--- title: "Vol 1 0" book: "Plag Pedagogy of languages 206" category: "General" publisher: "Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd." type: "Educational Material" --- According to Latest Syllabus Read For Sure Success In University Examination RATAN TEXT BOOK PEDAGOGY OF LANGUAGES Vol-1 M.A.Education (Sem-IV) Dr. Vandna Tyagi Published by Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd. 2nd Floor, Centre Plaza, Parinay Kunj, Lajpat Kunj Marg, Agra-282002 Copyright Authors & Publishers Published by Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd. 2nd Floor, Centre Plaza, Parinay Kunj, Lajpat Kunj Marg, Agra-282002 ISBN :978-93-0970-863-3 Price 222.00 only Printed at : KIDS INTERNATIONAL PVT. LTD. C-60, 61, 62, 63, EPIP, Shastripuram, Agra - 282007 Ph. : +91 9719004921 UNIT-1 Meaning and Functions of Teaching Languages Structure 1.1         Introduction 1.2        Objectives 1.3        Meaning of language Self- Check Exercise (1) 1.4        Functions of Language Self- Check Exercise (2) 1.5       Summary 1.6        Glossary 1.7        Answers to Self- Check Exercises 1.8        References\ Suggested Readings 1.9        Terminal Questions 1.1 Introduction Human beings have the remarkable ability to communicate with one another, allowing us to share knowledge, beliefs, opinions, desires, warnings, commands, gratitude, promises, declarations, and emotions—limited only by our imagination. We express ourselves in various ways: laughter can convey amusement, joy, or even disrespect; a smile can indicate pleasure, approval, or bitterness; a shriek may signal anger, excitement, or fear; clenched fists can express determination, anger, or a threat; and raised eyebrows might suggest surprise or disapproval. However, our primary mode of communication is language. This book will explore language in depth, but as an initial definition, language can be described as a system of communication that relies on words and their combination into sentences. Communication through language is known as linguistic communication, whereas other forms—such as laughing, smiling, shrieking, or gesturing—fall under nonlinguistic communication. While many non-human species exchange information, none possess a communication system as complex as human language. Most animals rely on non-linguistic means similar to our facial expressions, gestures, or vocalizations. For instance, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans communicate through different shrieks, facial expressions, and hand or arm gestures, but they lack words and sentences. Bees, through specific movement patterns, can inform their hive about the location of honey, yet their communication appears limited beyond that. Birds sing various songs, primarily to defend their territory or attract a mate. While these forms of communication serve essential functions, they do not match the complexity and versatility of human language. 1.2        Objectives After going through this lesson, you will be able to: >      Define Language >      Explain the Functions of Language 1.3    Meaning of Language Language is the most important aspect in the life of all beings. We use language to express inner thoughts and emotions, make sense of complex and abstract thought, to learn to communicate with others, to fulfill our wants and needs, as well as to establish rules and maintain our culture. Language may be defined as verbal, physical, biologically innate, and a basic form of communication. When we define language we have to be careful not to exclude symbols, gestures, or motions. This is because if we exclude these from our definition, we will be denying the language of the deaf community. All human languages share basic characteristics, some of which are organizational rules and infinite generativity. Infinite Generativity is an ability to produce an infinite number of sentences using a limited set of rules and words. A system for communicating. Written languages use symbols (that is, characters) to build words. The entire set of words is the language's vocabulary. The ways in which the words can be meaningfully combined is defined by the language's syntax and grammar. The actual meaning of words and combinations of words is defined by the language's semantics. Self-Check Exercise (1) 1.    The study of the way where sequences of words are ordered into phrases, clauses & sentences is called: a)    Phonology. b)    Morphology. c)    Syntax. d)    Semantics. 2.    The study of elementary speech sounds is called: a)    Phonology,. b)    Morphology. c)    Syntax. d)    Semantics. 3.     The old term used to designate the study of language is called:. a)    Philology. b)    Haplology. c)    Phonology. d)    Semi logy. 4.     Which is not a branch of linguistics? a)    Phonology. b)    Morphology. c)    Semantics. d)    Philology. 5.      Which among of the following is not an aim of linguistics? a)    To study the nature of language. b)    To establish a theory of language. c)    To profound stories of the origin of language. d)    To describe a language & all languages. 6.    Which among the following does not constitute the scientific nature of linguistics? a)    Systemic gathering & analysis of data. b)    Determination of causal relationship between facts. c)    Chronological presentation of data. d)    Verification, verification & generalization. 1.4     Function of Language Language as a Means of Expression Verbal communication allows us to meet various needs by expressing ourselves. We use it to ask questions, seek information, and describe people, objects, and ideas. Language enables us to inform, persuade, and entertain—three key purposes of public speaking. It also plays a crucial role in forming and maintaining personal relationships. At its core, language is expressive, helping us convey observations, thoughts, feelings, and needs. Expressing Observations When we share observations, we report sensory experiences without making judgments or drawing conclusions. A prime example is eyewitness testimony, where witnesses must relay only what they saw, heard, or experienced without adding interpretations. For instance, a witness might say, “I saw a white Mitsubishi Eclipse leaving my neighbor’s house at 10:30 pm.” Expressing Thoughts Expressing thoughts involves drawing conclusions based on our experiences. This process is similar to interpreting information, where we assess observations and assign meaning to them. Our thoughts are shaped by beliefs (what we consider true or false), attitudes (what we like or dislike), and values (what we perceive as right or wrong). In a courtroom, jurors analyze observations to form thoughts, such as: “The neighbor who saw the car leaving the crime scene seemed credible, and the defendant’s past is questionable—I think he’s hiding something.” Sometimes, people mistakenly express thoughts as feelings. For example, saying, “I feel like you’re too strict with your attendance policy,” is not actually expressing an emotion but rather making a judgment about someone’s behavior. Expressing Feelings When we express feelings, we communicate emotions. This aspect of verbal communication can be complex due to social norms that dictate when, where, and how emotions should be expressed. Cultural factors, age, and gender influence these norms. For example, young children tend to express emotions freely, while older boys are often socialized to show emotional restraint. While individual differences exist, societal expectations generally encourage women to be more emotionally expressive than men. Expressing Needs Expressing needs helps us achieve goals by communicating what is necessary for us. Since others may not always be aware of our needs, it is essential to articulate them clearly. This can be crucial in professional settings or personal relationships. Failing to communicate needs may lead to frustration, resentment, or misunderstandings. For instance, instead of vaguely saying, “I think we’re moving too fast in our relationship,” a more effective approach would be, “I need some time to reconnect with my hometown friends this weekend. Would you be okay with me going home alone?” It’s also important to avoid expressing needs in a way that includes judgment or evaluation. Saying, “I need you to stop suffocating me!” conveys more of a thought-feeling mixture rather than a clear need. Language as a Tool for Relationships Verbal communication is essential in forming, maintaining, and ending relationships. Our initial conversations with potential friends or romantic partners help us determine whether to pursue a connection. Once relationships are established, we use language to reinforce emotional bonds and check in with others. Conversely, verbal communication also plays a role in ending relationships when negative feelings persist or other circumstances arise. Language as Action (Performative Language) Some forms of language go beyond conveying information and function as actions. Statements like “I promise,” “I guarantee,” or “I pledge” communicate commitment and intent rather than just meaning. These types of utterances, known as commissives, indicate that the speaker is bound to a certain course of action. Some verbal expressions hold official weight—saying “I do” can signify entering a legal or religious marriage, taking an oath in court, or assuming an official position. In the right context and in front of the appropriate authority, these words carry obligations that may have legal or social consequences. Thus, language is far more than just words—it has the power to create reality. Language as a Means of Control While the word control often has a negative connotation, it can be used in both positive and neutral ways. Verbal communication can reward and reinforce positive behaviors through praise and encouragement. Conversely, it can also be withheld or used in critical or aggressive ways as a form of negative reinforcement. Self- Check Exercise (2) 1.    Which of the following is not a criteria of listening? a)    Recognizing words. b)    Recognizing stress, rhythm, tone and intonation. c)    Avoiding distractions. d)    Being attentive but avoiding eye contact. 2.    Henry Sweet defines language as: a)    Expression of thoughts by means of written symbols. b)    Expression of thoughts by means of speech sound. c)    Inborn capacity to understand language. d)    All of the above. 3.    We use language for communicating_________. a)    Ideas. b)    Requests, orders and promises. c)    Information. d)    All of the above. 4.    