method. 8.    The main aim of communicative competence of learners is to : a)    Provide communicative competence to learners. b)    Focus on the structure of the target language. c)    Emphasize the use of English as a library language. d)    Encourage learners to speak like native speakers of English. 9.    According to Audio- Lingual method, language is basically a set of: a)    Habits. b)    Structural Words. c)    Sentence. d)    Words. 10.    Alphabetic Method is also known as : a)    Spelling Method. b)    Phonic Method. c)    Story Method. d)    Syllabic Method. 11.    Since language is taught through demonstrations the direct method makes use of: a)    Audio- Visual Aids. b)    Maps. c)    Pointer. d)    Flash Cards. 12.     Which approach is based on psychology and transformational grammar? a)    Lexical Approach. b)    Cognitive code approach. c)    Situational Approach. d)    Structural Approach. 13.     The main proponent of the eclectic approach is: a)    Palmer. b)    Wilga Rivers. c)    Carl Plotz. d)    Krashen. 14.     The integral approach of language testing of : a)    Primary Language. b)    Secondary Language. c)    Third Language. d)    Language in context. 15.    Which approach allows learners to acquire a language as babies do, beginning with silent listening? a)    The Communicative Approach. b)    The Natural Approach. c)    The Direct Method. d)    Structural Approach. 13.5    Summary In this chapter we studied about grammar. grammar is the theory of the language. it provides a proper order and sequence to sentence for better representation. Every language is based on certain rules and regulations is known as grammar. 13.6    Glossary •    Descriptive Grammar: Grammar which follows usage as it develops and describes it from time to time, is called Descriptive Grammar. •    Inductive Method: It makes the pupils think for themselves and take parts in language learning. Teaching and learning are made interesting through contextualized discussion. Children learn grammar incidentally. 13.7    Answer to Self-Check Exercise(1) 1.    a 2. c 3. b 4. b 5. a 6. a 7. a 8. c 9. c 10. a 11. a 12. a 13. c 14. b 15. b 16. a 17. a 18. a 19. c 20. c 21. c 22. a 23.    a 24. c 25. a 26 b Answer to Self- Check Exercise(2) 1.    b 2. b 3. c 4. c 5. b 6. d 7. a 8. a 9. a 10. a 11. a 12. b 13. b 14. d 15. b 13.8    References / Suggested Readings Brown H. Douglas, (1994): Principles of Language Learning, & Teaching. New Jersey, Prentice Hall Regents. Brown, H. Douglas, (1994). Teaching by Principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ; Prentice Hall Regents. Brown, H.D. (1994). First Language Acquisition, In Principles of Language Learning & Teaching, New Jersey, Prentice Hall Regents. Burns, A, & Joyce, H. (1997). Focus on Speaking. Sydney: National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research, Cambridge University Press. Christine, N. (1982) Teaching Reading skills in Foreign Language, London: Heinemann CCPD Trainers' Guide, TQI, July,( 2009). Kumar, Geetha. (2005) Teaching English: A teacher's perspective. Ms., NFG- English. Kumardas, Shyamala. (1993). A case for learner- chosen text as input in adult language learning, CIEFL, Hyderabad. Scrivener, J. (20140. Learning Teaching: The Essential Guide to English Language Teaching. Macmillan Education, London. Saxena , R.P. (2005) Language & culture. Ms., NFG- English. Schmitt, Norbert & Michael McCarthy, (1997). Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition and Pedagogy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Schmitt, Norbert. (2000) Vocabulary in Language Teaching. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. Ur, P. (1991). A course in Language Teaching: Practice and theory, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 13.9    Terminal Questions 1.    Explain the different type of grammar? Which method should be used in teaching grammar? UNIT - 14 WAYS OF DEVELOPING LANGUAGE SKILLS Structure 14.1    Introduction 14.2  Learning Objectives 14.3  Listening skill Self-Check Exercise(1) 14.4    Speaking Skill Self -Check Exercise (2) 14.5    Summary 14.6    Glossary 14.7  Answer to Self- Check Exercises 14.8  Reference \ Suggested Readings 14.9    Terminal Questions 14.1    Introduction Learning a language is nothing but the development of certain skills. The ultimate aim of language is to share ideas by a sender or encoder with the receiver or decoder, so that these are made common. And this is the meaning of 170 ‘communis’ – a Latin word – which means ‘to make common’ or ‘to share’. So, all the mechanics that involved in process of communication are in fact the mechanics of a language. Thus, in this communication process, we analyze involvement of four basic skills. 14.2  Learning Objectives After learning this lesson, you will be able to : •  Understand the Listening Skill. •  Understand the speaking Skill. 14.3  Listening Skill : The skill of listening is very important skill for learning English as a second language. Practice is listening comprehension should proceed speaking practice. This skill is directly linked with audio sense. Listening means that audio sense makes sense to the sounds which is created by speech. In this process, there should be a speaker and listener. Listening is passive while speaking is making speech. Kinds of listening Conditions under which Listening occurs : The following are the conditions : 1 . Sound created should have same sense. 2 . Listener should be attentive. –    Mental set of listener should be ready. –    Listener should have normal audio senses. –    Favorable attitude should be provided to listener. Objective of Listening Skill : –    To provide basis of good learning. –    To make speaking skill effective and workable. –To facilitate verbal interaction. –    To provide knowledge of basic skill | Teacher | Shame | |---|---| | Pupil 2 | Same | | Teacher | Give me same paper/give me same pepper | | Pupil 3 | Different | 2.    The teacher writes minimal pairs of words/sentences using such words on the blackboard in two columns. He speaks a word and ask the pupils to identify whether it is from column 1 or 2 | Column 1 | Column 2 | |---|---| | rice | rise | show sow sheep            ship 3.    The teacher give command and pupil perform the activities Open the door Shut the window Take out your pen 4.    Teacher displays some pictures on the flannel board, makes a statement about one of them and pupils identify it. 5.    Using Dialogue: Listening comprehension may be developed by using dialogues. 6.    Gramophone and tape recorder can be used for this purpose. In short, understanding of spoken English is not an easy work. Some time, the spoken english is more difficult to follow than written English because of peculiarities of pronunciation, unfamiliar intonation and the speed with which the words are spoken. According to Prof. Findlay, “The standard to aim at is power to understand ordinary English speech spoken at normal speed.” Self-Check Exercise(1) 1.    How much listening effect on our communication? a)    20-35% b)    5-15% c)    25-40% d)    40-70% 2.    We listen at _______ % efficiency without training? a)    20% b)    25% c)    30% d)    35% 3.    How much words could be spoke by a person in a minute? a)    70-80. b)    90-100. c)    125-150. d)    120-140. 4.     A person can think how many words in a minute? a)    150. b)    200. c)    300. d)    400. 5.      What will be the third stage of listening? a)    Responding. b)    Evaluating. c)    Understanding. d)    Remembering. 6.      Which of these is not step in the listening process? a)    To stop talking. b)    Receiving. c)Misinterpreting. d)    Responding. 7.      Which of these is the first step in the listening process? a)    Stop talking. b)    Receiving. c)Interpreting. d) Responding. 8.       Which of the following is the third step of listening? a)    Stop talking. b)    Receiving. c)    Interpreting. d)    Responding. 9.         ___________ is the last step of listening? a)    Stop talking. b)    Receiving. c)    Interpreting. d)    Responding. 10.      Which of these is not a type of listening? a)    Appreciative listening. b)    Superficial listening. c)    Focused listening. d)    Musical listening. 11.       Which of these type of listening lacks depth? a)    Appreciative listening. b)    Superficial listening. c)    Focused listening. d)    Musical listening. 12.       Which of these types of listening, does the listener feel grateful? a)    Appreciative listening. b)    Superficial listening. c)    Focused listening. d)    Musical listening. 13.      Which of these should be avoided for effective listening? a)    Pre-listening analysis. b)    Listening to structured talks. c)    Team listening. d)    Predicting. 14.       Which of these should be avoided in pre-listening analysis? a)    Mental discipline. b)    Concentration. c)    Prejudices. d)    Patience. 15.     In which of these, should the listener be able to make connection between different segments of speech? a)    Listening to structured talks. b)    Links between parts of the speech. c)    Team listening. d)    Predicting. 16.    Which of these is not a deterrent to the listening process? a)    Lack of interest. b)    Ego. c)    Confidence. d)    Fear. 17.    Listening a ___ mental process that play vital role in our daily life. a)    Adorable. b)    Visible. c)    Invisible. d)    Eco able. 18.   Views listening is part of _____ process in which all participant can send and receive message. a)    Negotiating. b)    Transactional. c)    Constructive. d)    Transformative. 14.4 Skill of Speaking: Speaking is a fundamental skill in language learning and plays a crucial role in mastering English. Developing strong speaking abilities enables students to communicate effectively and express their thoughts with clarity. In the context of teaching English in India, a key objective is to help students speak correct, accurate, and fluent English. Compared to reading and writing, speaking is generally easier and more natural for learners. Prof. B.S. Anand emphasizes the importance of speaking proficiency, stating: "Besides reading, every effort must be made to train our pupils to speak English correctly and fluently. By the end of their school career, they should be able to converse freely on everyday topics. In the practical life of an educated person in India, fluency in English is a significant factor for success." Additionally, there is a strong connection between listening and speaking. Effective speaking skills develop through active listening, as students learn pronunciation, intonation, and natural sentence structures from exposure to spoken English. Hence, fostering both listening and speaking is essential for holistic language development. It can be shown below : Development Skill of Listening and Speaking Method Speaking Teacher Content Student Technique listening Process of Interaction through Speaking and Listening Different techniques for developing speaking skill : Reproduction Exercise : The teacher can produce sound, a word or sentence and ask the students to reproduce it. These practices can be done in chorus, in groups and then individually. Question-Answer : The teacher can put question to the class one by one, to the monitor or it may between students and student Role Play : There may be a role play between two, three or more students. The dialogue may be between a doctor and a patient or an inspector and clerk. By Performing Actions : The teacher perform actions and students are asked to observe the action and speak according and vice-versa. By Showing a Picture /Chart : The teacher shows a picture or a chart in the class and students are asked to speak on it one by one. By Showing a Film : The students are shown an outline of the film and the students are asked to speak and it. By Giving Outline of a Story : The teacher gives an outline of a story and students asked to think and then speak a few sentences about it. This gives the whole class a lot of listening and speaking practice. Through Oral Composition : Oral composition develops the skill in speaking for a few minutes. Teacher may provide some guideline. Advantages of Speaking : 1.    Students become good in listening. Then try to listen comprehensively. 2.    It improves comprehension ability of the students. 3.    At early stage, it provides pleasure and excitement to learner. 4.    They are able to develop skill of speaking. 5.    It helps to acquire fluency in spoken language. 6.    It lays good foundation of good speech. 7.    It develops the habit of using correct sentence pattern. 8.    It helps to become good orator, debaters and in becoming active participants in discussion. 9.    It removes hesitation and shyness of speaker. Self- Check Exercise (2) 1.    Decorum in spoken language pertains to a)    Correct grammatical usage. b)    Voice quality or loudness. c)    Appropriate gestures. d)    Clarity and purity of style. 2.    The language skills that cannot be assessed through a traditional pen- paper test are: a)    Reading & listening. b)    Listening & speaking. c)    Reading & speaking. d)    Writing & listening. 3.    Under which activity do recognizing sounds and deducing meaning from them come: a)    Speaking. b)    Listening. c)    Reading. d)    Writing. 4.     In order to know the correct pronunciation of English words, the learner should: a)    Know how to write the words. b)    Know the spelling, meaning, and how they are pronounced. c)  Know the meaning only. d)  Know the spelling. 5.     If a student is making pronunciation errors, the best way to help him\ her is to: a)    Provide her\ him with correct pronunciation without any humiliation. b)    Call her\ him parents and complain. c)    Scold him\ her in class for incorrect pronunciation. d)    Mock at her\ him in class for incorrect pronunciation. 6.    Under which activity do recognizing sounds and deducing meaning from them come: a)    Speaking. b)    Listening. c)    Reading. d)    Writing. 7.    The ___________ favors the exposure of students to a structure in different contexts that could allow them to apply the rules by themselves: a)    Direct Method. b)    Inductive Method. c)    Deductive Method. d)    Communicative Approach. 8.     Grammar- Translation method of teaching English heavily relies on: a)    Form-focused teaching. b)    Meaning - Focused teaching. c)    Direct teaching as a strategy for learning. d)    Language use as a main focus. 9.     Maximum participation of students during teaching in a language classroom is possible through: a)   Discussion & demonstration Methods. b)   Lecture Method. c)   Translation Method. d)   Inductive Method. 10.      Constructivist approach to language learning promotes: a)  A Child- Centered approach. b)  A Teacher- centered approach. c)    Culture of silence. d)    Classroom noise. 11.     Communicative language teaching lays emphasis on: a)    Grammatical Competency. b)    Language use. c)Form. d)    Writing. 12.    Unit of teaching in grammar translation method is: a)    Sentence. b)    Word. c)    Structure. d)    All of these. 13.    Army Method is also known as: a)    Grammar - Translation Method. b)    Direct Method. c)    Audio- Lingual Method. d)    Bilingual Method. 14.5    Summary In this chapter we discussed about skills namely speaking, reading, writing, listening. it includes different stages and methods to make this process more and more effective and productive. 14.6    Glossary •    Alphabetic Method : This is old method of teaching reading. It was almost universal from the early days of Greece and Roman until the end of the middle ages. It is also known as ‘ABC’ method as teacher starts from A-B-C of the language. Here unit of teaching is letter. Today also, this method is used by the teacher to teach reading. •    Recognition Games :With the help of flash cards, this type of games can be played flash cards of some words in duplicate are prepared. One set displayed on the board in front to the class and second set is given to the students. The pupils asked to match the words. •    Substitution: Substitution is a process by which any model sentence may be multiplied indefinitely, substituting for any of its word or word groups and other words of the same grammatical family. 14.7    Answer to Self-Check Exercise(1) 1.    d 2. b 3. c 4. d 5. b 6. c 7. a 8. c 9. d 10. d 11. b 12. c 13. d 14. c 15. b 16.    c 17. c 18. d Answer to Self- Check Exercise (2) 1.    c 2. b 3. b 4. d 5. a 6. b 7. b 8. a 9. a 10.a 11. b 12. b 13. c 14.8    References \ Suggested Readings Allen, Harold B; Campbell, Russell N. (1972). Teaching English as a Second Language. New York: McGowan-Hill. Anthony, E.M (1963). Approach, Method, & Technique. ELT Journal, Vol. 27(2): 63-67. Asher, James. (1966). The Learning Strategy of the total physical Response: A Review. The Modern Journal. Asher, James J.(1969). Learning Another Language through Actions. Los Gatos, CA: Sky Oaks Productions. Bachman, Lyle. (1990). Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bax, Stephen. (2003)."The end of CLT: a context approach to language teaching". ELT Journal. 14.9    Terminal Questions 1.    Discuss the importance of listening in learning of a foreign language. 2.  Discuss the importance of speaking in the learning of a foreign language. UNIT - 15 WAYS OF DEVELOPING LANGUAGE SKILLS: READING AND WRITING Structure 15.1    Introduction 15.2    Learning Objectives 15.3    Reading skill Self-Check Exercise(1) 15.4    Writing skill Self -Check Exercise (2) 15.5    Summary 15.6    Glossary 15.7    Answer to Self- Check Exercises 15.8    Reference \ Suggested Readings 15.9    Terminal Questions 15.1    Introduction Learning a language is nothing but the development of certain skills. The ultimate aim of language is to share ideas by a sender or encoder with the receiver or decoder, so that these are made common. And this is the meaning of 187 ‘communis’ – a Latin word – which means ‘to make common’ or ‘to share’. So, all the mechanics that involved in the process of communication are in fact the mechanics of a language. Thus, in this communication process, we analyze involvement of four basic skills. 