Human beings can talk about their present, past & future. This property of language is called________________ a)    Displacement. b)    Cultural Transmitting. c)    Voluntarily. d)    Social Phenomenon. 5.    Language has two layers called: a)    Meaning & Idea. b)    Meaning & Spelling. c)    Meaning & Sound. d)    Sound & Spelling. 6.    Interactional function of language involves: a)    Only me. b)    Only you. c)    You & me. d)    None. 1.5    Summary In this lesson we learned about language, function of language, principles of language objectives of language. Language a body of words and the systems for their use common to all people who are of the same community or nation, the same geographical area or the same cultural traditions. 1.6    Glossary •  Communication: The act of sharing and exchanging information, ideas or feelings. •  Generativity: It is the ability to produce an infinite number of sentences using a limited set of rules and words. 1.7    Answers to Self- Check Exercise (1) 1 .c 2. a 3 a 4 d 5 c 6 c Answers to Self-Check Exercise (2) 1.    d 2. b 3. d. 4.a 5. c 6. 1.8    References\ Suggested Readings Short, D., Himmel, J., Gutierrez, S., & Hudec, J. (2012). Using the SIOP Model: Professional development for sheltered instruction. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Echevarria, J., Vogt, M.E., & Short, D. (2010). The SIOP Model for teaching mathematics to English learners. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Echevarria, J., & Short, D. (2011). The SIOP Model: A professional development framework for a comprehensive schoolwide intervention. Center for Research on the Educational Achievement and Teaching of English Language Learners (CREATE) Brief. http://www.cal.org/create/resources/pubs/professional-development-framework.html Himmel, J., Short, D., Richards, C., & Echevarria, J. (2009). Using the SIOP Model to improve middle school science instruction. Center for Research on the Educational Achievement and Teaching of English Language Learners (CREATE) Brief. http://www.cal.org/create/resources/pubs/siopscience.html 1.9    Terminal Questions: 1.    What do you understand by language? 2.    What are the different functions of language? UNIT-2 Principles and Objectives of Teaching Languages Structure 2.1     Introduction 2.2    Objectives 2.3    Principles of language Self- Check Exercise (1) 2.4    Objectives of Language Self- check Exercise (2) 2.5   Summary 2.6    Glossary 2.7    Answers to Self- Check Exercises 2.8    References\ Suggested Readings 2.9    Terminal Questions 2.1         Introduction Human beings possess a remarkable ability to communicate with one another, enabling us to share knowledge, beliefs, opinions, desires, warnings, commands, gratitude, promises, declarations, and emotions—limited only by our imagination. We express ourselves in various ways: laughter can signify amusement, joy, or even disrespect; a smile can convey pleasure, approval, or bitterness; a shriek may indicate anger, excitement, or fear; clenched fists can represent determination, anger, or a threat; and raised eyebrows may suggest surprise or disapproval. However, above all else, our primary system of communication is language. While many non-human species exchange information, none possess a communication system as intricate as human language. Most animals rely on non-linguistic signals, similar to our facial expressions, gestures, or vocalizations. For instance, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans communicate through varied shrieks, facial expressions, and hand or arm gestures, yet they lack words and structured sentences. Bees can perform specific movement patterns to inform their colony about the location of nectar, but their communication seems limited to that purpose. Similarly, birds sing different songs primarily to mark territory or attract a mate. While these forms of communication serve essential functions, they do not match the complexity, flexibility, and depth of human language. 2.2    Objectives After going through this lesson, you will be able to: >      Explain the main Principles of language >      Discuss the main objectives of Language 2.3    Principles of Language •    Teaching Language Through Basic Sentence Patterns: Students should begin by memorizing fundamental sentence structures commonly used in daily conversations. Starting with short phrases allows them to gradually progress to more complex sentences. When learning their mother tongue, students naturally retain longer sentences compared to a foreign language. However, developing proficiency in a foreign language through this approach helps learners expand their understanding of sounds and vocabulary. •    Developing Language Patterns as Habits: True language proficiency comes from habitual use rather than simply knowing about the language. To achieve fluency, students should engage in extensive practice of language patterns in diverse situations. They must learn to use sentence structures and vocabulary naturally and at a normal conversational pace. Prioritizing the habitual use of frequently occurring patterns is more effective than merely accumulating vocabulary. •    The Role of Imitation: Imitation is a fundamental principle of language learning. No learner invents a language independently; instead, effective communication is achieved by imitating good speech models. These models should be clear and comprehensible. Mastery of a language system is reinforced when imitation is combined with intensive practice. •    Controlled Vocabulary: Vocabulary should be carefully selected and taught in meaningful contexts. Words should only be introduced and practiced within real-life situations to enhance understanding and retention. This method ensures that meanings are clarified and reinforced effectively. •    Graded Learning of Language Patterns: As R. Lado states, “To teach a language is to impart a new system of complex habits, and habits are acquired slowly.” Language patterns should be introduced progressively in a structured manner. Each new pattern should build upon previously learned ones. New language structures should also be introduced alongside familiar vocabulary to support comprehension and ease of learning. •    Selection and Organization of Language Material: Effective language teaching begins with carefully selecting appropriate language materials. This selection process should consider grammatical structures, vocabulary, and sentence patterns to ensure a logical and structured learning experience. Self- check Exercise (1) 1.    Which principle of language teaching considers practice and drill necessary for language learning? a)    Principle of phonology. b)    Principle of language aptitude. c)    Principle of imitation. d)    Principle of learning by doing. 2.    The teacher should try to expose students to environment loaded with foreign language. By doing so he\ she is following the: a)  The principle of naturalness. b)  The principle of exposure. c)  The principle of interest. d)  The principle of interest. 3.    According to which principle of English oral situation and social and functional aspects will move together in learning a language? a)    Principle of proper order. b)    Principle of selection. c)    Principle of multi line approach. d)    None of the above. 4.    The curriculum and content of language teaching is decided through a)  Principle of graded patterns. b)  Principle of proper order. c)   Principle of Selection. d)    Principle of naturalness. 5.    Which principle of English implies brevity? a)  Principle of phonology. b)  Principle of creativity and Self- Expression. c)  Principle of accuracy and correctness. d)  Principle of reinforcement. 6.    According to which principle " The subject matter should be related to customs, traditions of the particular society to which the student belongs" , a)   Principle of correlation with life. b)  Principle of cultural approach. c)  Principle of purpose. d)  Principle of gradation. 7.    Which principle suggests that students should work with more extensive or complex definitions or explanations of word meanings. a)  Principle of multiple approach. b)  Principle of proper order. c)  Principle of vocabulary. d)  Principle of selection. 2.4 Objectives of Language Language objectives are specific goals within a lesson that define the type of language students need to learn and use to successfully achieve the lesson's overall objectives. These objectives align with content knowledge and skills outlined in academic standards while addressing key aspects of language development that support students' understanding of grade-level concepts. Language objectives encompass the four essential language skills—speaking, listening, reading, and writing—but may also include: •    Language functions relevant to the lesson topic (e.g., justify, hypothesize). •    Key vocabulary necessary for students to fully engage in the lesson (e.g., axis, locate, graph). •    Language learning strategies that enhance comprehension and aid in language acquisition. Self- check Exercise (2) 1.    Selection means? a)    When to teach. b)    How to teach. c)    What to teach. d)    Why to teach. 2.    Which of the following is not the criteria for the principle of selection? a)    Familiarity. b)    Frequency. c)    Range. d) Coverage. 3.    Motivation is an important factor in language learning. For example in class vi,______ may be done. a)    Memorization and use of necessary vocabulary. b)    Systematic analysis and use of structures. c)    Use of visual devices and game- like exercises. d)    Use of the another tongue as the 'medium'. 2.5    Summary In this lesson, we explored various aspects of language, including its definition, functions, principles, and objectives. Language is a structured system of words and rules used for communication among people within the same community, nation, geographical region, or cultural background. We examined the functions of language, which include expressing thoughts, feelings, observations, and needs, as well as facilitating relationships and performing actions. The principles of language learning emphasize the importance of structured teaching methods, imitation, habit formation, controlled vocabulary, and graded learning. Additionally, we discussed the objectives of language learning, which focus on developing essential language skills—speaking, listening, reading, and writing—while integrating relevant vocabulary, functions, and comprehension strategies. 2.6    Glossary •    Syntax: The set of rules that govern the structure and arrangement of words within a sentence in a given language. •    Directives: Statements or commands intended to prompt someone to take a specific action. They can range from polite requests to firm instructions. 2.7    Answers to Self- Check Exercise (1) 1.c  2. b 3. c 4. c 5. c 6. a 7. c Answers to Self - Check Exercise (2) 1.    c 2. a 3. c 2.8    References\ Suggested Readings Himmel, J., Short, D., Richards, C., & Echevarria, J. (2009). Using the SIOP Model to improve middle school science instruction. Center for Research on the Educational Achievement and Teaching of English Language Learners (CREATE) Brief. http://www.cal.org/create/resources/pubs/siopscience.html Short, D., Vogt, M., & Echevarria, J. (2010a). The SIOP Model for teaching history-social studies to English learners. Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. Short, D., Vogt, M., & Echevarria, J. (2010b). The SIOP Model for teaching science to English learners. Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. Vogt, M.E., Echevarria, J., & Short, D. (2010). The SIOP Model for teaching English language arts to English learners. Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. 2.9    Terminal Questions: 1.    What are the main principles of language? 2.    What is the objective of language? UNIT-3 Distinction of Language and Role of Language Structure 3.1    Introduction. 3.2   Objectives. 3.3   Distinction between first language and second language. Self-Check Exercise 3.4   Summary. 3.5   Glossary. 3.6    Answers to Self Check Exercise 3.7   References\ Suggested Readings. 3.8    Terminal Questions. 3.1   Introduction A significant portion of what is known as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is grounded in a nativist perspective on second language (L2) acquisition. This perspective assumes—either explicitly or implicitly—that learning an L2 should resemble the process of acquiring a first language (L1). However, this belief is overly idealistic and stems from a fundamental misunderstanding of both L1 and L2 learning. The cognitive and social processes involved in acquiring a second language differ significantly from those of first-language acquisition, making it unrealistic to expect L2 learning to follow the same natural path. 3.2   Objectives After going through this lesson, you should be able to: > Differentiate between the first language and second language 3.3    Distinction Between First Language and Second Language First Language (L1) •    L1 acquisition is biologically driven and occurs during the most critical stage of a child's cognitive development. •    The syntactic system of a language develops naturally and unconsciously, meaning that children acquire complex, rule-governed structures without being aware of them. Most L1 speakers use their language effortlessly without realizing its intricacies. •    L1 is typically learned before puberty, alongside other essential life skills, making it a fundamental part of cognitive growth. •    Children do not resist L1 acquisition; just as they naturally learn to walk, they instinctively acquire their first language. •    With even minimal exposure to language during early development, children inevitably acquire the L1 of their social environment. Even those with cognitive impairments often develop full grammatical competence in their native language. •    In summary, L1 acquisition is an innate and necessary process that is deeply embedded in human development during the crucial early years of life. Second Language (L2) •    L2 learning is not biologically triggered, except in cases where a child grows up bilingual—where the process closely resembles L1 acquisition rather than traditional L2 learning. •    The syntax of an L2 is not acquired unconsciously in the same way as L1. Most L2 learners do not develop the same intuitive understanding and automatic use of grammar that they have in their first language. •    L2 learning is not an inherent part of cognitive development and is not essential for survival or daily functioning as L1 is. •    Learners often experience conscious or unconscious resistance to acquiring an L2, making the process more challenging. •    Even highly intelligent individuals with strong learning abilities may struggle with L2 acquisition. Many learners reach a stage of fossilization, where their progress stagnates despite regular use and exposure to the language. •    Unlike L1, L2 learning is not a biologically-driven process but rather an additional skill, often learned in structured environments such as classrooms or workplaces, where it competes with other responsibilities and demands. Self Check- Exercise(1) 1.    The process by which human acquire the capacity to perceive and produce and use words to understand and communicate is: a)  Language learning. b)  Language acquisition. c)  Language diversity. d)    Language policy. 2.    Arrange the steps of language acquisition by new born or infants: a)    Show sign of comparison such as turning when they hear their name. b)    Cries give way to coos and babbles. c)    Their vocabulary start to grow. d)    Start to combine words. e)    Infants become toddlers who say '' bye bye''. 3.    In which language, a particular action does not give a particular reaction: a)    Creatures. b)    Human. c)    Both. d)    None. 4.    Which among the following factors have no impact on language acquisition: a)    Cultural and environmental. b)    Geographical and climatic. c)    Racial and regional. d)    All of the above. 5.    A child's language acquisition is in according to their: a)    Own surrounding. b)    Socio- economic bases. c)    Psychologically bases. d)    All of the above. 6.    Select the factors influencing acquisition of second language: a)    Motivation and regular practice. b)    Playfulness and willingness to make mistakes. c)    Emotional involvement. d)    All of the above. 7.    Associating the sound of a word with images and smell could be more effective than just reading the word in a dictionary is an example of: a)    Emotional involvement. b)  Regular practice. c)  Humble approach. d)    Playfulness. 8.    A playful approach to language learning can be highly rewarded because: a)    It allows to say anything. b)    It is boring and less receptive. c)    It is ineffective in schools. d)    All of the above. 9.    Which approach of second language acquisition starting from the basic: a)    Humble approach. b)    Motivational approach. c)    Emotional approach. d)    None. 10.    Student's age, stage, previous knowledge, length of time, capability, determination all are factors influence the acquisition of learning of: a)    First language. b)    Second language. c)    Third language. d)    Fourth language. 3.4    Summary In this lesson we learned about the language. So language plays a very important role in child development and school curriculum also. 3.5    Glossary •    Informationally Encapsulated: It means that the children are not even aware of developing a complex, rule-governed, hierarchical system. •    Receptive Language: It refers to the ability to decode and understand spoken language. •    Expressive Language: It refers to the ability to use language to speak or write as the child gets older and communicate needs, emotions and express thoughts. 3.6    Answers to Self- Check Exercise 1.    b2.b, a, e, c, d3. b 4. d 5. D 6. d 7. a 8. a 9. a 10. b 3.7  References\ Suggested Readings Bereiter, Carl & Scardamalia, Marlene (1987). The psychology of written composition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Bereiter, Carl & Scardamalia, Marlene (1993). Surpassing ourselves: An inquiry into the nature and implications of expertise. Chicago: Open Court Press. Coetzee-Lachmann, Debbie (2006): “Eine Definition fachspezifischer Diskurskompetenz“. In: Johannes-Peter Timm (ed.), Fremdsprachenlernen und Fremdsprachenforschung: Kompetenzen, Standards, Lernformen, Evaluation. Festschrift für Helmut Johannes Vollmer. Tübingen: Narr, 249-265. Coetzee, Debbie (2006). “Methodological considerations in assessing task-based subject-specific writing: The case of bilingually trained geography learners of grade 10 in Germany”. In: Vollmer, Helmut Johannes (Hrsg.). Empirische Zugänge in der Fremdsprachenforschung. Herausforderungen und Perspektiven. Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 65-88 (to appear). Corson, David (1990). “Language across the curriculum (LAC)”. In: Corson, David (ed.), Language Policy Across the Curriculum. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 72-140. Cummins, James (1979). "Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children." Review of Educational Research, 49, 222-251. Kress, Gunther R. (2003). Literacy in the new media age. London: Routledge. Rosebrock, Cornelia (2006). “Socio-economic Background and Reading. Reading attitudes, fluency and literary education in the German Hauptschule”. Preliminary study, Council of Europe, Language Policy Division. Strasbourg. www.coe.int/lang Schnotz, Wolfgang (2005). “An Integrated Model of Text and Picture Comprehension”. In: Mayer, Richard E. (ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 49-70. Vollmer, Helmut J. (2006a). „Fachlernen und Sprachlichkeit: Aufgabenbasierte Kognition, Kooperation und Kommunikation bei bilingualen und monolingualen Lernern“. In: Hahn, Angela & Klippel, Friederike (Hrsg.), Sprachen schaffen Chancen. München: Oldenbourg, 121-135 (in print). Vollmer, Helmut Johannes (2006b). “Language Across the Curriculum – Ways Towards Plurilingualism“. In: Martinyuk, Waldemar (ed.), Towards a Common European Framework of Reference for Language(s) of School Education. (Paper, presented at a conference in Kraków, 27-29 April 2006. Kraków: Jagellionian University. (to appear). Vollmer, Helmut J. (2006c). Subject-Specific competence and language use of CLIL learners: Grade 10 geography in Germany. In: Nikula, Tarja/Dalton Christiane (eds.), English as the medium of instruction in European schools: analyzing classroom discourse. Vienna: University of Vienna (Special Issue of Vienna English Working Papers (VIEWZ). (Paper, presented at the ESSE 8 Conference, London, August 29 – September 2, 2006). Vollmer, Helmut Johannes/Beacco, Jean-Claude (2006). “Towards a Common Instrument for Language(s) of (School) Education”. Preliminary study: Council of Europe, Language Policy Division. Strasbourg. www.coe.int/lang Zydatiß, Wolfgang (2005). Diskursfunktionen in einem analytischen curricularen Zugriff auf Textvarietäten und Aufgaben des bilingualen Sachfachunterrichts. In: Fremdsprachen Lehren und Lernen 34, 156-173. 