15.2    Learning Objectives After learning this lesson, you will be able to : •  Understand the reading Skill. •  Understand the writing Skill. 15.3    Reading Skill West describes reading as a "process of sight-sound sense." It involves recognizing written or printed symbols, mentally converting them into their oral equivalents, and associating them with their meanings. Reading is considered a productive skill, as it requires the ability to recognize key elements of meaning and comprehend them accurately and thoroughly. It also depends on developing proper eye movement and eye-span for effective reading. Objectives of Teaching Reading The primary goals of reading instruction include: 1.    Helping students pronounce words correctly. 2.    Enabling them to understand the meaning of words and sentences. 3.    Teaching them to interpret sentences and paragraphs effectively. 4.    Encouraging them to apply ideas gained from reading to other contexts. 5.    Developing clear expression and pronunciation while reading. 6.    Ensuring fluency and comprehension for smooth reading. 7.    Instilling the habit of reading with a definite purpose. 8.    Encouraging a love for reading. 9.    Preparing students to read English materials independently beyond school. 10.    Expanding their eye span for better reading efficiency. Techniques for Developing Reading Skills at the Preparatory Stage 1.    Use of Blackboard: The teacher draws objects and writes their names underneath. Students associate the words with the images and practice reading aloud. 2.    Use of Flash Cards: Action words or sentences can be written on flashcards, allowing students to read and repeat them. 3.    Use of Games: o Recognition Games: Students match duplicate sets of flashcards to improve word recognition. o Comprehension Games: ■  The Shop Game: Students sort flashcards with object names into relevant shop categories. ■  Read and Do Game: Students read written action sentences on the board and perform the actions. Components of the Reading Process 1.    Eye Movement: Reading occurs through a series of jumps and pauses, rather than a smooth flow. Key aspects include: o Perception Span: The number of words understood in one pause. o Eye Span: The number of characters recognized during a pause. A wider eye span improves reading speed, while smaller print or complex text reduces it. 2.    Word Recognition: Several factors influence how words are recognized: o    Type of Letters: Letters with projections (e.g., f, l, d, y, g, t) are easier to identify than non-projecting ones (e.g., c, e, m, n, o, u). o Word Shape: Words with similar shapes (e.g., cat-fat-rat) may cause confusion, slowing down reading. o    Familiarity with Language: Age, experience, and exposure to words influence recognition speed. Concrete words are easier to recognize than abstract ones. 3.    Reading Speed: A wider eye span leads to faster reading. Speed increases with age, practice, and familiarity with the language. 4.    Comprehension: Understanding is the ultimate goal of reading. Comprehension is influenced by intelligence, prior knowledge, and interest in language learning. Challenges in Spelling and Writing in English English presents unique spelling challenges due to its irregularities, such as: 1.    Inconsistent Letter Pronunciations: o Example: ■    Once (/wAns/) vs. Only (/ounli/) ■    Woman (/woman/) vs. Women (/wimin/) 2.    Homophones (Same Pronunciation, Different Spelling): o Example: ■    Peep, people, police, key (EE-sound variations) ■    Food, rude, group, move (OO-sound variations) 3.    Consonant Doubling: Some words double consonants unpredictably. o Example: ■    Conferred, committed (double consonants) ■    Entered, plummeted (no double consonants) 4.    Silent Letters: Many words contain silent letters, making spelling difficult. o Example: Honest (silent 'h'), Hour (silent 'h'), Knife (silent 'k') 5.    Digraphs (Two Letters Representing One Sound): o Example: ■    Sh for /f/ (ship), ■    Ch for /tf/ (chair), ■    Er for /^/ (her). Teaching Spelling Effectively Since English spelling rules are full of exceptions, spelling must be practiced rather than merely taught. A good teacher should: •    Speak with correct pronunciation, as students imitate their teachers. •    Encourage frequent reading practice to reinforce correct spellings. •    Guide students to develop memory techniques for tricky spellings. Strategies for Learning Spelling Margaret Maison suggests four key techniques: 1.    Read intelligently to observe correct spelling in context. 2.    Use a dictionary to verify and learn correct spellings. 3.    Use memory aids such as mnemonic devices. 4.    Maintain a spelling notebook for frequently misspelled words. Methods of Teaching Reading : Reading instruction methods can be categorized into two main types: 1.    Letter Method• Alphabetic Method 2.    Non-Letter Method•    Syllabic Method •  Word Method •  Phrase Method •  Sentence Method •  Story Method •  Phonic Method Alphabetic Method This is one of the oldest methods of teaching reading, dating back to ancient Greece and Rome. It is often called the ‘ABC method’ because instruction begins with learning individual letters. The teaching unit in this method is the letter itself, and it remains widely used today. Procedure: 1.    Learning Letters – The teacher introduces the 26 letters of the English alphabet in order until students can recite them by heart. 2.    Formation of Words – Students learn to form words by combining letters (e.g., h-e = ‘he’, s-h-e = ‘she’). 3.    Formation of Phrases and Sentences – Learners combine words to create phrases and sentences. 4.    Reading Practice – Students read passages from textbooks to reinforce learning. Merits: •    Encourages visual recognition of words, aiding in correct spelling. •    Follows the pedagogical principle of progressing from simple to complex concepts. •    Provides a clear, step-by-step approach, making it easy for beginners. •    Textbooks are often designed around this method. Limitations: •    Encourages a fragmented approach to reading, rather than understanding words holistically. •    Letters alone have no meaning, which can make the method uninteresting for children. •    Time-consuming and heavily reliant on memorization. •  English has irregular spelling rules, and this method does not fully address pronunciation challenges. •  Reduces eye span development, as words are read letter by letter rather than as whole units. •    Can hinder comprehension, as learners focus on decoding letters rather than understanding content. Syllabic Method This method emerged as an alternative to the alphabetic method. Instead of letters, syllables serve as the basic unit of teaching. Since syllables are meaningful sounds, this method reduces confusion in spelling and pronunciation. Procedure: 1.    Introduction of Syllables – Students are introduced to syllables with examples. 2.    Formation of Words – Syllables are combined to create words. 3.    Formation of Sentences – Words are combined into sentences. Advantages: •    Recognizes that syllables are the true building blocks of words, not individual letters. •    Helps in proper pronunciation, especially for words with irregular spellings. •    More scientific and logical compared to the alphabetic method. •    Saves time by skipping letter memorization. Limitations: •    Complex for beginners to grasp syllabic structures. •    Requires significant memory effort to retain syllables in a foreign language. •  Analytical in nature, making it challenging for young learners. •  Syllables on their own often lack meaning, reducing engagement. Word Method (Look and Say Method) P.C. Wren describes this as "the only rational method" of teaching reading. Students learn whole words rather than individual letters or syllables. Visual aids such as pictures are often used to reinforce word recognition, earning it the name "Look and Say" or "See and Say" method. It is also referred to as the "global method." Assumptions: •    Words have distinct shapes, which help in recognition. •    The word is the smallest meaningful language unit. •    Thought is expressed through words. Procedure: 1.    Introduction of Words – Words are presented using visual aids like pictures and flashcards. For instance, a flashcard with a picture of a rose and the word "rose" below it. 2.    Repetition – Students repeatedly say the word while looking at the picture and blackboard. 3.    Sentence Formation – Once several words are learned, they are combined into sentences (e.g., "seat", "have", and "your" lead to "Have your seat"). 4.    Practice – Reading practice using books. Merits: •    A direct and natural method, as people begin speaking in words rather than letters. •    Encourages oral skills. •    Utilizes audio-visual aids, making learning more engaging. •    Follows key teaching principles, such as progressing from simple to complex and known to unknown. •    Based on Gestalt psychology, which emphasizes whole-word recognition. Limitations: •    Still relies on recognizing individual letters within words. •    Not all words can be taught using pictures. •    Does not develop the ability to decode new words. •    Individual words sometimes lack meaning without context. •    Places a strain on memory, as students must memorize entire words rather than learning decoding strategies. •    Neglects spelling and phonics. •    Encourages reading one word at a time, which can slow down reading fluency. •    Does not emphasize stress and intonation patterns, which are essential for natural speech. 3)The Phrase Method : According to Menon and Patel, the phrase method is based on the idea that phrases are more engaging than individual words and emphasize meaning. This method stems from the assumption that proficient readers recognize groups of words in a single eye fixation, fostering efficient reading development. It advances beyond the word method and serves as a middle ground between the word and sentence methods. The primary unit of teaching in this approach is the phrase, with students learning phrases before individual letters. Palmer, a major proponent of this method, argued that a word is too small a unit of speech, while a sentence is too long to be read at once. Assumptions: •    Phrases are more engaging than isolated words. •    Phrases provide contextual meaning. •    Readers recognize groups of words rather than individual words in one eye fixation, expanding eye span. •    Phrases serve as a more suitable teaching unit compared to words or letters. •    Words alone convey only lexical meaning; for deeper understanding, phrases must be used. Procedure: 1.    The teacher selects and writes commonly used phrases. 2.    Students attentively observe the phrase and note it down. 3.    The teacher reads the phrase aloud, and students repeat it multiple times. 4.    The teacher explains the meaning of the phrase. 5.    New phrases are compared with previously learned phrases. Merits: •    Incorporates all benefits of the word method. •    Expands eye span, enhancing reading speed. •    Phrases are more engaging due to their contextual meaning. •    Facilitates the use of material aids for better comprehension. •    Emphasizes that phrases, rather than words, form the fundamental unit of thought. Limitations: •    Focuses more on meaning than on reading skills. •    May not be suitable for all students, particularly weaker learners who struggle with multiple words at a time. •    Considered an inefficient method for mastering individual words. The Sentence Method: Supporters of the sentence method argue that the sentence, rather than the word, is the primary unit of speech. Words derive their meaning from context, which is best provided by a complete sentence. This approach aligns with natural speech patterns and thought expression. W.M. Ryburn strongly advocates this method, suggesting various interactive games for effective application. Chalkboards and flashcards can be valuable tools in presenting full sentences. Assumptions: •    The sentence, not the word, is the fundamental unit of thought. •    Speech is composed of sentences. •    Sentences convey complete meaning, unlike isolated words or phrases. •    Each sentence has a distinctive and complete sound pattern. Procedure: 1.    Introducing Sentences: The teacher presents a sentence through conversation. 2.    Use of Material Aids: Sentences are displayed with visual aids (e.g., a flashcard with "The girl is running" alongside a relevant image). 3.    Recognition: The teacher reads the sentence aloud, allowing students time to recognize it. 4.    Drilling: Students repeatedly read the sentence. 5.    Introducing Phrases: The sentence is broken down into meaningful phrases for further practice. 6.    Introducing Words: Individual words from the sentence are introduced. 7.    Spelling Practice: The teacher pronounces each word and spells it aloud, with students repeating. 8.    Recapitulation: Exercises like recognizing words, rearranging jumbled sentences, and engaging in language games reinforce learning. Merits: •    Psychologically sound as the sentence is a natural speech unit. •    Enhances all language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. •    Prevents isolated word-to-word meaning errors. •  Reduces confusion. •  Supports Gestalt psychology, emphasizing wholes over parts. •    Improves reading speed and eye span. •    Encourages self-study and independent learning. •    Incorporates audio-visual aids for engaging lessons. Limitations: •    Teaching letters through this method can be tedious. •    Requires extensive audio-visual materials, making it costly. •    Lack of suitable graded textbooks. •    Needs well-trained teachers. •    Some experts argue that recognizing sentences without prior knowledge of letters and words is unrealistic. The Story Method: This method builds upon the sentence method by introducing multiple sentences within the framework of a short story. The unit of teaching is a simple story composed of four or five sentences. It integrates elements of the phrase, sentence, and word methods. Assumption: •    Children have a natural inclination toward stories. Procedure: 1.    The teacher narrates a story. 2.    Students discuss the story’s events in sequential order. 3.    The teacher writes the story on the board. 4.    Students read and recognize the sentences. 5.    Words are analyzed using the word method. Merits: •    Psychological: Appeals to children’s natural interest. •    Encourages engaging reading activities. •    Saves time. •    Provides a complete unit of thought with a structured beginning, middle, and end. •    Enhances self-motivation and memory retention. Limitations: •    Requires students to manage multiple learning elements simultaneously. •    Emphasizes memorization of event sequences. •    Does not prioritize word recognition. •    May lead to guessing rather than precise reading. •    Limited use of audio-visual aids may encourage rote learning. The Phonic Method: English is a language of sound, with 26 letters representing 44 different phonetic sounds. This method emphasizes learning the sounds of letters rather than their names, enabling students to construct words through phonetics. It is a scientific and analytical approach, focusing on phonetic script rather than letters or words. Assumptions: 1.    Sounds, rather than letters, form the basic units of words. 2.    After mastering sounds, they are combined into syllables, words, and sentences. Procedure: •    The teacher introduces vowel sounds and their corresponding letters. •    Consonant sounds are taught similarly. •    Vowels and consonants are combined to form simple syllables (e.g., ba, be, bi, bo, bu). •    Syllables are combined to form words, then sentences. Merits: •  Easy to implement and economical. •  Logical and systematically graded. •  Clarifies spelling and pronunciation. •  Enhances phonetic understanding. •  Universally applicable and effective for improving spoken language. Limitations: •    Consonants are introduced separately from vowels, despite needing vowels for accurate pronunciation. •    Focuses on phonetic recognition while neglecting word meaning. •    Similar-sounding but differently spelled words (e.g., right/write) can cause confusion. •  Silent letters in words (e.g., hour, honour) pose difficulties. •  Overemphasis on phonetics may delay reading fluency. •    Requires teachers proficient in correct pronunciation. Primers : Primers are basic textbooks designed to teach children how to read. The New England Primer was the first reading primer created for the American colonies. It became the most successful educational textbook of the 18th century and served as the foundation for most schooling before the 1790s. Characteristics of Primers: •    Primers should be carefully selected and appropriately graded. •    They should contain standardized content for beginner reading instruction, including the alphabet, vowels, consonants, double letters, and syllabariums with syllables ranging from two to six letters. •    The pages should be of good quality. •    Printing should be clear and legible. •    Primers should be activity-oriented. •    They should incorporate colored pictures. •    Primers serve as elementary textbooks for teaching children to read and introduce the basic elements of a subject. Reading Retardation The terminology used to describe reading difficulties is often confusing, with terms such as backwardness, illiteracy, disability, and impairment being used alongside medical terms like dyslexia or word-blindness (Pilliner and Reid, 1972). Reading retardation refers to an impairment that may stem from mental retardation or cultural deprivation and differs from dyslexia. Common Causes and Solutions for Reading Difficulties:1.    