3.8    Terminal Questions 1.    Describe the role of any language in curriculum and life. 2.    Differentiate L1 & L2. UNIT- 4 Role of Language in Child Development Structure 4.1    Introduction 4.2    Objectives 4.3    Role of English in child development Self - check Exercise(1) 4.4    Place of language in school curriculum. Self- Check Exercise (2) 4.5    Summary 4.6    Glossary 4.7    Answer Self- Check Exercises 4.8    References \ Suggested Readings 4.9    Terminal Questions 4.1    Introduction English has been taught as a second language in India . English came to India with the British. It came to India from a foreign country. The question arises whether English should be taught as a foreign language or as a second language. A foreign language is mainly learnt to know about the life of the people of that country. On learning the foreign language, learner will not have the chance to use the language in his life situation. so, on learning a second language the learner should be able to use the language in all his situations. As English is understood in all parts of India, it should be taught as a second language. The very basic objectives of teaching English are to prepare students to use English globally, in other words, to use English in all situations that we encounter. 4.2    Objectives After going through this lesson, you should be able to: >    The role of English in child development >    Different roles of English in present life >    Place of language in School Curriculum 4.3    Role of English in Child Development Language is an important skill that allows a person to communicate. A child begins to develop language even before she can use words, as seen by a baby who cries to get her needs met. A delay in language skills can cause frustration for a child as well as miscommunication about what she may be trying to convey. Language development is important to a child in order to adequately exchange information with others in a meaningful way. Most children develop speech and language skills effortlessly, but some are slow to develop these skills and then go on to struggle with literacy and academic skills throughout their schooling. It is the first few years of life that are critical to their subsequent performance. Language and the ability to use language symbolically sets humans apart from the rest of the animal world. It allows people to express thoughts, ideas and emotions, and communicate with others. New research conducted by scientists at the Institute for Learning and Brain Sciences at the University of Washington reveals that early language development begins in the womb and continues throughout a life time. Receptive language refers to the ability to decode and understand spoken language. Children's receptive language begins developing as they listen to the world around them and begin to understand language. Parents and caregivers that immerse children in an environment rich in language help the child develop strong receptive language skills. This includes speaking directly to the child, as well as providing opportunities for the child to observe conversations between adults and/or other children. It also includes reading aloud to children. Children typically understand many words long before they are able to verbalize them. This prepares the child for spoken language. Expressive Language: Expressive language refers to the ability to use language to speak -- or write, as the child get older -- and communicate needs, emotions and express thoughts. Encouraging your child to ask for what he wants, instead of meeting his needs immediately, and routinely talking with your child, helps him build expressive language skills. Children who development good expressive language skills are prepared to communicate effectively when they enter school or encounter the outside world. Reading: Children with good receptive and expressive language skills understand the nuances of language and are generally better able to tackle reading skills. Those with experience with books already understand that the written word contains information that must be decoded. Learning to read follows the natural progression of language development. Reading opens the child's world and allows him to access information and ideas from around the globe. Reading can become a source of entertainment and enjoyment, but also serves as an effective means of gaining knowledge. Writing: Learning to express herself in written language is an important skill that takes years to master. Encouraging and rewarding your child with praise when she makes her first initial attempts sets the stage for developing effective writing skills. As your child matures and tackles more complex writing tasks throughout her school years, she will master the art of written language as a means to communicate thoughts and desires, and convey information to others. Self- Check Exercise (1) 1.    To develop language functions, the teaching of speaking skills for younger children will include: a)    Greeting informal, requests, asking for personal information. b)    Telephonic chat. c)    Debates and declamations. d)    Short project presentations. 2.    When we want to test speaking skills, we test the ability of the students: a)    To use proper punctuation marks. b)    To narrate incidents or events. c)    To make conclusions from the given extract. d)    To understand the main thought. 3.    To narrate a story with proper stress and intonation is a sub-skill of: a)    Listening skill. b)    Speaking skill. c)    Reading skill. d)    Writing skill. 4.    Punctuation of students can be understand through_________ type. a)    Essay. b)    Objective. c)    Short answer. d)    Oral. 5.    Transactional listening a)    Lays emphasis on conveying information. b)    Lays information on harmonious communication in the social context. c)    Does not require careful attention to details and facts. d)    Is interactive by nature. 4.4 Place of Language in School Curriculum The inclusion of language, particularly English, in the Indian school curriculum is a significant aspect of modern educational principles. In the 21st century, English is no longer seen as a colonial remnant but rather as a tool for growth and opportunity. Below are some key points highlighting its importance: •    A Gateway to Higher Education – English should retain its prominence in the secondary school curriculum to ensure that students acquire a strong working knowledge of the language. Proficiency in English at this stage makes it easier for students to pursue higher education without language barriers. •    Fundamental for Employment – Many students enter the workforce immediately after completing secondary school. A strong command of English enhances their employability, as many jobs require effective communication skills in English. •    Career Advancement – English plays a crucial role in career development. Those who pursue higher studies in English can build careers as teachers, lecturers, or professionals in fields where English proficiency is essential. •    Enhancing Subject Knowledge – At the secondary level, many subjects are enriched with content available in English. A solid foundation in English enables students to access extensive resources and gain deeper insights into various subjects. •    Global Academic Opportunities – Many students aspire to study abroad, where English is often the primary medium of instruction. A strong foundation in English at the school level ensures they can communicate, write, and learn effectively in international academic environments. Self- Check Exercise (2) 1.    The teacher should try to expose students to an environment loaded with foreign language. By doing so he \ she is following the: a)    The principle of naturalness. b)  The principle of exposure. c)  The principle of interest. d)  The principle of motivation. 2.    Human beings can talk about their present, past and future. This property of language is called: a)    Displacement. b)    Cultural Transmitting. c)    Voluntarily. d)    Social Phenomenon. 3.    When Child uses language to express their needs and wants is called: a) Personal function of language. b)  Heuristic function of language. c)    Instrumental Function of Language. d)    Imaginative function of language. 4.    The importance of English in the academic set- up is apparent from the fact that____ a)    English is compulsory at the graduate level. b)    English is compulsory at senior secondary. c)    English is compulsory at post- graduate level. d)    English is compulsory at Primary level. 5.    A Language is : a)    A broad term simply referring to human patterned. b)    A set of specific rules for generating speech. c)    Another word for a dialect. d)    Scientific study of communication. 4.5    Summary In this chapter, we explored the role of English in children's development and its significance in the school curriculum. English plays a crucial role in education by facilitating higher studies, enhancing career opportunities, and providing access to a vast range of knowledge. It also helps students secure better job prospects and prepares them for global academic and professional environments. English, therefore, remains an essential part of the curriculum, shaping students' futures and broadening their horizons. 4.6    Glossary: Receptive language: It refers to ability to decode and understand spoken language. Children's receptive language begins developing as they listen to the world around them and begin to understand language. • Expressive language: It refers to the ability to use the language to speak -- or write, as the child get older -- and communicate needs, emotions and express thoughts. 4.7   Answers to Self- Check Exercise (1) 1.    a 2. d 3.b 4. d 5. b Answers to Self- Check Exercise(2) 1.    b 2. a 3. c 4 a 5. b 4.8    References / Suggested Readings Dhand, H. ( 2009). Techniques of Teaching. new Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation. Siddiqui, M.H. (2009). Techniques of Classroom Teaching. New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation. Aggarwal. J. C. (2008). Principles, Methods and Techniques of Teaching. UP: Vikas Publishing Home Pvt. Ltd. Chauhan,S.S.(2008). Innovation in Teaching Learning Process. UP: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Bennett, W.A.(1969). Aspects of Language and Language Teaching. London Cambridge University Press. 