Nervousness Some students become anxious and overly self-conscious when reading aloud in class. They should initially read in small groups to build confidence before reading before the whole class. Their reading pace should be moderate—not too fast or too slow. 2.    Lack of Oral Mastery Students often mispronounce words due to a lack of prior oral exposure. Beginners should not be asked to read words they have not first mastered orally. 3.    Faulty Reading Habits •    Some students pause frequently to look up unfamiliar words in the dictionary, slowing their reading speed. Teachers should guide them with hints and references to help maintain a reasonable pace (140–200 words per minute) while ensuring comprehension. •    Poor classroom conditions and uncomfortable seating arrangements can hinder concentration, leading to slow reading. Proper physical conditions should be maintained to improve reading efficiency. •    Other bad habits include holding the book too close to the eyes, excessive blinking, and unnecessary head movements while reading. Teachers should address these habits to enhance reading skills. If a student holds the book too close, they should have their eyesight checked. 4.    Lack of Proper Sense Grouping Students often ignore punctuation marks, leading to improper phrasing. This can be corrected by drawing their attention to punctuation and encouraging them to read in meaningful groups of words. 5.    Stammering Some students stammer while reading due to physiological or psychological reasons. Teachers should investigate the cause and help build the student's confidence. 6.    Finger Pointing Many students use their fingers to track words while reading, particularly when the writing system differs from their mother tongue. Providing texts with larger fonts can help eliminate this habit. 7.    Decoding Errors Students with neurological or alphabetic processing difficulties struggle with decoding words, leading to slow reading and comprehension issues. Such students require special education support. 8.    Vision Problems Poor vision can hinder a child’s ability to read and interpret text. Common solutions include: •    Seating the child near the chalkboard. •  Teaching in small groups with large-font materials. •  Providing reading assistance. •  Offering large-print books. 9.    Hearing Impairments Hearing-impaired students struggle with pronunciation and self-monitoring their speech. They should be provided with hearing aids, seated at the front, and, in severe cases, referred to special schools for the deaf and mute. 10.    Regression Some students frequently reread previous words instead of progressing smoothly. Although minor regressions are not harmful, excessive backtracking slows reading speed. Students should be encouraged to minimize unnecessary regressions. 11.    Sub-Vocalizing Some students whisper or murmur while reading, which lowers their reading speed. Teachers should work on eliminating this habit. 12.    Faulty Evaluation System The Indian education system primarily assesses memory rather than reading, listening, and speaking skills. This focus on rote memorization diminishes students' interest in reading, ultimately reducing their reading speed. 13.    Disinterested Teachers Many teachers do not prioritize reading instruction, especially since exams do not evaluate reading skills. Due to lengthy syllabi, there is often little time left for reading practice. 14.    Lack of Emphasis on Reading Reading is not given adequate importance in the mother tongue, which affects English reading skills as well. 15.    Overcrowded Classrooms Large class sizes make it difficult for teachers to provide individual attention to students’ pronunciation and reading speed. This hampers their ability to improve reading skills. 16.    Ineffective Teaching Methods Some widely used methods, such as the grammar-translation method, do not focus on reading skills, limiting students' progress. 17.    Poorly Designed Textbooks Textbooks that are not carefully selected, graded, or based on psychological and linguistic principles fail to enhance reading speed and comprehension. 18.    Lack of Qualified Teachers Many English teachers in India have poor pronunciation due to inadequate knowledge of phonetics. Since they are not proficient readers themselves, their students also struggle with reading. 19.    Undefined Learning Objectives In many private schools, untrained teachers are assigned to teach language without understanding the fundamental skills required for language learning. Without clear objectives, they do little to improve students' reading skills. lf- Check Exercise (1) 1.      Structural approach lays stress on: a)    Improve fluency. b)    Developing Accuracy. c)    Developing Linguistic perspective. d)    Selection & gradation of materials. 2.       Drilling is a teaching - learning technique or a strategy in: a)    Constructivist language teaching. b)    Structuralism. c)    Communicative learning. d)    Lexical approach. 3.     Which of the following is not true about the grammar-translation method? a)    Inductive teaching of grammar is preferred. b)    The target language is learnt through mother tongue. c)    High value is given to the accuracy. d)    Teacher- centric rather than learner- centric. 4.      A teacher asks students of class III to describe their best friend . She writes the students' responses on the blackboard. At last she states that all these describing words on the blackboard are adjectives. This is: a)    Incidental Method. b)    Inductive Method. c)    Deductive Method. d)    Immersion Method. 5.    Which method of teaching originated in France 1901 a)    Grammar -Translation Method. b)  Audio- Lingual. c)  Direct Method. d)    None of these. 6.     The oldest and classical method is: a)    Grammar- Translation Method. b)  Bilingual Method. c)  Direct Method. d)Audio- lingual method. 7.     What is the base of grammar- translation method? a)    Classroom teaching. b)    Out-door teaching. c)   Text-book. d)   Pronunciation Practice. 8.     The focus is on using the language rather than analysis of language is taught implicitly rather than explicitly? a)    Direct Method. b)    Communicative Approach. c)    Structural Approach. d)    Grammar Translation Method. 9.     Mother tongue dominates in: a)    Direct Method. b)    Grammar translation method. c)    Bilingual Method. d)    All of these. 10.    Which method is also known as Natural method? a)    Grammar - Translation Method. b)    Audio lingual. c)    Bilingual Method. d)   Direct Method. 11.     Which method helps to develop skills in grammar, reading, vocabulary and translation? a)   Direct Method. b)   Grammar - Translation Method. c)   Audio- lingual Method. d)    Bilingual Method. 12.      In which approach, the medium of classroom instruction is in second language? a)    Grammar- Translation immersion. b)    Language Immersion. c)    Communicative approach. d)    Structural Approach. 13.    Dictation comes under _______ writing. a)   Controlled writing. b)   Guided writing. c)    Free writing. d)   None of these. 14.    What is the use of note- making? a)    To sell the text. b)    To reconstruct the text. c)    To borrow the test. d)    To buy the text. 15.    What is the base of grammar translation method? a)    Classroom teaching. b)    Outdoor teaching. c)    Text-book . d)    Pronunciation practice. 5.4 What is Writing Skill? What is writing skill? Writing is the graphical representation of speech. This skill is used to preserve, transfer and evaluate the knowledge. Though speech is primary in a language, yet one must have realized the need to convert speech symbols into written symbols as to make language richer and more meaningful. There has to be a close and associative relationship between the spoken words and its graphical representation. Writing skill reinforces oral and reading work. It is a productive skill. It helps to firmly fix the learnt material in mind. Writing may be divided into two aspects i.e. (1)    Mechanical skill            (2) Intellectual faculty Different educationist explains about writing skill. Bacon says, “Reading makes a full man, conference a ready man and writing an exact man.” Bell said, “Writing is a tool used to enable us to express, what is in our mind and for some people is almost as important as speech.” S.S.M. Gaudar opinions, “Writing has instrumental value in school. It is a means of preserving the knowledge which the pupil gained or the judgments he has formed. It serves as a check on his forgetting useful items of knowledge and ideas. The habit of making notes of what is read and of summarizing helps the recollection of what has been studies. Analysis : From above definitions, it can be concluded that writing helps in organization of thoughts. Development of writing skill is not natural process like skill. Learner has to involve in a process and can be explained as follows : Collecting ideasC Organizing ideasO DraftingD EditingE RedraftingR So writing should be effective and efficient in communicating the writer’s intention. The web-diagram gives below reveals each and every features which makes a piece of writing effective. Features of Effective Writing All the nine features shown are equally significant and each of them has sub features. 1.    Content 2.    Idea 3.    Audience 4.    Purpose 5.    Vocabulary 6.    Organization 7.    Mechanics 8.    Grammar 9.    syntax 1    & 2. Content and ideas are inter related. One must has knowledge about idea to achieve clarity and relevancy in thoughts. 3.    Audience features the age and the mental of the receivers. 4.    Purpose classifies the target of communication and paves the way to appropriate method. 5.    & 6. Vocabulary and Organization : A good vocabulary is needed to systematical and organized the context. 7.    Mechanics : Handwriting, script are writing mechanics which play impart role. 8.    Grammar : Grammar is the soul of a language and it provides a frame or skeleton to the written body. 9.    Syntax : Syntax gives final expression and impression to the text. So, all these features organized in the random unconnected sentences into well-organized and well connected sentences. Teaching Writing to Beginners : Teaching writing is a skillful activity that demands expert guidance, especially during the pre-writing and writing stages. For beginners, structured and methodical instruction is essential. The following aspects should be considered when teaching writing to beginners: Key Aspects of Teaching Writing to Beginners1.    Developing Motor Skills o Teaching children to control the small muscles of their fingers and wrists while writing. o Providing activities that enhance fine motor skills, such as tracing, drawing, and hand exercises. 2.    Hand-Eye Coordination o    Encouraging activities that synchronize hand movement with visual perception. o    Using exercises like copying shapes, patterns, and letters to improve coordination. 3.    Practice through Written Exercises o    Engaging students in various writing exercises to reinforce learning. o    Introducing simple words and gradually progressing to sentences and paragraphs. 4.    Ensuring Correct and Legible Writing o    Focusing on proper letter formation, spacing, and alignment. o    Encouraging neatness and clarity in handwriting. 5.    Progressive Approach to Writing o    Emphasizing handwriting skills in the early stages. o    Gradually introducing composition skills, including writing from books and journals in English. o    Enhancing students' ability to write English correctly and fluently. 6.    Practical Application o  Preparing students to use writing skills in real-life situations. o  Recognizing the importance of English writing proficiency in higher education and professional settings, particularly in administrative roles. Stages in Teaching of Writing : Writing is a difficult and practical skill. Therefore F.G. French has suggested that training in writing (penmanship) should begin with training in muscular control through fairly large movement using fingers in tray of sand or chalk or brown paper. The movement should include drawing of lines of various lengths and direction, half circles, strokes etc. The child’s hand should be fully in various movements. There is involvement of three stages : (i)    Preparation for Writing : (a)    Free Hand Writing : In first stage, there is need to develop hand muscles. Learner should involve in this process after 3 years when he learns to control this muscles. There should begin as an exercise in art. Students can take plain paper to draw freely. With various size, shapes and directions. (b)    Controlled Drawing : After this pages should be with lines. So, that controlled practice to children can be given. (c)    Acquaintance with Written Forms : Written forms are introduced to the pupils to make them familiar with graphical representation of alphabets. For this, the teacher may write the names of the pupils on their books, desks or other belongings.             This             is             followed             by             written             practice. (ii)    Learning to Write : Script Writing : In first stage, students learn to control muscles and have acquaintance with graphical representation. Now there is need to choose a script. Initially, print script is preferred because learners are also familiar with this script. After that, they have move to cursive script. Learning the Alphabetical Order : In traditional methods, alphabets are taught in sequence. But now-a-days, they are taught according to their shapes. Alphabets can be divided in three group as following : Groups | Capital letter | Capital letter                      Capital letter | |---|---| | group I | group II       group III | | Circles e.g. | Strokes e.g.                     Curves e.g. | | O, C, Q | A, , E, L, F I                      B, D, P, R, S, U, Y | Alphabets are taught in proper order when learners have gained mastery over all the three group. 3.    Mastering a Mature Style : It involves : ( i) Choice of Script : Print or cursive. ( ii) Choice of Style : Vertical or slanting ( iii) Writing Material (iv) Posture. In third stage, students choose a script and style which continue throughout the remaining school period. For good handwriting, these selection are very necessary. Proper writing material involves rough surface with soft chalk initially. 214 Later on switching over to paper with soft pencil finally culminating into ink writing. There is need of proper posture to avoid fatigue, uneasiness and pain. Mechanics of Writing : Choice of Script English letters originate from the Roman script, and there are three main types of scripts. The clarity and aesthetic appeal of handwriting largely depend on the choice of script. This selection can greatly influence students' handwriting skills. Printed Script Printed script is the style found in textbooks and other printed materials. It consists of simple letter forms, usually based on straight lines and curves, with each letter being distinct and unconnected. As students are already familiar with printed text in books, learning this script is relatively easy. Generally, beginners start with print script and transition to cursive writing after two to three years. Advantages of Printed Script: •    Ease of Learning: Since young learners have only mastered free and controlled drawing, print script is easier for them to start with. •  Gradual Progression: It follows the principle of moving from simple to complex forms. •  Familiarity: Since books are printed, students recognize this script, making it easier to learn. •    Simplicity: There are no loops involved, making the script straightforward. •    Error Correction: Students can compare their letters with printed ones, facilitating independent error identification. •  Less Strain: Print script involves less strain on the eyes and body than cursive writing. •  Motor Skill Development: It supports the motor skill growth of young learners. •    Reduced Teacher Supervision: It requires less teacher oversight compared to cursive writing. •    Self-Motivation: As students can read easily, they feel encouraged to write more. •    Legibility: The distinct, separate letters enhance readability, neatness, and aesthetic appeal. Disadvantages of Printed Script: •    Time-Consuming: Writing each letter separately takes more time and effort. •    Immature Appearance: As students mature, print script can appear childish. •    Slower Writing Speed: The lack of fluid connection between letters slows down writing speed. •    Confusion with Letter Shapes: Some letters look similar, leading to confusion (e.g., ‘a’ vs. ‘g’ or ‘b’ vs. ‘d’). •    Difficulty in Transitioning: Shifting to cursive script later can be challenging as students' muscles become accustomed to print script. Cursive Writing Cursive writing involves joining letters using strokes or loops, creating a flowing appearance. It is widely used by proficient English writers worldwide. Experts recommend introducing cursive writing early, as transitioning later can be difficult. Cursive writing also enhances writing speed, which is a key goal of learning to write. Advantages of Cursive Writing: •    Faster Writing Speed: Cursive writing allows for quicker writing. •    Aesthetic Appeal: It creates a neat and visually appealing style. •    Mature Appearance: It conveys a sense of sophistication. •    Efficiency: Saves time and energy due to fluid motion. •    Ultimate Goal: The final aim of writing instruction is proficiency in cursive handwriting. Limitations of Cursive Writing: •    Requires Continuous Guidance: Without regular supervision, students may struggle to master it. •    Challenging for Beginners: It is initially difficult to learn. •    Time-Consuming at First: The inclusion of strokes and loops makes it initially slower to write. •    Research Findings: Studies suggest that students who start with print script perform better overall. Rounded Cursive Script Also known as Marian Richardson’s script, this style combines features of both print and cursive writing, with only some letters connected. It retains the advantages of both forms while mitigating their respective limitations. Writing Material Selecting appropriate writing materials is crucial in the early stages of learning. To develop muscle control, children should start writing on broader, rough surfaces. Initial exercises should include free lines, strokes, curves, circles, and dots, preferably using soft chalk. This helps in developing smooth hand movements and hand-eye coordination. Later, students should transition to writing on paper using large, soft lead pencils, followed by ink writing. High-quality writing inks and glazed paper should be used for better results. Techniques for Copy Writing Since English consists of various content types, different teaching techniques are needed for beginners. Teachers should employ various methods suited to different learning needs. 1.    Using the Blackboard The blackboard is a widely used and versatile tool in classrooms for teaching writing. It serves multiple purposes: •    Model Writing: Teachers can demonstrate proper letter formation for students to imitate. •    Addressing Common Spelling Errors: Teachers can highlight frequent mistakes. •    Recapitulation: The blackboard helps reinforce previously taught content. •    Assessing Writing Skills: Exercises on the blackboard can evaluate students' progress and boost their confidence. 2.    Flash Cards Recommended by F.G. French, flash cards are effective for teaching letters and word structures. The process involves: •    The teacher displays a flash card to introduce a new letter or word. •    Students recognize the word or letter with visual support. •    The teacher reinforces learning by writing the words on the blackboard for students to copy. •    Continuous feedback and guidance are necessary for effectiveness. 3.    Copy Books Copy books are ideal for beginners. These include primers or books with faint or dotted letters, allowing students to trace letters for practice. Workbooks designed for handwriting practice also serve this purpose. 4.    Substitution Tables Substitution tables aid in teaching letters, words, and syntax. These are useful for both middle and higher classes, enhancing reading and writing skills. Teachers can draw tables on the blackboard or prepare charts for better comprehension. 5.    Dictation and Spelling Exercises Once students are familiar with letters and words, dictation helps reinforce their learning. Teachers pronounce words, and students write them down. Immediate correction and feedback are crucial to prevent the formation of incorrect writing habits. Meaning and Use of Substitution Palmer defines substitution as "a process by which any model sentence may be multiplied indefinitely by replacing words with others of the same grammatical category." The following tables illustrate different types of substitution: Types of Substitution Tables 1.    Simple Substitution: o Example: Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Hindi      is spoken in India English   is spoken in England French   is spoken in France o Here, the verb phrase "is spoken in" remains constant, while the first and third columns vary but cannot be interchanged. 2.    Grammatical Substitution: o    Example: Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 I         am       reading We      are      reading He is reading o    This table demonstrates the correct use of "am," "are," and "is" based on the subject. 3.    Compound Substitution: o    Example: Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Raj      has done the work. Anita     has done it. The boy has done something. o    Here, both subjects and objects can be interchanged freely. Advantages of the Substitution Method •    Suitable for early-stage English learners (Grades VII-VIII). •    Provides structured linguistic material for systematic learning. •    Enhances both reading and writing skills. •    Encourages critical thinking. •    Efficient use of the mother tongue for better understanding. •    Mimics natural language acquisition, making learning intuitive and engaging. Limitations of the Substitution Method •    Not suitable for higher classes (Grades IX-XII). •    Overemphasizes oral practice, neglecting written skills. •    Lacks sequential learning, focusing on isolated sentences. •    Requires trained, creative teachers to implement effectively. •    Takes time to develop strong linguistic habits. Self- Check Exercise (2) 1.    What is the purpose of writing at elementary level? a)    Development of motor skills. b)    Discrimination of the work. c)    Taking notes. d)    Initiating conversation. 2.    Which technique of reading is used to look for a specific information? a)    Library reading. b)    Skimming. c)    Scanning. d)    Oral reading. 3.    Which test is used in order to find out the students learning regarding the discrimination of sounds? a)    Reading test. b)    Comprehension test. c)    Listening test. d)    Writing test. 4.    Proper speech habits can be developed effectively through: a)    Vocabulary practice. b)    Quizzes. c)    Dictations. d)    Pronunciation. 5.    Language skills can be learnt best: a)    If they are taught in integrated manner. b)    With the help of challenging drills. c)    Through written tests. d)    If taught in isolation. 6.     Proficiency tests include: a)    Speaking. b)    Reading. c)    Writing. d)    Speaking and Writing. 7.    The productive skills of a language are a)    Listening and Writing. b)    Reading and writing. c)    Speaking and listening. d)    Speaking and writing. 8.    Which teaching aid can be used to teach listening comprehension? a) Textbook. b) Word cards. c) Tape recorder. d) Picture cards. 9.    Language learning is like learning a)    Skill like cycle. b)    A subject like physics. c)    A collection of facts in history. d)    Abstract concepts as in philosophy. 10.    The main purpose of using oral drill is: a)    To improve pronunciation and accuracy. b)    Twin brook the retention capacity of learners. c)    To enhance the speaking skills of learners. d)    To assess the comprehension skills of learners. 11.    Picture comprehension is effective to promote: a)  Speaking skills. b)  Listening skills. c)    Literacy skills. d)    Artistic skills. 12.    Receptive language skills are: a)    Using grammatical structures accurately. b)    Writing in a range of styles. c)    Listening and reading for information. d)    Being able to self correct while using language. 13.    The rise and fall of tone is: a)    Pronunciation. b)    Stress. c) Strain. d) Intonation. 14.    Contrastive pairing is used for teaching learning of: a)    Pronunciation. b)    Reading. c)    Writing. d)    Speaking. 15.    What can be used as props for dialogues in order to teach new lexical or structural items? a)    Textbook. b)    Reference Book. c)    Realia. d)    Dictionary. 16.    Making learners aware of the text and the purpose of listening is a : a)    Pre- listening activity. b)    Post - listing activity. c)    Listening stimulus. d)    While listening activity. 17.    Interactive listening means listening: a)    Carefully to what is said and responding. b)    Curiosity to what is said. c)    Carefully for word stress and intonation. d)    To judge the speaker's mood and tone. 18.    Students need to brainstorm ideas, organize them, draft, edit, and revise their work is a 'process' which reflects,: a)    Reading skills. b)    Writing skills. c)    Listening skills. d)    Speaking skills. 15.5    Summary In this chapter we discussed about skills namely speaking, reading, writing, listening. it includes different stages and methods to make this process more and more effective and productive. 15.6    Glossary •    Alphabetic Method : This is old method of teaching reading. It is as old as the translation method. It was almost universal from the early days of Greece and Roman until the end of the middle ages. It is also known as ‘ABC’ method as teacher starts from A-B-C of the language. Here unit of teaching is letter. Today also, this method is used by the teacher to teach reading. •    Recognition Games :With the help of flash cards, this type of games can be played flash cards of some words in duplicate are prepared. One set displayed on the board in front to the class and second set is given to the students. The pupils asked to match the words. •    Substitution: Substitution is a process by which any model sentence may be multiplied indefinitely, substituting for any of its word or word groups and other words of the same grammatical family. •    Copy Books :Copy books is an ideal technique for beginners. For this technique, there is availability of primers or dotted/faint copy book. On a faint copy book students can over write on it by tracing method, work books are also available for this purpose. 15.7    Answer to Self-Check Exercise(1) 1.    d 2. b 3. a 4. b 5 c 6. a 7. c 8. b 9.b 10. d 11. b 12. b 13. a 14 b 15 c Answers to Self- Check Exercise(3) 1.    a 2. c 3. c 4. d 5. a 6. d 7. d 8. c 9. a 10. a 11.a 12 c 13. d 14. a 15. c 16. a 17. a 18. b 15.8    References \ Suggested Readings Asher, James. (1966). The Learning Strategy of the total physical Response: A Review. The Modern Journal. Asher, James J.(1969). Learning Another Language through Actions. Los Gatos, CA: Sky Oaks Productions. Bachman, Lyle. (1990). Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bax, Stephen. (2003)."The end of CLT: a context approach to language teaching". ELT Journal. Bonilla Carvajal, C.A.(2013) "Grammar- Translation Method": A linguistic historic error of perspective: Origins, dynamics & inconsistencies. Brandl, Klaus. (2007). Communicative Language Teaching in Action: Putting Principles to Work. Upper Saddle, NJ: Phil Miller. Brown, H.(2001). Teaching by Principles: An interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. White Plains, NY: Longman. Canale, M.; Swain, M. (1980). "Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing." 15.9    Terminal Questions 1.    Discuss the importance of listening and speaking in the learning of a foreign language. 2.    List co-curricular activities for developing reading skill. 3.    Explain the mechanics of writing. How should the beginners be initiated into writing? 4.    What are the different types of script? Which script would you make your students follow the beginning and why? UNIT -16 UNIT AND LESSON PLANNING Lesson structure 16.1    Introduction 16.2    Learning objectives 16.3    Importance of planning work Self-Check Exercise(1) 16.4    Element of unit plan; Lesson Planning (Model of Lesson Planning) Self- Check Exercise (2) 16.5    Summary 16.6    Glossary 16.7    Answer to Self - Check Exercises 16.8    Reference \ Suggested Readings 16.9    Terminal Questions 16.1  Introduction: The execution of any work while activity depends upon proper planning. Planning is done for good management of teaching learning and for management. While planning we should taken into consideration : A successful classroom performance of teaching of English is the hallmark of an efficient teacher. Teacher has to theoretically plan his lesson and arrange it in a logical sequence, anticipating various situation during the lesson, making room for creating situations in the process of actual teaching employ the best method, technique, strategy or tactics to ensure smooth passage of information to the students by generating appropriate learning structures. Different methods are required for different contents and the objectives of a lesson. However, methodology apart, each teaching subject has to follow same planning pattern as given above in figure. It is the most impart activity of pre-active stage. 16.2    Learning Objective •    To understand about planning •    To learn about importance of planning •    Know about element of unit planning •    Model of lesson planning 16.3    Importance of Planning Work : “Quality education is the result of planning.” Planning means thinking about something before-hand. Planning has importance in every walk of life. The success of work is ensured if its work is properly planned. Without planning we are listening about aimlessly, applying means without aiming at the achievements of ends. Planning, in fact, systematize whole things and makes a person act in the right direction so as to achieve the ends already fixed up. Thus, it is bound to provide a lot of satisfaction to the person who plans the work. The lesson plan is, therefore, an effective tool in the hands of the teacher. It’s importance can be find out with the help of following figure. As teacher has some objectives keeping in view students. He needs a full plan showing the full plan showing the different steps to be followed him logically at the right moment in various situations. He has to prepare the different visual or audio aids that he needs for teaching. There are following points to show importance of planning. Coverage of Different Aspects : By planning we are able to emphasize the different aspects of language equally. Otherwise, it is just possible that are aspect may be over emphasized and some other aspect may be just touched upon and another may be ignored. Justice : It enables the teachers to do full justice to the different portions of the syllabus. He is able to maintain interest of the learner throughout. He is also able to teaches anything systematically. There is no at once rush of finishing the work and hence there is nothing to burden the minds of the teachers. Time and Energy Saving : It gives sufficient time and opportunity to the teacher for the preparation of lesson before hand. The teacher knows what he is to teach at what time and so he prepares himself accordingly and goes to the class well prepared. Right Path : It helps in keeping the teacher as well as the taught on the right path. No Confusion : The teacher can find out what has not been covered so far. So he can proceed further without any sort of delicacy or confusion. Permanent Record : Permanent record of work finished or to be finished can be kept. Smoothens the Class Work : Planning smoothens the class work because a teacher is able to foresee the hard less that he may possibly face. It provides sufficient time to the teacher for thinking about the possible solution of a problem in advance. Gives Sufficient Time for Preparation of the Lesson : Planning gives sufficient time and an opportunity to the teacher for the preparation of the lesson before hand. The teacher already plans about the teaching material. He prepared himself accordingly and then goes to the class. Makes the Lesson Interesting : Planning helps in making the lesson interesting as teacher can think of the suitable audio-visual aids needed for making the lesson interesting. Also he can easily think of the ways and means for making the lesson interesting after doing a lob of practice in planning the lesson. Self-Check Exercise (1) 1.    Planning process began with: a)    Setting Objectives. b)    Identity Alternatives. c)    Developing planning premise. d)    Selecting Alternatives. 2.    The purpose and the aim for which the organization is set up and operate called: a)    Objective. b)    Strategy. c)    Policy. d)    Procedure. 3.          It is a function of management which refers to the process of integrating the activities of different units of organization to achieve the organization goals. a)    Actuating. b)    Controlling. c)    Coordination. d)    Planning. 4. Planning is: a)    Forward looking. b)    Backward looking. c)    Both forward & backward looking. d)    None of these. 5.       What is the full form of MBO? a)    Management by opportunity. b)    Method by Opportunity. c)    Management by objectives. d)    Method by objective. 6.         Planning is: a)    Pervasive. b)    Futuristic. c)    Continuous. d)    All of these. 7.       Planning provides: a)    Information to outsiders. b)    Basis for recruitment and selections. c)    Purpose and direction of all persons. d)    None of these. 8. Operational planning is undertaken at: a)    Top- Level. b)    Lower-Level. c)    Middle- Level. d)    All of these. 9. are guides to action. a)    Strategy. b)    Planning. c)    Policies. d)    Procedures. 10.     ___________ Coordination refers to the description of the behavior and relationships of the organization. a)    Vertical. b)    Horizontal. c)    Procedural. d)    Substantive. 11.    Which among the following is not the principles of organization? a)    Unity by objectives. b)    Specialization. c)    Span of control. d)     Initiative. 12.    Which of the following is the right about authority? a)    Authority is informal. b)    Not to achieve organizational goal. c)    There is existence of right. d)    Cannot be delegated. 13.     Organizing process involves: a)    Division of work. b)    Group of identical work. c)    All of these. d)    None of these. 14.      Organizing deals with: a)    Division of work. b)    Decentralizing activities. c)    Centralization activities. 15.      Authority refers to : a)    Getting work done. b)    Right to get work done. c)    Being in a management position. d)    None of these. 16.      Principles of specialization requires: a)    Division of labor. b)    Centralization of work. c)    Decentralization of work. d)    None of these. 17.      Delegation is: a)    Getting things done by others. b)    Fixing the responsibility. c)    Assigning the work. d)    Unity of command. 18.     