4.9    Terminal Questions 1.    Explain the role of English in child development. 2.    Discuss about the place of language in school curriculum. UNIT- 5 Policies and Recommendations of NPE (1986) and NCF (2005) about the Position of English and Hindi Languages in India Structure 5.1    Introduction 5.2   Objectives 5.3   Recommendations of NPE(1986) about English and Hindi Self -Check Exercise(1) 5.4   Recommendations of NCF (2005) about English and Hindi Self-Check Exercise(2) 5.5  Summary 5.6    Glossary 5.7    Answers to Self-Check Exercises 5.8  References \ Suggested Readings 5.9    Terminal Questions 5.1    Introduction In a democratic nation, the democratization of education is essential. To achieve the goal of education for all, the Government of India has undertaken numerous initiatives and efforts. Through policy formulation, the government establishes guidelines for future actions aimed at achieving specific objectives. In a democratic society, these objectives revolve around various aspects of public welfare. Education has been a key focus for the progress of Indian society at both national and local levels. Even in ancient Indian history, education played a role in government policies. The modern approach to educational development can be traced back to the British colonial era, which has been discussed in previous units. Post-independence, such efforts have continued. This unit will highlight one of the significant initiatives taken by the Government of India to promote educational democratization—the National Policy on Education, 1986, and its revised version, the Programme of Action, 1992. 5.2    Objectives After end of this lesson, you should be able to: •    Explain the recommendations of the National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986. •    Describe the recommendations of the National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005. 5.3    Recommendations of NPE (1986) about English and Hindi The National Policy on Education (NPE) was adopted by the Indian Parliament in May 1986. To review the policy and suggest modifications, a committee was established under the leadership of Acharya Ramamurti in May 1990, which submitted its report in December 1990. Subsequently, at the request of the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE), another committee was formed in July 1991 under the chairmanship of Shri N. Janardhana Reddy, then Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh. This committee reviewed the recommendations of the Ramamurti Committee along with other relevant developments and submitted its report in January 1992. In the CABE meeting held on May 5-6, 1992, the recommendations were discussed, and while the NPE was broadly endorsed, a few modifications were suggested. Over time, the NPE has remained relevant, as it was formulated based on a national consensus and a comprehensive review of the education system. However, developments in recent years and experiences in policy implementation have necessitated certain modifications. These modifications are outlined in the Revised Policy Formulations document, which was presented in Parliament alongside the CABE Committee's report. Role of Languages in Education Languages play a central role in education, and the policy must clearly define their usage and development. Given India's linguistic diversity, this task is complex. Census data highlights the vast linguistic landscape of the country: •  1652 mother tongues are spoken in India. •    Over 100 languages are spoken by 662 million people. •  90 languages are spoken by at least 10,000 people each. •  96% of the population speaks languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. •    These languages belong to four major language families: Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic, and Tibeto-Burman. •  67 languages are currently used as mediums of instruction in schools. Three-Language Formula at the Secondary Level The policy emphasizes the implementation of the three-language formula to ensure linguistic unity and national integration: •    In Hindi-speaking states, students should study: 1.    Hindi 2.    English 3.    A modern Indian language, preferably from southern India. • In non-Hindi-speaking states, students should study: 1.    Their regional language 2.    Hindi 3.    English Additionally, universities and colleges should offer suitable Hindi and English courses to enhance students' proficiency up to the required academic standards. Challenges in Implementing the Three-Language Formula Several issues have arisen in implementing the formula: •  Some states offer optional languages beyond the prescribed three, leading to deviations from the original policy. •  In Hindi-speaking states, Sanskrit is often chosen instead of a modern Indian language from the South. •    Different motivations exist for learning languages—Hindi is often learned for economic reasons, while southern languages are studied for cultural understanding, leading to inconsistency in learning objectives. •    Linguistic minorities struggle to receive education in their mother tongue at the primary level, as commitments to provide such facilities are often not met. •    Since every state is multilingual, accommodating multiple minority languages within the formula poses additional challenges. Despite these issues, the three-language formula has stood the test of time, and revisiting or altering it is not considered advisable. Measures for Uniform Implementation To ensure a standardized and effective implementation of the three-language formula, the following steps are recommended: 1.    Collaboration Among Key Institutions o The Kendriya Hindi Sansthan (KHS), Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages (CIEFL), and Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL)—which are responsible for developing Hindi, English, and modern Indian languages, respectively—should collaborate. o They should work with CBSE, NCERT, and state governments to create guidelines for uniform language competency in schools. 2.    Language Learning Guidelines o Define clear objectives for teaching different languages. o    Set proficiency levels for each language. o    Specify the starting class and duration for teaching the three languages. Self- Check Exercise (1) 1.    The first NPE was promulgated in 1968 by? a)    Rajiv Gandhi. b)    Indira Gandhi c)    Sonia Gandhi. d)    Narendra Modi. 2.    Operation Black board programme was introduced by ______ & to improve______. a)    NEP,1986; Teacher Education. b)    NEP,1986; Primary Education. c)    NEP, 1986; Secondary Education. d)    NEP,1986; Higher Education. 3.     The first National policy on Education in free India was launched in the year a)    1947. b)    1964. c)    1968. d)    1986. 4.    Which of the following has been the basis for introduction of yoga in Teacher Training courses? a)    NEP,1968. b)    NEP,1986. c)    NCF,2005. d)    NEP,2020. 5.      Navodaya Vidyalaya and use of IT in education were started under which act? a)    NPE, 1986. b)    NPE, 1968. c)    POA,1992. d)    NPE, 2020. 6.     NPE,1986 is developed by: a)    Prime Minister. b)    Defense Minister. c)    Education Minister. d)    None of the above. 7.    Establishment of DIETs was the result of one of the recommendations of: a)    Indian Education Commission. b)    Secondary Education Commission. c)    University Education Commission. d)    National policy on Education(1986). 5.4    Recommendations of NCF (2005) about English and Hindi National Curriculum Framework 2005 A curriculum is a dynamic and evolving framework that serves as a guiding document rather than a rigid structure. It represents a vision for education. The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005, having undergone thorough discussions and evaluations by various bodies, including the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE), stands as an official document outlining the needs of India's school system while aligning with the principles of the Indian Constitution. The curriculum discussions of 1968, 1986, and 2000 provided platforms for extensive engagement, leading to the formulation of these documents. The 2005 framework was drafted after analyzing various inputs and deliberating with numerous organizations, including NGOs and higher education institutions. The primary aim of this initiative was to reduce curriculum overload, address systemic inconsistencies, and develop a consensus-based curriculum. The new syllabi introduced a thematic and structured approach to knowledge, marking a significant departure from previous educational practices in India and beyond. India – A Linguistic Giant India’s linguistic diversity has led researchers to describe it as a “sociolinguistic area,” a “linguistic giant,” and a “language laboratory.” The country’s multilingual and multicultural nature underscores the need for multiple languages to foster national unity, cultural integration, and social mobility. Each language plays a complementary role in this system, much like a "salad bowl," where each retains its unique identity while contributing to the nation's linguistic richness. •    The Indo-European language family dominates north and central India, with 54 languages spoken by three-fourths of the population. •    The Dravidian language family, comprising 20 languages, is spoken primarily in South India. •    In Assam, 20 languages are spoken. •    The Northeast region has a total of 118 languages, with 98 languages spoken in the Northeast alone, despite its lower population density. In this multilingual context, Hindi and English play crucial roles in communication, education, and governance. Despite the vast linguistic diversity, Indian languages continue to evolve and gain prominence through influences such as tourism, media, and digital platforms. NCF 2005: A New Direction for Language Education NCF 2005 provides fresh momentum to language education with the following key recommendations: •  Renewed efforts should be made to effectively implement the three-language formula. •  Children’s mother tongues, including tribal languages, should be prioritized as the best medium of instruction. •    Schools should encourage proficiency in multiple languages, including English. •    Reading skills should be reinforced throughout primary education. Language and culture are deeply interconnected, and NCF 2005 advocates for an interdisciplinary approach. However, teachers across different subjects rarely engage in