Accountability means: a)    Delegation. b)    Responsibility. c)    Authority. d)    Answerability. 16.4  Elements of a Unit Plan : A unit plan overarches all daily lesson plans with connections among key topics, concepts, skills, and desired outcomes. All the following elements should be considered when developing a unit plan: •    A principal purpose. •    Main topic or topics (e.g., World War II, reptiles, double-digit multiplication). •    Concepts (e.g., integrity, the Doppler effect) that unite lessons within the unit. •    Essential skills to be developed. •    Academic goals and desired outcomes. •    Academic standards that directly relate to the subject area or areas. •    Cross-curricular connections. •    Methods to make the learning relevant throughout the unit. •    Big ideas that link to additional big ideas to increase understanding. •    Past learning that links to present learning and leads to future learning. •    An understanding of students' current knowledge. •    Questions to guide thinking each day and from day to day. •    Questions based on recurring unit ideas or themes. •    Clear expectations for learning of all students. •  Vocabulary to study and focus on, with multiple exposures over time to engrain. learning •  A determination of appropriate level of proficiency to meet desired outcomes. •    Assessments for before, during, and after lessons and the overall unit. Lesson Planning (Model of Lesson Planning) A lesson plan is very useful for both class-room situation and effective teaching as a lesson plan is a detailed plan which      is      prepared      in      advance      by      the      teacher      giving      in      it      the details of learning activities. It has been rightly said, a school day must be a successive of activities and experiences of great variety and stimulation, designed to develop pupils to the maximum in the time available. This means that succession of activities and experiences necessarily depend upon a well-planned lesson. A well-planned lesson helps a teacher to develop pupils interest to the maximum in time available. Without a planned lesson plan the teaching cannot be effective. The performance of the teacher will be more effective through it. The teacher tries to put in the various steps he desires to follow in his process of teaching. That is why, learned scholars have expressed their views on the vital issues and give much stress on the value of lesson plan for successful and effective teaching. But in preparing the lesson plan, the so-called formalities should be avoided. Similarly, too much detailed description should not be encouraged. It should be flexible as well as easy. For achieving the goal, these following points should be kept in mind while preparing the lesson plan: •    The first and the foremost pre-requisite is thorough knowledge of the subject-matter. Whatever  the  teaching point,  its  concept should  be  quite clear in  the mind of the teacher. It means that the teacher must be well versed in arranging the subject or the topic he is to teach. If  the  subject  matter  is  not clear and  the  teachers mind  is clouded,  it will result  in passing out wrong information. It will also lead to “irrelevant padding” which in its turn compels a teacher to resort the unnecessary repetition. If the teacher is not thorough in the subject matter, he will not be able to restore confidence in the students and face the class-room problems with authority and dignity. The teacher should know his pupils and their needs. The knowledge of pupils, and their needs will help the teacher in knowing his pupils interest and individual attitudes. He will also be able to know the traits of different age groups. •    The next step is content analysis which means division and sub-division of teaching content into teaching units. This must be done according to the nature of the content. This content analysis must be done in a way that the constituents do not resemble separate ‘parts’ but parts of a united whole. It must be a psychological order. Then, the teacher must decide his aims and objectives of teaching. He must write these objectives in teaching of learning experience. •    The teacher uses the various techniques which are in common use, such as ‘questions and answers’, ‘Dramatic play’ ‘experiments’, ‘deductive and inductive reasoning’, ‘straight lecturing’, ‘story telling’, ‘demonstration’ etc. The ‘nature’ of the subject matter, well known, will guide the teacher to employ either of these techniques. •    The teacher has to carry on his work in the classroom. Hence, the teacher has to keep in mind the ‘physical assets’ of the school where he is to work. By physical assets is meant the resources or the limitations of the schools. • The teacher should keep in mind the and he should maintain their psychological lesson plan. purpose, aims and objectives of the lesson unity and their practicability while preparing his He should collect the successful lesson has its best possible material to practical value. The teacher make should his lesson try to find illustrative. Every it daily, note it and lay emphasis upon it in his process of teaching. Self-Check Exercise(2) 1.    Teachers should plan their monthly \ weekly and daily using the___________: a)    Teaching content higher than the child's class. b)    Foreign stuffs. c)    Indigenous toys and materials. d)    Out of the context learning material. 2.     While preparing a lesson plan on the topic " Agriculture" what will be your first step? a)    Select teaching aids. b)    Frame objectives. c)    Go through the topic many times. d)    Prepare introductory questions. 3.     The objective of the lesson plan should be: a)    Focus on the subject matter. b)    Division of available time. c)    Proper utilization of time and equipment. d)    Scopes to rectify the mistakes. 4.    Which of the following is true about lesson planning? a)    Orderly delivery of content. b)    Develop confidence in teacher. c)    Saves us from haphazard teaching. d)    All of the above. 5.    Which of the following is Not an advantage of unit planning? a)    It helps teachers in organizing time and resources available with him. b)    It helps in giving a balanced emphasis to various aspects of content. c)    It helps in designing a systematic, sequential and graded arrangement of content. d)    It helps students to manage their teaching learning experiences. 6.      The first and foremost requisite for effective lesson planning is: a)    Sincerity and dedication. b)    Knowledge of different approaches and methods of teaching. c)    Thorough knowledge of subject- matter. d)    Availability of teaching resources. 7.             Select the appropriate logical sequence of Herbartian approach of lesson plan among the following alternatives: a)    Presentation-comparision-generalization-application-introduction. b)    Introduction-comparison-presentation-generalization-application. c)    Introduction-presentation-comparison-generalization-application. d)    Generalization-comparison-presentation-application-introduction. 8.    Who was the Propounder of unit approach? a)  Jerome Bruner. b)   B.S. Bloom. c)   H.C. Morrison. d)   Ziller. 9.      In order to promote the process of cooperative learning, the teacher should: a)    Allot individual assignment to each student. b)    Assign group projects. c)    Engage students in debate & discussion. d)    Divide the class into groups of homogeneous ability. 16.5   Summary In this chapter we studied about lesson planning and its advantages. Lesson planning is a tool for the teacher in teaching- learning process. 16.6    Glossary •    Lesson Plan: a lesson plan is a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction or learning trajectory for a lesson. A daily lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide class learning. A lesson plan includes lesson objectives, anticipated problems etc. •    Unit Plan: It consist of concepts and learning goals that are taught over a period of time and are woven together, often across subject areas. 16.7  Answer to Self- Check Exercise (1) 1.    a 2. a 3. c 4. c 5. c 6. d 7. c 8. b 9. c 10. c 11. d 12. c 13. c 14. a 15. c 16. a 17. c 18. d Answer to Self- Check Exercise(2) 1.    c 2. b 3. a 4. d 5. d 6. c 7. c 8. c 9. b Answer to Self- Check Questions(3) 1.    Before- hand. 2. Well - Planned Lesson. 3. Time and Energy. 4. Equally 5.    Planning. 6. Subject- matter. 16.8  References / Suggested Readings Bussman, Hadumod (1996), Routledge Dictionary of language & Linguistics, London New York. Butzkamm, Wolfgang; Caldwell,(2009). The Bilingual Reform. A paradigm shift in foreign language teaching. Tubingen: Narr Studienbucher. Byram, Michael.(2000). "Total Physical Response". Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and learning. London: Routledge. Canale, M.; Swain, M.(1980). " Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing". Chastain, Kenneth.(1971). The Development of Modern Language Skills: Theory to Practice. Philadelphia: Centre for Curriculum Development. Cook, Vivian. (2008). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. London: Hodder Education. Decoo, Wilfried. (2001). On the Morality of Language Learning Methods. Speech. Farch, C., & Kasper, G.(1983). Strategies in Inter-language Communication. London: Longman. 16.9   Terminal Questions 1.    What is planning scheme of work? Write down its importance in teaching-learning process. 2.    Prepare a lesson plan of poem to class 8th. 3.    Write note on : (a)    Need and importance of lesson plan. (b)    Introducing a lesson plan for class 8th. UNIT -17 MODEL LESSON PLANS: PROS AND POETRY Lesson structure 17.1    Introduction 17.2    Learning objectives 17.3    Model lesson plan Essay Self-Check Exercise(1) 17.4    Lesson Plan on Poetry Self- Check Exercise (2) 17.5    Summary 17.6    Glossary 17.7    Answer to Self - Check Exercises 17.8    Reference \ Suggested Readings 17.9    Terminal Questions 17.1    Introduction: The execution of any work while activity depends upon proper planning. Planning is done for good management of teaching learning and for management. While planning we should taken into consideration : A successful classroom performance of teaching of English is the hallmark of an efficient teacher. Teacher has to theoretically plan his lesson and arrange it in a logical sequence, anticipating various situation during the lesson, making room for creating situations in the process of actual teaching employ the best method, technique, strategy or tactics to ensure smooth passage of information to the students by generating appropriate learning structures. Different methods are required for different contents and the objectives of a lesson. However, methodology apart, each teaching subject has to follow same planning pattern as given above in figure. It is the most impart activity of pre-active stage. 17.2    Learning Objective •    To understand about planning •    To learn about model of lesson planning on Essay •    Model of lesson planning on Poetry 17.3    Model Lesson Plan No. 1 Time ....... 30 minutes Class ....... VII Topic ....... Our School (Essay) Teaching Aids :   Ordinary classroom apparatus, chalk, duster, pointer, picture of school building and laboratory. Objectives : •    To enable the students to speak English clearly. •    To develop in the students the skill for writing correct English. •    To increase their power of understanding and expression. •    To increase their vocabulary. •    To enable the students to write a few lines on ‘Our School’ in simple words. Previous Knowledge Assumed :   Students probably know something about the school in which they are getting education. Previous Knowledge Testing :   The following questions will be put to test their previous knowledge. •    In which city do you live? •    How many schools are there in your city? •    In which school do you study? A chart of the school building will be shown to them and the pupil teacher will ask. What do you see in this picture? Announcement of Aim :  The last question will lead to the announcement of aim by the teacher saying, “Well students, today we shall write a composition on “Our Schools”. Presentation Matter                             Method B.B. Summary Question answer method will be adopted. The essay will be developed with the The name of our Govt. High school is Govt. School ........ High school ........ Our school is situated In Jaipur in Jaipur. There are three Three hundred hundred students in our school. There is a good Good collection of collection of books books in library. in our school library. There are twenty Twenty teachers/ teachers in our school. help of the students. What is the name of your school? Where is it situated? How many students are there in your school? What can you say about the library in your school? How many teachers are there is your school? The name of our Mr. A.C. Principal is Mr. Choudhary A.C. Choudhary. He is an M.A., M.A., M.Ed., M.Ed. We are proud of Very happy our school. We love our school. We are very happy in our school. Recapitulation Who is the principal of your school? What is his qualification? How do you feel in your school? •    What is the name of your school? •    How many students are there in your school? •    Who is the principal of your school? The pupil teacher will go round the class. He will check the note-books of students. Their mistakes will be corrected in the class-room. Applications :   Students will be asked to fill in the blanks in the given sentences, selecting suitable words out of those given in the brackets e.g. There are ..... students in our school (Three hundred) Home Work :   The students will be asked to write down a few sentences in their fair exercise books about their school. Self- Check Exercise (1) 1.    Planning means thinking about something_________. 2.    The succession of activities and experiences depend upon a _______lesson. 3.    Lesson planning saves_______ and _________. 17.4 Lesson Plan on Poetry William Wordsworth The Rainbow My heart leaps up when I behold. A Rainbow in the sky ; So was it when my life began ; So is it now I am a man ; So be it when I shall grow old, Or let me die? The child is father of the man : And I could wish my days to be Bound each to each by natural piety. Date ....... Subject : English (Poetry) Class- IXth Topic : The Rainbow Time : 35 minutes Period : IVth 202 Teaching of English General Aims : •    To enable students to appreciate the beauty, rhyme and style of the poem. •    To enable pupils to read about the poem with proper rhythm and intonation. •    To train the emotions of students. •    To develop their aesthetic sense. •    To create a love for English literature in them. Specific Aims : •    To acquaint them with the natural scene and scenery of the Rainbow. •    To enable them to know that nature is eternal, and man’s life is changeable. Teaching Materials : A picture showing the beautiful scenery and scenes of Rainbow. Previous Knowledge : The students have seen a rainbow in the sky in the rainy season. Statements of Aims : Today, we shall study a poem about the Rainbow. Presentation Introduction : The poem will be taught in one unit. •    What is this? (Showing the picture) •    Have you seen a rainbow in the sky? •    When did you see it? (Different answers) •    How do you feel? (Problematic) •    Who has composed this poem? First Model Reading :   The teacher will read the whole poem with proper expression and proper modulation of voice, with proper attention to rhyme and students will listen. Loud Reading :  Now the teacher will ask a few students to read the poem one by one aloud. The teacher will help them in reciting the poem. Comprehension Test Questions •    Seeing the rainbow in the sky, why did the poet say, “The child is the father of the man”? •    How can you say that he has great love for nature? •    What does he wish to feel when he grows old? •    What is the central idea of the poem? Appreciation : What lesson do you get from this poem? Assignment     :     The     students     will     be     asked     to     memorize     the     poem. Points to ensure in teaching practice : Teaching practice is very essential for the students or pupil teachers doing B.Ed. It is organized in different schools keep in view, the subject combination and medium of teaching. The pupil teacher must ensure the following points during their teaching practice : • They  must  know  the  school and  class  in  which  they have  to  teach  because  teaching practice is organized in different schools. • They  must  know  what has  been  taught  and what in  yet to be taught to the  classes allocated to them. •    Pupil teacher should prepare the lessons of both the teaching subjects at home, keeping in view the aims and objectives of teaching the subject as well as the topic. •    They should see carefully whether the aims and objectives of teaching subjects have been achieved or not. •    They should teach confidently in class. •    They should speak loudly so that their voice is audible to all the students of class. •    They should maintain proper discipline in the class. •    Lesson plan should be prepared by themselves. •    The pupil teacher should not stick to one place while teaching. They should more freely here and there in the class. •    They should make proper use of teaching-aid. •    They should treat amicably without any threat and punishment. •    They should be friendly with distance by keeping a proper distance. •    They should invite the subject-teachers of the school for observing their lessons. •    They should follow two way teaching learning process. •    They should follow interesting teaching methodology. •    They should use correlating links for explaining the topics. •    They should go to class after make sure that content should be clean to them. •    Objectives should be defined in behavioral terms. •    They should particular about the pronunciation and other skill of languages. •    All the lessons should be supervised and checked properly. •    They should deliver and check the home work regularly before teaching another topic. •    All the lessons should not be delivered to the same class because the teaching practice is done for the purpose of gaining variety of experiences. •    They should make the use of chalk board properly and their writing should be legible. •    They should taken into consideration the different teaching skills. •    They should be careful about spelling mistakes. •    They should use proper actions and gestures, appropriate to the topic taught. Self- Check Exercise (2) 1.    Planning emphasize the different aspects of language __________. 2.   _________ helps in keeping the teacher as well as the taught on the right path. 3.    The foremost pre-requisite is thorough knowledge of the _________. 17.5    Summary In this chapter we studied about lesson planning and its advantages. lesson planning is a tool for the teacher in teaching- learning process. 17.6    Glossary •    Lesson Plan: a lesson plan is a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction or learning trajectory for a lesson. A daily lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide class learning. A lesson plan includes lesson objectives, anticipated problems etc. •    Unit Plan: It consist of concepts and learning goals that are taught over a period of time and are woven together, often across subject areas. 17.7    Answer to Self- Check Exercise (1) 1.    Before- hand. 2. Well - Planned Lesson. 3. Time and Energy Answer to Self- Check Questions(2) 1.    Equally 2. Planning. 3. Subject- matter. 17.8    References / Suggested Readings Bussman, Hadumod (1996), Routledge Dictionary of language & Linguistics, London New York. Butzkamm, Wolfgang; Caldwell,(2009). The Bilingual Reform. A paradigm shift in foreign language teaching. Tubingen: Narr Studienbucher. Byram, Michael.(2000). "Total Physical Response". Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and learning. London: Routledge. Canale, M.; Swain, M.(1980). " Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing". Chastain, Kenneth.(1971). The Development of Modern Language Skills: Theory to Practice. Philadelphia: Centre for Curriculum Development. Cook, Vivian. (2008). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. London: Hodder Education. Decoo, Wilfried. (2001). On the Morality of Language Learning Methods. Speech. Farch, C., & Kasper, G.(1983). Strategies in Inter-language Communication. London: Longman. Hall, Graham. (2011). Exploring English Language Teaching: Language in Action. London, New York: Routledge. Howatt, A.P.R. (1984). A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Johnson, Keith & Johnson, Helen. (1999). Approach Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics: A Handbook for Language Teaching. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Joseph C, Mukalel (1998). Approaches to English language teaching. Delhi: Discovery Publishing House. Larsen- Freeman, Diane. (2000). Techniques & Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford: OUP. 17.9    Terminal Questions 1.    What is planning scheme of work? Write down its importance in teaching-learning process. 2.    Prepare a lesson plan of poem to class 8th. 3.    Write note on : (a)    Need and importance of lesson plan. (b)    Introducing a lesson plan for class 8th. UNIT -18 EVALUATION IN LANGUAGES: MEANING AND TYPES- FORMATIVE;SUMMATIVE AND DIAGNOSTIC Lesson Structure 18.1      Introduction 18.2     Learning Objectives 18.3      Evaluation Self-Check Exercise(1) 18.4     Types of Evaluation Self -Check Exercise(2) 18.5    Summary 18.6     Glossary 18.7     Answers to Self-Check Exercises 18.8    References \ Suggested Readings 18.9    Terminal Questions 18.1   Introduction Evaluation is used to judge the value or worth of a plan. Evaluation can be used in conjunction with measurement to assess pupil's or workers performance. Evaluation is a key element in pupil's performance and helps measure progress of the individual. Evaluation can determine the needs of individual pupils so that a programme suited to their level of understanding can be implemented. 18.2  Learning Objective After studying this lesson, you will be able to- •  Understand the meaning of Evaluation •  Understand types of Evaluation 18.3    Concept of Evaluation: Evaluation is the process of finding out the extent to which the desired changes in behavior (cognitive and affective) have taken place in the student. It differs from the concept of measurement in the sense that evaluation is more comprehensive. Measurement consists of rules for assigning numbers to attributes or characteristics of behavior whereas the evaluation aims at providing detailed and comprehensive meaning and interpretation to the behavioral attributes of a learner. It expresses quantitative as well as qualitative description of learners' performance. Prior to beginning of instruction, the assessment of learners' present achievement should serve the basis for selecting and formulating instructional objectives and then for planning appropriate learning experiences . During the instruction of the 'course unit', periodic assessment of learners ' achievement of the objectives in terms of testable observable behavior. The evaluation also helps the teacher to know how effective the instruction has been in helping learners to master the "instructional objectives". Effective evaluation of students' achievement with respect to accepted and planned objectives of instruction is considered an indispensable aspect of good teaching. Teachers use various evaluation procedures, viz., tests ( oral and written), practical assignments, observation, interview etc. for assessing and monitoring the progress of the students' achievement in scholastic and co-scholastic areas. These evaluation procedures and techniques have become an integral part of instructional process and thus influence students in many ways. One of the functions that evaluation serves is to enable students to determine how well they are learning and achieving. when students are aware of the learning progress, their performance will be superior to what it would have been without such knowledge. Functions of Evaluation: The ultimate objective of evaluation is to bring about qualitative improvement in education. therefore evaluation should be construed as powerful instrument for improving teaching and learning. Instead of using it mainly as a grading device, it should be used more as an effective feedback mechanism for the benefit of the learners, teachers, and parents so that timely corrective and remedial measures could be taken to ensure the minimum levels of learning laid down are attained by one and all learners. Evaluation should help in improving the organization of external examinations. Self- Check Exercise (1) 1.    The steps of evaluation approach are: a)   Change of behavior. b)   Objectives. c)    Learning Experiences. d)   All of the above. 2.    An English teacher evaluates pupil performance for: a)    Upgrading the students. b)    Motivating the students. c)    Assessing teacher's performance. d)    All of the above. 3.    Which of these is not a basic of continuous and comprehensive evaluation? a)    Social basis. b)    Philosophical basis. c)    Physiological basis. d)    Psychological basis. 4.    Which of these tests is based on a reading text in which some words are deleted? a)    Instruction test. b)    Close test. c)    Writing test. d)    Dictation. 5.      Which type of test is very useful to test the power of expression of the students? a)    Objective test. b)    Standardized test. c)    Short answer type test. d)    Essay type test. 6.     Conventional evaluation stands in contrast to the recently propounded_____ best evaluation. a)    Teacher. b)    Pupil. c) Competency. d) Objective. 7. 8. Comprehensive evaluation in teaching is a concept that focuses on: a)    The cognitive capabilities of the learners. b)    The non-cognitive abilities of the learners. c)    The entire range of learners experiences in the context of school environment. In assessment of speaking which parameter should not be there? a)    Ability to understand vocabulary. b)    Ability to understand sentence structure. c)    Ability to produce a text. d)    Ability to recognize speech sounds. 9.       The most effective tool to assess values and attitudes of learners is: a)    Unit test. b)    Portfolio. c)    Anecdotal record. d)    Summative tests. 10.    Objective type questions have advantage over essay type questions because such questions are: a)    Easy to mark. b)    Easy to administer. c)    Easy to construct. d)    None of the above. 11.       Which of the following is a technique of assessment? a)    Interview. b)    Checklist. c)    Rating-list. d)    Rubrics. 12.      To cover all course in minimum time which type of questions should be asked? a)    Short- answer type. b)    Objective type. c) d) Essay type. All. 18.4 Types of Evaluation: Formative and Summative Evaluation Formative Evaluation: It is a tool used by the teacher to continuously monitor student's progress in a nonthreatening, supportive environment. it involves regular descriptive feedback, a chance for the student to reflect on the performance, take advice and improve upon. it involves students' being an essential part of assessment from designing criteria to assessing self or peers. If used effectively it can improve student performance tremendously while raising the self esteem of the child and reducing the work load of the teacher. Main Features of Formative Evaluation •    Is diagnostic and remedial. •    Makes the provision for effective feedback. •    Provides the platform for the active involvement of students in their own learning. •    Enables teachers to adjust teaching to take account of the results of assessment. •    Recognizes the profound influence assessment has on the motivation and self-esteem of students, both of which are crucial on learning. •    Recognizes the need for students to be able to assess themselves and understand how to improve. •    Builds on students' prior knowledge and experience in designing what is taught. •    Incorporates varied learning styles into deciding how and what to teach. •  Encourages students to understand the criteria that will be used to judge their work. •  Offers an opportunity to students to improve their work after feedback. •    Helps students to support their peers, and expect to be supported by them. Formative evaluation is thus carried out during a course of instruction of providing continuous feedback to both the teachers and the learners for taking decision regarding appropriate modifications in the transactional procedures and learning activities. Summative Evaluation: It is carried out at the end of a course of learning. it measures or 'sums-up' how much a student has learned from the course. it is usually a graded test, i.e., it is marked according to a scale or a set of grades. Assessment is predominantly of summative nature will not by itself be able to yield a valid measure of the growth and development of the child. It, at best, certifies thee level of achievement only at a given point of time. The paper pencil tests are basically a one-time mode of assessment and to exclusively rely on it to decide about the development of a child is not only unfair but also unscientific. over emphasis on examination marks focusing on only scholastic aspects makes children assume that assessment is different from learning, resulting in the 'learn and forget' syndrome. Main Features of Summative Evaluation •    Assessment of learning. •    Generally taken by students at the end of a unit or semester to demonstrate the "sum" of what they have or have not learned. •    Summative assessment methods are the most traditional way of evaluating student work. Diagnostic Evaluation: it means to diagnose the students and assess the problem accurately. it provides information regarding strength and weaknesses of students. it is type of pre-evaluation that allows the teacher to discover how much knowledge a student has on a subject matter. If teacher is starting a new chapter of science in class in that case she can conduct a simple test to discover previous knowledge of child regarding the topic. Self-Check Exercise(2) 1.    Which of the following is an objective of evaluation? a)    To diagnose the weakness of learning difficulties of learners. b)    To test the achievement of the students. c)    To determine growth or changes in the behaviors of students as a result of learning. d)    All of the above. 2.    Below are given the characteristics of formative and summative evaluation. Identify the characteristics of summative evaluation. a)    Evaluation at the end of an instructional unit by comparing it against some standard. b)    The purpose is to evaluate student's achievements. c)    Monitor the learning process. d)    Evaluation during the learning process. e)    Considers evaluation as a product. f)    Purpose is to improve student's learning. 3.    Which of the following assessment procedures is conducted during an in- progress teaching learning session? a)    Summative. b)    Formative. c)    Non- Referenced. d)    Criterion- Referenced. 4.    In which of the following modes of assessment the potential for increasing intrinsic motivation is optimum? a)  Formative assessment based evaluation. b)  Computer testing based assessment. c)   Summative assessment. d)   Norm-Referenced based assessment. 5.    Which of the following types of assessment is conducted periodically with an eye on standards? a)    Formative assessment. b)  Summative assessment. c)   Portfolio assessment. d)   Performance assessment. 6.    Which of the following are features of summative assessment? a)    Highly structured formal process. b)    Ongoing and flexible evaluation which is incorporated into the lesson. c)    Evaluates the end result, not the end process. d)    Opens communication and focuses on growth, not grades. e)    Meant to evaluate the outcomes. 7.    Which of the following statement best describes "formative evaluation" in evaluation procedure? a)    A teacher awards grades to students after having transacted the course work. b)    The teacher clarifies the doubts of the students in the class itself. c)    The overall performance of student is reported to parents every six months. d)    The teacher gives marks to students in the final examination at the end of the year. 18.5  Summary Evaluation is concerned with assessing the effectiveness of teaching, teaching strategies, methods and techniques. it provides feedback to the teachers about their teaching and the learners about their learning. evaluation can be divided into 3 types namely, formative, summative, diagnostic. 18.6  Glossary •    Formative Evaluation: It is done during the programme before its completion. it focuses on the process. This evaluation gives student feedback regarding her\ his success or failure in achieving objectives. •    Diagnostic Evaluation:   It provide an explanation for the possible causes for problems in learning. Diagnostic evaluation is done at any time in the programme to pin point anything wrong in the programme. 18.7    Answer to Self- Check Exercise(1) 1.    d 2. d 3. c 4. b 5. d 6. c 7. d 8. c 9. c 10. a 11. a 12. b Answers to Self- Check Exercise(2) 1.    d 2. a , b, e 3. b 4. a 5. b 6. b, c, e 7. b 18.8    Reference \ Suggested Readings Brumfit, C.J.(1984). The Communicative Methodology in Language Teaching. Cambridge. Bhatnagar R.P. & Sharma, C.B. Teaching English Vol. 1( Kota Open University) Chomsky, Noam(1966): Topics in the Theory of Generative Grammar. The Hague, Mouton. Freeman, D.L. (2000). Techniques & Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford OUP French, F.G. (1963), Teaching English as an International Language. London, Oxford University Press. Howall A. P. R.(1984) A History of English Language Teaching, Oxford: OUP Lado, Robert:(1971).Language Teaching. New Delhi: Tata McGrow Hill Publishing House Co. Ltd. Littlewood, William. (1984) Communicative Language Teaching: An Introduction. Cambridge : cup. Mackey,Francis (1965). Language Teaching Analysis. Cambridge: CUP. Paliwal, A.K. (2000). Communicative Language Teaching. Jaipur: Surbhi Publications. Paliwal, A.K. (2006). Teaching of English. Jaipur: Kalpana Publications. Richards, Jack (2006). Communicative Language Teaching Today. USA: Cambridge University Press. Richards, Jack Rodgers, Theodore(2014). Approaches & Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Srivastava, B.D., (1968). Structural Approach to the Teaching of English, Agra. 18.9     Terminal Questions 1.    What is Evaluation? 2.    