discussions about language learning. Since language is central to education, it should be integrated across subjects to enhance children's learning experiences. The three-language formula aims to strengthen multilingualism and promote national integration by ensuring that students learn languages beyond their regional or home language. Home Language, First Language, Regional Language, and Mother Tongue Primary education should be conducted in the child’s home language(s), as it is crucial to respect and preserve linguistic diversity. Article 350A of the Indian Constitution states that every state and local authority must ensure that children belonging to linguistic minority groups receive education in their mother tongue at the primary level. •    In non-Hindi-speaking states, students are expected to learn Hindi. •    In Hindi-speaking states, students should study a non-Hindi language. •    Sanskrit may also be studied as an additional modern Indian language. It is essential to respect and value children’s home languages, without immediately correcting linguistic differences. Language learning is a natural process, and children refine their skills over time when provided with rich, engaging, and challenging linguistic input. While children often enter school with basic interpersonal communication skills, they need to develop advanced cognitive language skills. Since higher-level language proficiency is transferable, strengthening Indian language learning at school is vital for overall academic growth. Second Language – English The second language curriculum has two key objectives: 1.    Helping students attain basic proficiency, similar to natural language acquisition. 2.    Developing language as a tool for abstract thinking and knowledge acquisition through literacy. Improving literacy skills in one language enhances proficiency in others, whereas poor literacy skills in the first language can negatively impact second-language learning. Additionally, other Indian languages must be valued to prevent the overemphasis on English as the dominant language. Home Language vs. School / Standard Language Children naturally acquire their home language through interactions with family, community, and the broader social environment. Research indicates that Indians have an innate ability to learn multiple languages, as seen in domestic helpers, multilingual street vendors, spelling bee champions, and everyday communication. •    By the time children enter school, they often already know two or three languages, but these linguistic resources are not fully utilized in the education system. •    Languages carry cultural identity, shaping memories and knowledge. Recognizing children's linguistic potential is crucial, as languages evolve through socio-cultural influences. There is a distinction between dialects and languages. The language spoken at home may differ from the standard language taught in schools. For example, standard Hindi has evolved from Khari Boli, while languages like Avadhi, Brij, Maithili, and Bhojpuri, once fully developed, are now considered dialects. When children enter school, it is often assumed that their home language matches the school’s standard language, which may not be the case. This creates confusion as students must navigate between home and school languages. For instance, a child may speak Brij at home but learn standard Hindi at school, which differs in structure and usage. Similarly, subjects taught in Hindi-medium schools use standardized Hindi, creating further linguistic gaps. Self- Check Exercise(2) 1.    In the NCF 2005 under the heading examination reforms, which of the following reforms has been suggested? a)    Open Book Examination. b)    Continuous & Comprehensive Evaluation. c)    Group Work Evaluation. d)    All of the above. 2.     NCF 2005 talks of major shift from: a)    Knowledge as given & fixed as it evolves and is created. b)    Educational focus to disciplinary focus. c)    Learner - centric to teacher-centric. d)    None of these. 3.    The National curriculum framework 2005 drives its understanding from: a)    Behaviorism. b)    Constructivism. c)    Cognitive theories. d)    Humanism. 4.    NCF 2005 encourages: a)    Learning by doing. b)    Rote method. c)    Solving the problem. d)    All of the above. 5.    In NCF 2005 multilingualism is advocated to be used as a resource because a)    It is a way of ensuring that every child feels safe. b)    No one is left behind on account of linguistic background. c)    It will encourage children to believe in themselves. d)    All of the above. 6.    Teacher as per NCF 2005 is: a)    Boss. b)    Facilitator. c)    Leader. d)    All of the above. 7.      The chairperson of the NCF 2005 national steering committee was: a)    Professor Yashpal. b)    Professor Krishna Kumar. c)    Professor Arvind Kumar. d)    Professor Gopal Guru. 5.5    Summary In this lesson, we explored the recommendations of the National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986 and the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005. Privatization of education offers several benefits, including providing children with more individualized attention. On the other hand, free education contributes to a more educated and productive workforce. The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005 serves as a foundation for designing syllabi, textbooks, and teaching practices within India's school education system. The framework draws policy insights from earlier government reports, such as Learning Without Burden and the National Policy on Education (1986-1992), as well as extensive focus group discussions. Following extensive deliberations, 21 National Focus Group Position Papers were developed under the NCF-2005 initiative. These state-of-the-art position papers provided essential inputs for shaping the NCF-2005 document, ensuring it effectively addresses contemporary educational needs. 5.6    Glossary •    English-400: A package which facilitates teaching and learning of English in 400 hours spread over 3 years. •    Salad bowl: It means each language has its characteristic features and contributes to the richness of the overall pattern. 5.7    Answers to Self -Check Exercise(1) 1.    b 2. b 3.c 4.b 5. a 6.a 7. d. Answers to Self -Check Exercise (2) 1.    d 2. a 3. b 4. a 5. d 6. b 7. a Answers to Self- Check Exercise (3) 1.    a. May, 1986. 2. c. Acharya Ramamurthi. 3. c. 1652. 4. a. 8th. 5. b. 67. 6. c. Kathmandu, Moscow & Tehran. 7.a.To promote multilingualism and national harmony. 8. b. Interdisciplinary.9. a. Khari-Boli. 10. b. Sanskrit. 11. a. Central Institute of English and Foreign Language. 5.8    References \ Suggested Readings Baruah, T.C (1984). The English teachers Handbook, Sterling publishers Pvt. Ltd. 1984 Bose, K. (1979). Teaching of English Language A Modern Approach Doaba House Book Sellers & publishers, New Delhi. Choudhary, N.R. (2002): English Language Teaching, Himalaya Publish House. Mumbai David, E (1977): Classroom Techniques- Foreign Languages and English as a Second Language, New York, Harcourt Brace. Dave, Pratima S, (2002): Communicative Approach to the Teaching of English as a Second Language, Himalaya Publish House, Mumbai Grillett, M (1983): Developing Reading Comprehension, London, CUP. Halbe Malati, (2005): Methodology of English Teaching, Himalaya Publish House, Mumbai Johnson, K (1983): Communicative Syllabus Design and Methodology, Oxford, Pergamon Press Widdowson, HG (1979): Teaching language as Communication, London, OUP. Kohli, A .L (1984).Techniques of Teaching English Language IX edition Dhanpat Rai & Sons, Delhi Morgan & Rinvoluri (1991): New Ways of Dictation, London, Longman. Mukalel, J. C. (1998): Approaches to English Language Teaching, Sterling Publishing House, New Delhi. Valdmen., (1987) “Trends in Language Teaching, New York, London Mac Graw Hill. 5.9    Terminal Questions 1.    What were the main recommendations of the NPE 1986? 2.    What were the main recommendations of NCF 2005 about language? UNIT-6 Curriculum and Learning Resources in Languages Structure 6.1    Introduction 6.2   Objectives 6.3   Curriculum concept Self- Check Exercise (1) 6.4    Principles of curriculum constructions; Selection and Organization of content; Factors affecting change in language curriculum Self-Check Exercise(2) 6.5   Summary 6.6   Glossary 6.7   Answers to Self -Check Exercises 6.8   References \ Suggested Readings 6.9    Terminal Questions 6.1    Introduction While the term curriculum can encompass a broad range of educational and instructional practices, educators often use it in a specific and technical sense. Teachers dedicate significant time to studying, discussing, and analyzing curriculum, with many developing specialized expertise in curriculum design. This involves structuring, organizing, and delivering lessons in a way that enhances and accelerates student learning. To those outside the education field, curriculum materials may appear simple or straightforward—such as a list of required readings. However, these materials often reflect a deep and sophisticated understanding of the subject matter, as well as the most effective strategies for knowledge acquisition and classroom management. 6.2   Objectives After completing this lesson, you will be able to: •  Explain the concept of curriculum. •    Discuss the principles of curriculum construction. •  Analyze the factors influencing curriculum development. 