What is the difference between formative and summative evaluation? UNIT -19 IDENTIFYING COMMON ERRORS IN LANGUAGES AND METHODS OF REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION Lesson Structure 19.1    Introduction 19.2    Learning Objective 19.3    Identification of Errors; Methods of Remedial Instruction; Different Methodologies Self-Check Exercise(1) 19.4    Advantages and limitations of Remedial Instruction Self -Check Exercise(2) 19.5    Summary 19.6   Glossary 19.7   Answers to Self- Check Exercises 19.8   References \ Suggested Readings 19.9    Terminal Questions 19.1     Introduction Common grammar errors include punctuation, and syntax errors and incorrect word choices. Grammar errors often make it difficult for readers to understand a piece of writing; this is why writers should try to avoid them. The primary step to correct errors in any language is the identification of errors. identifying errors is the first step to pointing them out and ultimately correcting them. this process is called editing and is an important step in improving English skills. they can be errors regarding prepositions, conjunctions, tenses etc. The process of detecting errors in transmitted messages and reconstructing the original error -free data is known as error correction. Error correction ensures that the receiver receives corrected and error- free messages. The task of correcting various types of errors in text, such as 270 spelling, punctuation, grammatical, and word choice errors, is known as grammatical error (GEC). The most common form of GEC is a sentence correction task. 19.2    Learning Objective After studying this lesson, you will be able to- •    Understand the errors in language •    Understand the methods of remedial instruction 19.3    Identification of Errors: In correcting errors in a language, an important step is the identification of errors. identification of errors refers to picking up errors after carefully proofreading the sentences. Steps in the identification of errors: •    Carefully read the sentences provided. •    Identify and mark the errors in the sentences. •    Think about the correct alternative for the mistake. •    Write the correct word instead of the error. •    Read the corrected sentences again to confirm it is right. •    You should know how to use adverbs, adjectives, conjunctions, nouns, interjections and other parts of speech. these must be used correctly because they aid in the construction of a sentence. For instance, she is a fantastic cook. (Correct) •    Verify that the sentence is grammatically correct, with the subject agreeing with the verb. The subject- verb agreement should be present; if it not , the sentence is incorrect. It also serves as a hint for locating a mistake. •    The sentence should not have any parallelism. The various words in the sentence should all be written in the same tense to follow the same concept. Students, for example, must learn about programming, computing and how to process. (Incorrect) Programming, computing, and processing are all required of the student. (Correct) •    A modifier should come after the subject because it modifies the subject. If the modifiers come before the subject, the sentence may be incorrect.           Example: Jai rescued the puppy from the mud. (Incorrect) Jai rescued the puppy, which was smothered in mud. ( Correct) 5. There must be no repetition or redundancy in the sentence. Example: He'll back the following week. ( Incorrect) He'll be back the following week. ( Correct) Identification of Errors Examples: Some examples of identification of errors, i.e., how to locate errors in a sentence and change them according to the correct grammar rules. •    Pulses are a rich source in protein. Correction: Pulses are a rich source of protein. •  I go to school every day through the bus. Correction: I go to school every day by bus. •  I read your book, but i had not understand it. Correction: I read your book, but I could not understand it. •  The sun is up lets pack our bags. Correction: The sun is up, let's pack our bags. •  We all saw it the cat catch the yarn ball. Correction: We all saw it, the cat caught the yarn ball. •  It is raining cats and dogs. ( Correction): It is raining cats and dogs. •  Tom is the tall kid in his class. (Correction): Tom is the tallest kid in his class. •  She packed her lunch, it was only a apple. ( Correction): She packed her lunch, it was only an apple. •  Can you make few coffee for me? ( Correction): Can you make some coffee for me? •    Man is the social animal. (Correction): Man is a social animal. Mastering the English language also means polishing your skills of identifying and correcting errors and reducing your errors to a minimum. This requires a good eye for identifying errors, a learned mind to remember the grammar rules, and correcting the errors. Remember to proofread the sentence carefully, as identifying errors is the most important rule. Methods of Remedial Instruction Remedial instruction is meant to improve a learning skill or rectify a problem area. It can help struggling learners to shore up their skills. This extra support can help them to reach up to their peers. Remedial instruction might be taught individually or in groups and target s academic weakness that may hinder learning. The objective of remedial instruction is to support those students who lag far behind their peers in academic performance or basic academic skills. Diagnosis of Problem\ Error Diagnosis has an important role in teaching process. Learning process will be incomplete without diagnosis of pupil's strength, weakness, errors and requirements. No new learning will take place until wrong learning has been cancelled and corrected in a particular area of learning. The appropriate strategy can be designed as per the types of errors which have to be dealt with. They need to be classified as different groups as all the individual errors can be dealt in general, not in particular as it takes too much time. There can be many possible reasons behind the poor performance of students. It can be academic or sometimes even personal. It is not very difficult for experienced teachers to identify the issues and the students who need remedial instruction. Frequent absence or attention issues can often lead to poor academic performance. Some physical problems or behavioral issues may also lead to weak performance in academic skills. There are many students who have poor memory, lack of confidence, motivation, and difficulty in understanding new concepts. thus weak comprehensive power and short span of attention may also lead to weak academic performance. Another possible cause of poor performance in learning can be due to interference from concepts that previously learnt or over generalization on the basis of previous learning. So, suitable strategy of remediation can be decided by the types of errors which have to be dealt with. Thus diagnosis of problem is an important factor in remedial instruction. Individual Differences Effective remediation considers individual difference in learning. Each pupil has his own style of learning with his own strengths and weaknesses. Students may encounter different problems in their studies, so the instructors should carefully notice their performance and support them with proper assistance. Some students are good in visual learning whereas some are better in task- based activities. There are students who are competent in audio learning while there are many students who prefer to learn through games. There may be slow learners, average or fast learners in a mixed ability classroom. Different Methodologies There are many approaches or methods which can be adopted in remedial teaching. •    Separate classroom for the low performers: Separate classroom for low performing students can be formed to support weak students. Students would return to their regular classroom with their peers, once they achieved the required proficiency. •    Peer Tutoring: Peer tutoring may also be an affordable option that can benefit all involved. As the plan of the instructor, bright students can help their peers during their free time. •  One-to-One Tutoring: One - to -One tutoring by the teachers during their school\college time may help pupils to overcome their difficulties in learning. Here, teachers can allot their free time , an hour weekly for poor performers. •    Computer Assisted Learning: As it is the world of technology, children are more motivated by learning application which are easily available to them. New generation feel more comfortable with these apps which can easily motivate them and thereby enhance learning process. Now-a-days, students feel comfortable in virtual world. •    Team Work\ Group Work: Let weaker students work in mixed group with other children who are better in studies. Bright ones can support the weak students even while doing tasks in group. This can be applied in regular classes daily. •    Private Tuitions: It is important to acknowledge that private tutoring, meaning instruction that is delivered for profit, has become a thriving business in developing countries and it can contribute to the increase of social inequalities. One of the major problems in private tutoring is a phenomenon that is propagating inequality in education since poor families who cannot afford private tutors to prepare their children for exams; they will likely to have low scores in exams. However, private tutoring has also been widely used as remedial strategy and while it can be effective in improving academic achievement and reducing main stream teacher's workload. Self- Check Exercise(1) 1.    Remedial teaching involves: a)    Improvement of learning skills. b)    Rectifying a problem. c)    Either a or b. d)    Neither a or b. 2.    Remedial teaching is designed keeping in mind: a)    Each student's strength. b)    Each student's weakness. c)    Each student's strength and weakness. d)    None of the above. 3.      Remedial teaching is a: a)    Preparation of teaching. b)    Pre-teaching program. c)    Random process. d)    Systematic process. 4.      The purpose of remedial teaching is to: a)    Introduce new language items. b)    Test recently taught items. c)    Teach again the language not properly learnt. d)    Teach again the language items already learnt. 5. Remedial teaching does not includes: a)    Providing instructional corrections. b)    It is a process of removing the pupils' learning distortions. c)    It is the next natural step carried out after diagnostic testing. d)    All are the features of remedial classes. 6.     The students in remedial teaching have some difficulties. which is not included in these difficulties: a)    Poor memorization potential. b)    Low level of comprehension. c)    Lack of motivation towards learning. d)    All are included. 7.      Remedial teaching strategy is: a)    Each and every student has some learning difficulties. b)    Every student has some errors in his learning. c)    Each child can learn to achieve. d)    All of these. 19.4 Advantages and limitations of Remedial Instruction: Students who lack basic skills and general knowledge will be benefitted from remediation. Students, who are absent for a short period, may also benefit from it. It can take care of individual differences. For instance, pupils who are shy due to lack of confidence and the students who suffer from speech disorders may have trouble with communication skills. Remediation may help these students to overcome these issues and finally they become academically proficient. Thus, teaching remedial activities will support the students to gain knowledge and basic skills that can be applied to all subject areas and reduce feelings of inadequacy that lead to behavioral and motivational issues. In short, remedial instruction aims at helping students to provide a strong foundation for subject learning. It evaluates the learning of students and the progress of academic performance in learning process. Limitations: Even though remediation helps weak students to gain the skills necessary to excel in their studies, a large number of reasons are stacked against it. Some students in the remediation class also struggle with the thought that they are perceived as stupid, so separate class for weak students can't be much supported or recommended for remedial classes as it may lead to more harmful effect. Remediation may be harmful because it increases the number of requirements and lengthens the time it takes to graduate which aggregate may lower the likelihood of degree completion. Self -Check Exercise (2) 1.I f a student failed in English a number of times, then to know in which particular area he is weak, which of the following methods will be used? a)    Written work. b)    Oral work. c)    Diagnostic method. d)    Remedial method. 2.    Remedial Teaching pays greater attention to students who a)    Are proficient in English. b)    Are likely to go abroad. c)    Have fallen behind others. d)    Are irregular in attending classes. 3.    In remedial teaching syllabus should be based on a)    The teacher's impression of language difficulties. b)    Students interest in language learning. c)    An analysis of errors made by learners. d)    An analysis of the future needs of the learners. 4.    In remedial teaching concentration on trouble spot is best done by a)  Arranging intensive practice. b) Arranging medicine. c)  Arranging trouble. d) Arranging bubble spot. 5.    Remedial work for spoken English involves a)    Drill and studying. b)    Revision, drill, situation, communication practicing and reviewing. c)    Going through situational practice. d)    Revision & practice. 6.    A diagnostic test in English will help the language teacher to identify a)    Intelligent learners in the class. b)    Slow learners in the class. c)    Learning difficulties in the learner faces in English. d)    The topic which the learner has not learnt by heart. 19.5    Summary In this chapter we studied about identifying common errors in English and remedial teaching. Remedial instruction is meant to improve a learning skill or rectify a problem area. It can help struggling learners to shore up their skills. This extra support can help them to reach up to their peers. Remedial instruction might be taught individually or in groups and target s academic weakness that may hinder learning. The objective of remedial instruction is to support those students who lag far behind their peers in academic performance or basic academic skills. 19.6    Glossary •    Common Grammar Errors: It include punctuation, and syntax errors and incorrect word choices. •    Error correction: It ensures that the receiver receives corrected and error- free messages. •    Remedial instruction: It is meant to improve a learning skill or rectify a problem area. 9.7 Answer to Self- Check Exercise(1) 1.    c 2. c 3. d 4. c 5. d 6. d 7. c Answer to Self- Check Exercise (2) 1.    c 2. c 3. c 4. a 5. b 6. c 19.8    References \ Suggested Readings Aggarwal, J.C. (2008). Principles, Methods & Techniques of Teaching. UP: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Bansal, R.K. & Harrison, J.B.(1972) Spoken English for India. Madras: Orient Longman Ltd. Benet, W.A.(1969). Aspects of Language and Language Teaching. London: Cambridge University Press. Gimson, A.C.(1980) An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English. London : Edward Arnold. Chomsky, N.(1975). Reflections on Language. New York. Pantheon Books. Crystal, D.(2004). The Language Revolution. Cambridge; Malden, M.AS: Polity Press. Dhand, H.(2009). Techniques of Teaching. New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation. Hornby, A.S.(1968). The Teaching of Structural Words & Sentence Patterns. London: Oxford University Press. Chauhan, S.S. (2009). Innovations in Teaching Learning Process. UP: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Krishnaswamy, N. (1995). Teaching English Grammar. Chennai. T.R. Publication. Sharma, R.N. (2008). Contemporary Teaching of English. Delhi : Surjeet Publications. Wright, A.(1977). Visual Material for the Language Teacher. London: Longman. 19.9     Terminal Questions 1.    What is Remedial Instruction? what are the advantages and limitations of remedial instruction methods? 2.    What are the common errors in language? UNIT -20 CONTINUOUS AND COMPREHENSIVE EVALUATION IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING Structure 20.1    Introduction 20.2    Learning Objectives 20.3    Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation; Concept of Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation Self-Check Exercise(1) 20.4    Unit approach in Teaching and Testing Self-Check Exercise (2) 20.5    Summary 20.6    Glossary 20.7    Answers to Self- Check Exercises 20.8    References / Suggested Readings 20.9    Terminal Questions 20.1    Introduction The process of teaching learning has been going on but its outcomes have not been very effective. Tests and exanimations have been conducted but very good results have not been seen. Evaluation which is a broader term than tests and examinations is expected to serve the purpose. English language teaching needs better application of evaluation. That is likely to improve the teaching learning process. In evaluation, the work of the students is assessed continuously. All round assessment of the learners is made throughout the year. It involves objectives of teaching, methods to achieve them and then finding out how far they have been achieved. The ultimate objectives of language teaching are comprehension and expression. The four skills of language learning i.e. listening, speaking, reading and Writing ultimately achieve these objectives. Evaluation certainly aims at improving the abilities in the acquisition of four skills. 20.2    Learning Objective After studying this lesson, you will be able to – •    Understand the meaning of Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation •    Understand the unit approach in teaching and testing •  Know the merits and demerits 20.3  Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation External examinations, as a technique of evaluation have failed to meet the desired ends. Let us see how far the technique of continuous comprehensive evaluation will be useful. Evaluation is continuous and comprehensive. When we have it fully internal without the help of the external agencies, it is called internal Evaluation. In that case, the teachers preparing the students in the class rooms are to judge fully and finally the performance of their own students. All types of achievements of the students scholastic and non-scholastic are evaluated continuously for the whole session The whole retard of the student is maintained properly in the cumulative record register and on that basis, pass or fail of a student is determined by the teaching personnel’s of the school. Continuous comprehensive internal evaluation is different from internal assessment. In case of internal assessment, external examination and its fears hang like a sword in the minds of the learners as well as the teachers. Internal assessment is just a part of external examination. Some might argue that in internal assessment our educational institution good experiences and that way internal evaluation may not prove a farce. Continuous comprehensive internal evaluation seems to be the all the ills that are being faced through the process of traditional examinations. It is high time that we make evaluation an integral par total teaching learning process. That way our testing will comprehensive as it will take care of all the three domains for all development of the !earner in both the scholastic and the non-se areas. The current system of giving divisions in the examinations and thus classifying the learners into classes should go. It should give place tests which should be administered regularly to judge overall per of the child in the light of objectives fixed up. Concept of Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation 1.    Objective Based: Objectives of teaching English are framed in the light of environment of the child which includes social, political, national and economic aspects of life. Those objectives naturally include scholastic and non-scholastic areas. Through continuous evaluation judgement made continuously. The objective and the efforts to those objectives remain in the process of review and revision till the ends are achieved. Comprehensive: Evaluation is comprehensive in the sense that the overall per of the child is assessed. In all spheres of life learner’s acquisition skills of language learning i.e. listening, speaking, reading and writing are taken care of in evaluation. Continuous: Continuous evaluation helps the teachers in knowing about their side by side and so the improve accordingly. The learners also come to know their deficiency, with regard to different things and thus they can the same by taking proper guidance and making more efforts. Need: The need of the times is to make evaluation an integral part of teaching learning process. Testing should also be comprehensive so that all the three domains for all round development of the learner in scholastic and the non-scholastic areas are fully covered. Unlike the traditional system of testing which takes into consideration only the academic side evaluation aims at testing all the aspects of the personality of the learners. I.     Evaluation of Scholastic Achievement In order to evaluate the scholastic achievement of a student the following tools which supplement each other will be used: (A)   Written Examination: Written examination includes questions of essay type, short answer type and objective type. •     Essay type tests have low valid- and reliability but still we cannot dispense with them. We need them for measuring the essential skills such as application of knowledge solution of problems expression etc. •     Short answer type tests have more validity and reliability as compared to essay type. So those will be used. •     Objective type or New type Tests are still more reliable. They are comprehensive, easy to score and less time consuming. By using these we can measure the ability to organize knowledge, express things and narrate facts All the three i.e. essay type, short answer type and objective type tests supplement each other (B)    Oral Test: These are used for testing skills which are not tested by «Titter tests. For example, pronunciation, speed and accuracy of reading a book, comprehension and verbal expression, reciting a poem, answering questions orally etc. All these are possible through oral tests. Formal tests, interview, observation may also be used. II.     Evaluation of the Session work done by a student Session work done by a student is also important. Apart from written and oral examinations, session work is also to be assessed. Assessment of session work includes the following •    Home assignment done by the student •    Impression of the teacher formed on the basis of class discussions etc. •    Use of library •    Practical work done in language laboratory. III.    Evaluation of Personality and Character Development Education helps in the over-all development of a person. So the different traits of personality and character of an individual should be assessed. The different traits are expressed by an individual in day to day's behavior. The teacher should record the behavior of a student inside the class room and outside the class room, in the library, in the laboratory, in the playground in the field of other activities etc. It can be better done in the following ways: •    The pupils diary which he himself maintains should be assessed. •    Assessment of the diary maintained by the teacher for recording the behavior of the students be made, •    Personality test may be given from time to time. IV.    Evaluation of the Social Development of the Pupils Through education the social aspect of an individual is developed. The teacher is expected to test the sociability of even' pupil. It can be done in the following ways: •    The teacher takes into consideration the work being done by a student daily, his participation in games, social service, cleanliness etc. •    Proficiency in various co-curricular activities should be seen. For this a five point scale may be prepared. A variety of opportunities may be provided to the students in which they may freely display their qualities like sociability, cooperation, sympathetic attitude, self-help etc. V.    Evaluation of the Physical Development Education helps in the development of good health and right habits. The pupil is able to develop himself physically. It is the duty of the teacher that he should assess the physical development of the pupils from time to time. He should my to diagnose the disabilities, Physical handicaps etc. with the assistance of school doctor and help in the immediate cure. Programme for assessing the physical development will be as under: •    A doctor should be engaged in the school for part time or full time duty. •    Arrangements be made for physico-medical test after even 3 or 4 months. •    A record of medical check-up should be kept. Remedial measures accordingly should be used. •    Students’ participation iii games and athletics should be recorded. •    Physical efficiency of each pupil should be measured by using a rating scale. Self- Check Exercise (1) 1.    The purpose of the evaluation is to make? a)    Decision. b)    Prediction. c)    Judgement. d)    Opinion. 2.    Which test is designed to predict future performance? a)    Intelligence test. b)    Achievement test. c)    Diagnostic test. d)    Aptitude test. 3.     Evaluation is process of: a)    Assigning number to a given trait. b)    Making value judgement of student's learning. c)    Making value judgement of institutions, program or project. d)    Making value judgement of teacher's performance. 4.     An _________ assessment are one which measures what it is intended to measure. a)    Valid. b)    Reliable. c)    Economical. d)    Unreliable. 5.     Extended response type & restricted response type questions are the type of: a)    Essay type test. b)    Multiple choice test. c)    Matching type test. d)    Short answer type test. 6.      Frequently used tools of summative evaluation are? a)    Test. b)    Teacher observation. c)    Daily assignment. d)    None. 7.    A formal and systematic procedure of getting information is? a)    Test. b)    Measurement. c)    Assessment. d)    Evaluation. 8.     The process of obtaining numerical value is? a)    Test. b)    Measurement. c)    Assessment. d)    Evaluation. 9.      The first step in measurement is? a)    Decision of what to measure. b)    Development of the test. c)    Administering the test. d)    None. 10.     Vast of all in scope? a)    Test. b)    Measurement. c)    Assessment. d)    Evaluation. 11.    In which question marking will be more reliable? a)    Completion. b)  Short answer. c)  Multi- choice question. d)    Essay. 12.    Test involving the construction of certain patterns are called: a)    Intelligence test. b)    Performance test. c)    Scholastic test. d)    None. 20.4 Unit Approach in Teaching and Testing To make the programme of continuous and comprehensive evaluation a success, unit approach in teaching and testing will hold good. The whole of the syllabus which is to be covered in the whole of the year is divided into some units. Each tout consists of material which is almost of similar type. The total duration of the academic session is also divided into some parts-say a unit of syllabus for even- month or for two weeks or three weeks. Thus teaching is done for the syllabus given in the unit and after covering that much of the syllabus, test is given to the learners out of the syllabus marked for that unit. This hype of approach is called trait approach. Unlike traditional testing at the end of the year, unit teaching and unit testing make the instructional work more meaningful. The teacher is able to do justice to his duty of teaching. The learners are also able to prepare well. This approach does not allow the teacher or the students to skip over certain portions of the syllabus. Unit approach is bound to make the continuous and comprehensive progrannme of evaluation a success. Making Evaluation Programme a Success Here below are suggested a few steps which will help in making evaluation all successful: •    Continuous comprehensive evaluation can be made successful if UNIT APPROACH is adopted in teaching and testing. In milt approach, a block of closely related subject matter is taught and thereafter, a test is given to the students. It gives continuous feed-back to both the teacher and the taught. So they can improve accordingly. •    Head of the institutions and the teaching staff should be trained for the purpose of internal evaluation. This -fob may be entrusted to DIETS set up in different districts. The DIETS should work in collaboration with teacher training colleges, SCERT and N.C.E.R.T. •  Different criteria may be fixed up for different items. Accordingly assessment of the learners should be made. •  In each institution, moderation committees be set up with the Head of the institution as its chairman. Thus all assessment should be subject to the review of the moderation committee. •  Tuition work on the part of the teachers should be banned completely. •  Any type of evil if spreads anywhere in the institutions, be taken up seriously with strict action against the defaulter. The policy should be to nip the evil in the bud. Merits •    Ever teacher knows well about his students. Whatever may be the subject or area of study, only the teacher teaching in the class rooms daily can judge the performance of his students fully and thoroughly. Assessment made by the teacher will naturally be more satisfying and correct. •    All the students studying for different courses will become regular and punctual. They will try to do their home assignments and class work to the entire satisfaction of all concerned. •    The problem of indiscipline will remain subsided. •   Obedience and proper regards for the teacher will revive. It will result into very good academic and homely environment where teachers will be able to imbibe good qualities in the students. •    Erosion of values is a big problem in the youths of today. The main reason behind is fast deteriorating environment all around. It will become easy for the teachers to reinstate all the good things of the past. •   Problems like mass copying in the examination will stand ended. When there will be no traditional type of examinations, problems related to that will stand automatically solved. •    The job of administrator in educational institutions which is now considered a big challenge, will become respectable and alluring. •    The non-academic type of problems will be reduced considerably. •    Unlike the present set up of school/college life where students care for academic development only, the students in the newly created environment will start caring for the total personality. They will give equal importance to games, cultural activities, other curricular activities etc. Thus they will be able to have all round development of personalities. Demerits •    Shirk workers in the teaching profession who are there due to some compulsions of life may not work and the standards in their hands may go down. •    Bad things like bribery may increase in number and intensity. Merits and demerits of everything are always there. Putting things rightly in their tale spirit depends considerably upon the Head of the institution. If the staff members in the institutions work as a team and do everything in true spirit with honesty, sincerity and hard-work, internal evaluation will improve everything from almost every angle. Some people might say that when teachers and the education system have already failed to a greater extent in the case of internal assessment. it is no wisdom to entrust those very teachers with the total teaching learning situation where pass or failure of the students will be determined by their own teachers. That is a poor thinking on the part of people which might be there due to some other reasons like jealousy or some personal conflicts. Let the teacher be entrusted with the job of internal evaluators with all good faith and confidence. When the authorities show all faith in them, they will certainly repose their faith in it and come up to the expectations of all concerned with. Self- Check Exercise(2) 1.    Which one of the following is the most effective method for the success of continuous and comprehensive evaluation? a)    Conducting assessment at the beginning of and end of the session. b)    Using variety of ways to assess children over a period of time. c)    Giving written tests to children periodically. d)    Having only multiple choice questions in tests. 2.    Which of the following statement is incorrect about the CCE? a)    It is a school based evaluation. b)    It includes all aspects of students. c)    Diagnostic evaluation is not included in it. d)    Both formal and informal techniques are used for it. 3.    Which of the following is the basic nature of continuous comprehensive evaluation? a)    To declare pass or fail. b)    To give certificate. c)    To facilitate student's progress. 4.    CCE is essential for a)    Diluting and accountability of the board of education. b)    Correcting less- frequent errors more than more- frequent errors. c)    Understanding how learning can be observed, recoded and improved upon. d)    Fine tuning of test with the teaching. 5.    The objective of CCE type of evaluation is to a)    Develop cognitive, psychomotor and affective skills. b)    Help to memorize more study materials quickly. c)    Help to develop skills to memorize. d)    None of the above. 6.    Which of the following is the best method to evaluate the achievement of students? a)    Continuous evaluation. b)    Annual Evaluation. c)    Quarterly Evaluation. d)    None of the above. 7.    According to CCE the correct method of assessment during the teaching process is a)    To move summative assessment to formative assessment. b)    To reduce the efficiency of assessment. c)    To reduce the importance of assessment to simplify the teaching process. d)    Not giving any importance to the assessment in the progress card. 5    Summary CCE is a continuous in nature that is assessing the students throughout the year. and is also comprehensive which means assessing the child other than scholastic approach. So CCE assess the student's overall performance in the school related to its scholastic and co- scholastic areas such as dance, drawing, drama, creative education, art, etc. Make the entire education process a student-centric activity. 6    Glossary •    Continuous: Regular and continuous activities conducted throughout the year. •    Comprehensive: Mental, emotional and physical aspects of the students progress including all round development. •    Evaluation: Variety of tools and techniques are used to assess and evaluate the student's progress. 7 Answer to Self- Check Exercise(1) 1.    c 2. d 3. b 4. a 5. a 6. a 7. a 8. b 9. a 10. d 11. c 12 b Answers to Self-Check Exercise (2) 1.    b2. c3. c 4. c 5. a 6. c7. a. Reference \ Suggested Readings r, Jeremy.(2001). The Practice of English Language. sex: Pearson Education Ltd. Howatt, A.P.R. (1984). A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Joseph, C. Mukalel(1998). Approaches to English Teaching. Delhi: Discovery Publishing House. Krause, C.A. (1916). The Direct Method in Modern Languages, New York. avadivelu, B.(2006). Understanding Language Teaching. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum. Larsen- Freeman, Diane. (2000). Techniques and Princiles in Language Teaching. Oxford University Press. Markee, Numa. (1997). Managing curricular innovation. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. Mitchell Rosamond . (1988). Communicative Language Teaching in Practice. Great Britain: Centre for Information on ge Teaching and Research. j, G. (2005). English Language Teaching: Approaches, Methods, Techniques. Hyderabad: Orient Longman Pvt. Ltd. , D. (1991). Communicative Tasks and the Language Curriculum Tesol Quarterly. Padmavat, N.( 2012). Methods & Approaches of Teaching English as a Second Language in India. ELT Weekly. Ridge, Elaine (1992). " Communicative Language Teaching: Time for Review". Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics. Rivers, Wilga M.(1981). Teaching Foreign Language Skills. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. erminal Questions 1. What do you mean by continuous and comprehensive evaluation? 2.    Write down the merits and demerits of the continuous and comprehensive evaluation? 298