6.3   Curriculum Concept The term curriculum refers to the lessons and academic content delivered in a school, course, or educational program. While dictionaries often define it as the set of courses offered by a school, in practice, the term is used in a more specific way within educational settings. Curriculum typically encompasses: •    The knowledge and skills students are expected to acquire. •    The learning standards and objectives they must achieve. •    The units, lessons, assignments, and projects designed by teachers. •    The books, materials, videos, and readings used in instruction. •    The assessments and evaluation methods used to measure student learning. An individual teacher’s curriculum consists of the specific learning standards, lessons, assignments, and instructional materials they use to organize and teach a particular subject. Development and Implementation of Curriculum Teachers often design their own curricula, refining them over time. However, many educators also: •    Adapt lesson plans and syllabi developed by others. •    Use curriculum templates and guides to structure their courses. •    Purchase prepackaged curricula from educational providers. •    Follow school-mandated curriculum packages, particularly in subjects like mathematics. Different Perspectives of Curriculum Curriculum can be viewed from multiple perspectives: •    Intended Curriculum – What a society values as essential learning and outlines in official documents (also known as the written or official curriculum). •    Implemented Curriculum – How the intended curriculum is actually delivered in classrooms, which may be modified based on real-time teaching interactions. •    Achieved Curriculum – The actual learning outcomes and competencies demonstrated by students. •    Hidden Curriculum – The unintended development of personal values, beliefs, and attitudes influenced by the learning environment, including social interactions and implicit messages within the curriculum. Curriculum developers must consider all these dimensions when designing an effective curriculum. While the written curriculum does not encompass the entire meaning of curriculum, it is essential as it represents the societal vision for education. Therefore, it should be documented clearly in curriculum frameworks, subject syllabi, textbooks, teacher guides, and assessment materials to support effective teaching and learning. Self- Check Exercise (1) 1.    The school curriculum should be planned to agree with: a)    The Goals, Purposes & interests of the pupils. b)    Available text-books in various subjects. c)    College Entrance requirements. d)    Training & interests of teachers. 2.    The main purpose of co-curricular activities is to: a)    Facilitate Pupil development. b)    Provide progressive school. c)    Keep pupils from dropping out. d)    Meet the demands of the community. 3.    What is curriculum? a)    Overall activities of an institution. b)    Objectivity. c)    Classroom. d)    Affective. 4.    A curriculum is that totality of a school efforts to influence a child__________ a) .  Course. b) .  Behavior. c) . Design. d.) Logical Sequence. 5.    Important factor of a curriculum is to achieve the: a)    Education. b)    Objectives. c)    Values. d)    Job. 6.      Detailed contents of the subjects for a class are called: a) Course. b)Behavior. c) Design. d)Logical Sequence. 7.       The concise oxford dictionary defines curriculum as a: a)    Course of learning. b)    Chariot racing. c)    Course of study. d)    None. 8.       Components of curriculum are: a)    Objectives. b)    Evaluation. c)    Teaching strategies. d)    All of these. 9.      Curriculum is supposed to: a)    Achieve the objectives. b)    Be organized by the school. c)    Both. d)    None. 10.     The importance of curriculum in the system of education is just like a : a)    Constitution of the country. b)    Provision of latest knowledge. c)    Preparation of students for service. d)    None. 6.4 Principles of Curriculum Construction 1.    Child-Centered Approach: Since modern education emphasizes a child-centered approach, the curriculum should also be designed with the child at its core. It must consider the child's needs, interests, abilities, aptitude, age, and overall circumstances. The curriculum's primary aim is to foster the child's development in a way that enables them to adapt successfully to life. 2.    Community-Centered Approach: While the child's growth is a crucial aspect of curriculum development, their social development is equally important. Education should balance individual progress with social responsibility, preparing students to contribute positively to society. As society evolves with rapid advancements, the curriculum must also adapt to reflect the changing values, skills, and attitudes of the community. 3.    Activity-Based Learning: A well-designed curriculum should focus on a variety of activities that cater to students' interests and developmental stages. It should include creative, hands-on, and project-based learning experiences. For younger children, play-based activities should be incorporated. Both in-class and extracurricular activities should be structured to provide meaningful experiences that encourage positive behavioral changes. 4.    Diversity and Flexibility: A broad and inclusive curriculum should accommodate the varying needs of students with different backgrounds, abilities, and interests. For instance, the needs of students in rural, urban, and mountainous regions differ, as do the educational requirements of boys and girls. These factors must be considered in curriculum design. 5.    Integration and Coherence: The curriculum should not be fragmented into isolated subjects but should be integrated in a way that aligns with the overall goals of education. Different subjects and activities should be interconnected to ensure a holistic learning experience that supports a student’s overall growth. 6.    Cultural Preservation: Education plays a significant role in preserving and passing on cultural heritage, which includes traditions, customs, values, and knowledge. However, curriculum designers must carefully select cultural elements that hold educational value and align with students’ developmental stages. 7.    Practical Relevance and Utility: The curriculum should be practical and functional rather than merely traditional. It should include subjects that provide real-world applications, such as technical and vocational education, ensuring students gain skills that will benefit them beyond school. In constructing a curriculum, national and regional contexts must be considered, along with principles that contribute to achieving educational goals. Selection and Organization of Content When selecting and structuring curriculum content, the following guiding principles should be considered: •    Validity: The curriculum should align with national education standards and fulfill the course's intended learning objectives. •    Significance: The content should be meaningful and relevant to students' needs and interests. •    Balance: Learning materials should include not only facts but also concepts and values, ensuring a well-rounded education that incorporates cognitive, psychomotor, and affective elements. •    Self-Sufficiency: The content should cover essential knowledge in depth rather than being broad but superficial. •    Student Interest: Teachers should consider students' interests, developmental stages, and cultural backgrounds when designing curriculum content. •    Practical Application: Content should have real-world utility beyond examinations, ensuring students gain knowledge that will serve them in everyday life. The curriculum should integrate cognitive (knowledge), skills (practical application), and affective (values) learning components. •    Cognitive Learning: Includes factual knowledge, concepts, and principles derived from research. •    Thinking Skills: o Divergent Thinking – Encourages creativity, originality, flexibility, and elaboration. o Convergent Thinking – Involves narrowing down multiple ideas to identify the best solution. o Problem-Solving – Helps students define and solve problems effectively. •    Values and Interaction: Teaching values connects facts, skills, and concepts to real-life situations, fostering well-rounded individuals who balance intellectual and emotional development. Factors Influencing Changes in the Language Curriculum Curriculum innovation is a complex process influenced by various factors, including teacher training and adaptation to new educational methods. Successful curriculum changes require well-trained educators who can implement new approaches effectively. In many countries with a national curriculum, teacher education programs include all essential components of school curricula. However, challenges arise when changes in school curricula outpace updates in teacher education, creating a gap between classroom practice and teacher training. Lewin and Stuart argue that teacher education should lead educational change, ensuring new teachers are well-equipped for updated curricula. Cochran-Smith highlights the lack of policies that specifically address the education of teacher educators, making it challenging to prepare teachers for 21st-century learning demands. Factors Affecting Language Learning The speed and ease with which students acquire a new language depend on various internal and external factors, including: •    Motivation: o  Intrinsic Motivation – Students who enjoy language learning and take pride in their progress tend to excel. o  Extrinsic Motivation – External factors, such as the need to pass exams, study abroad, or communicate in a new environment, can drive language acquisition. •    Previous Experiences: o Students with exposure to multiple cultures and languages have a stronger foundation for learning additional languages. •    Cognitive Abilities: o Intelligence and innate language-learning ability influence the speed of language acquisition. •    Native Language Influence: o Learners whose native language shares similarities with the target language often find it easier to learn. For instance, a Dutch student may find English easier to learn than a Japanese student due to linguistic similarities. Self- Check Exercise (2) 1.    The word 'Curriculum' is derived from the __________ language. a)    English. b)    French. c)    Greek. d)    Latin. 2.    Curriculum is basically derived from a Latin word which means: a)    Contents. b)    Objectives. c) Runway. d) Subjects. 3.    The major concern of curriculum is : a)    Personal satisfaction. b)    Preparation for career. c)    To get employment. d)    Change in individual behavior. 4.    The number of basic elements of curriculum are: a)    2. b)    4. c) 6. d) 8. 5.    The loosely connected set of ideas, values, and rules that governs the conduct of inquiry is called: a)    Essentials. b)    Components. c)    Foundations. d) Paradigm. 6.    Syllabus is a part of: a)    Coarse. b)    Classroom. c)    Curriculum. d)    Culture. 7.    The foundations of curriculum concerned with student's needs and interests is called: a)   Economical. b)    Historical. c)   Psychological. d)   Sociological. 8.    The philosophical foundations of curriculum is concerned with: a)    Economy. b)    History. c)    Ideas. d)    Society. 9.    The two important functions performed in curriculum design are: a)  Planning and development. b)  Objective and Contents. c)  Subject area and course. d)  Analysis and curriculum creation. 10.    The philosophical foundations which emphasized on culture and skills is called: a)    Essentialism. b)    Perennialism. c)    Progressivism. d)    Reconstructionism. 11.     A plan of action for preparing a curriculum is termed as: a)    Curriculum plan. b)    Curriculum design. c)    Curriculum implementation. d)    Curriculum evaluation. 12.    The total process of designing, implementing and evaluating is termed as: a)    Curriculum construction. b)    Curriculum design. c)    Curriculum development. d)    Curriculum implementation. 13.    The curriculum which is more emphasized for ' primary grades' is: a)    Teacher - centered curriculum. b)    Subject- centered curriculum. c)     Integrated curriculum. d)    Core curriculum. 14.    The main purpose of integrated curriculum is: a)    Increase in student enrollment. b)    Increase in number of books. c)   Decrease in dropout. d)   Decrease in number of books. 15.      The activities, which are not planned by the school, college, or university but actually happen and affect dents' behavior are termed as: a)    Intended curriculum. b)    Hidden curriculum. c)    Learned curriculum. d)    Taught curriculum. 16.    The learner has no option but study the prescribed or compulsory courses to move to the next level, is related to: a)    Core curriculum b)    Hidden curriculum. c)    Subject curriculum. d)    Taught curriculum. 6.5    Summary In this lesson we learned about the curriculum, concept constructive principles and factor affecting curriculum. When developing or reviewing curriculum we need to ensure that learning resources support the learning activities and/or the evaluation and assessment planned for the course. They also need to align with the needs, interests and abilities of the learners. Learning materials may be developed or selected from existing resources. As developments in cognitive science have helped us understand more about how learners construct knowledge, there has been a growing trend towards the greater use of raw data, primary sources and manipulative and interactive learning resource materials. 6.6    Glossary •    Curriculum: The term Curriculum refers to the lessons and academic content taught in a school or in a specific course or program. In dictionaries, curriculum is often defined as the courses offered by a school, but it is rarely used in such a general sense in schools. •    Divergent: It includes fluent thinking, original thinking, flexible thinking, and elaborative thinking. •    Cognitive: Fact, an idea or action that can be verified. Concept a categorization of events, places, people, ideas. Principle relationship(s) between and among facts and concepts. These are arrived at when similar research studies yield similar results time after time. 6.7    Answers to Self-Check Exercise (1) 1.    a 2. a 3. a .4. b 5. b 6. a 7. a 8. a 9. c 10 a Answers to Self-Check Exercise( 2) 1.    d 2. c 3. d4. d 5. d 6. c7. c 8. c 9. d 10. b 11. b 12. c 13. c 14. d 15. b 16. c 6.8    References \ Suggested Readings Baruah, T.C (1984). The English teachers Handbook, Sterling publishers Pvt. Ltd. 1984 Bose, K. (1979). Teaching of English Language A Modern Approach Doaba House Book Sellers & publishers, New Delhi. Choudhary, N.R. (2002): English Language Teaching, Himalaya Publish House. Mumbai David, E (1977): Classroom Techniques- Foreign Languages and English as a Second Language, New York, Harcourt Brace. Dave, Pratima S, (2002): Communicative Approach to the Teaching of English as a Second Language, Himalaya Publish House, Mumbai Grillett, M (1983): Developing Reading Comprehension, London, CUP. Halbe Malati, (2005): Methodology of English Teaching, Himalaya Publish House, Mumbai Johnson, K (1983): Communicative Syllabus Design and Methodology, Oxford, Pergamon Press Widdowson, HG (1979): Teaching language as Communication, London, OUP. Kohli, A .L (1984).Techniques of Teaching English Language IX edition Dhanpat Rai & Sons, Delhi Morgan & Rinvoluri (1991): New Ways of Dictation, London, Longman. Mukalel, J. C. (1998): Approaches to English Language Teaching, Sterling Publishing House, New Delhi. Valdmen., (1987) “Trends in Language Teaching, New York, London Mac Graw Hill. 6.9    Terminal Questions 1.    What do you understand by curriculum? Explain its concept and principles. 2.    In which ways curriculum affected by various factors? *********** UNIT -7 Language Learning Resources Structure 7.1    Introduction 7.2   Objectives 7.3   Meaning of language learning Resources Self- Check Exercise (1) 7.4   Need of language learning resources; Importance of language learning resources Self- Check Exercise(2) 7.5  Summary 7.6   Glossary 7.7   Answers to Self-Check Exercises 7.8   Reference \ Suggested Readings 7.9   Terminal Questions 7.1    Introduction A rich language learning environment offering a variety of carefully chosen, well-presented and easily accessible resources will allow learners to work according to their individual interests, needs and learning styles. It will provide a context in which learners can develop a range of language and transferable skills and which will complement classroombased teaching. Learners will obviously be able to learn most effectively if they are able to choose activities and materials which best accord with their dominant learning style but care must be taken with the choice available. 7.2    Objectives After going through this lesson, you should be able to: >    Explain the meaning of learning resources >    Explain the need of learning resources >    State the importance of language learning resources >    Discuss the importance of organization of field visits >    Explain the exhibitions 7.3    Meaning of Language Learning Resources Languages for instruction (including the teaching of the language/s of a host university to non‐native speakers), where the target language is normally used as the language of instruction. For many institutions in the EU this will often relate to the teaching of courses through the medium of English. Learning resources are texts, videos, software, and other materials that teachers use to assist students to meet the expectations for learning defined by provincial or local curricula. Before a learning resource is used in a classroom, it must be evaluated and approved at either the provincial or local level. Evaluation criteria may include curriculum fit, social considerations, and age or developmental appropriateness. Self- Check Exercise (1) 1.    TLM stands for? a)    Teaching Learning Material. b)    Technology Learning Machines. c)    Technology Learning Material. d)    Teaching Learning Material. 2.    Which of the following resource is least useful? a)    Motion Picture. b)    Exhibits. c)    Field Trips. d)    Demonstrations. 3.    Which is the most useful resource out of the following? a)    Contrived Experiences. b)    Dramatic Participation. c)    Field Trips. d)    Direct Purposeful Experiences. 4.    Which of the following learning resource is more concrete? a)    Dramatized Experience. b)    Motion Pictures. c)    Recordings. d)    Text. 5.    What is the purpose of using teaching learning material? a)    Concept Formation. b)    Making learning fun. c)    Practical applications. d)    All of the above. 6.     Which of the following is not an audio teaching -Learning material? a)    Telephonic Conversations. b)    Audio -disc. c)    Gramophone record. d)    Comic strips. 7.    Which of the following is a visual teaching learning material? a)    Textbook. b)    Models. c)    Film strips. d)    All of the above. 8.    Which of the following is non - projected 2D teaching learning material? a)    Model b)    Globe. c)    Comic strips. d)    Overhead head projector. 9.     Which of the following teaching learning material is projected? a)    Models. b)    Film strips. c)    Diorama. d)    Globe. 10.    Which of the following is audio-visual teaching learning material? a)    Motion picture film. b)    Television. c)    Video disc. d)    All of the above. 11.      Which of the following is only a visual teaching learning material? a)    Radio broadcast. b)    Drawing charts. c)    Motion picture film. d)    Multimedia. 12.    In a class a teacher wants to show climate, soil, forest areas to the students. which kind of map she would use? a)    Physical map. b)    Political map. c)    Economic map. d)    Social map. 13.    It is the combination of various elements like text, colour, graphics, animation, audio and video? a)    Multimedia. b)    Textbooks. c)    Animation videos. d)    None of the above. 7.4 Need of Language Learning Resources The provision and effective use of high-quality learning resources facilitates students’ construction of understanding through inquiry so they are better able to explore, question, identify, organize, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information. These processes and skills enhance deeper understanding of subject matter and promote information literacy and lifelong learning. A variety of learning resources is needed to support individual and group instruction, to permit both teacher-directed and student-directed activities, and to meet the varying needs of students and educators. The ministry advocates resource-based learning, and therefore evaluates several media formats including fiction and non-fiction print, audiovisual resources, electronic resources – both online and in physical format, multi-resource packages, manipulatives, and games etc. Importance of Language Learning Resources The learning environment plays a crucial role in shaping and enhancing the learning process. Well-designed learning spaces and diverse resources create meaningful opportunities for students to explore ideas, collaborate, solve problems, and develop essential knowledge and skills. The effective implementation of the New School Model relies on utilizing a wide range of instructional materials that support student learning. These resources may include books, guided and independent reading materials, writing programs, e-learning tools, technological resources, hands-on manipulatives, and other specialized materials that align with subject matter and learning objectives. Teachers incorporate engaging and dynamic materials to bring curriculum concepts to life, ensuring that students are actively involved in their education. Over time, both students and parents observe a transition from traditional textbookbased learning to a standards-based approach, aligning educational practices with globally recognized best practices. Within the New School Model, schools create an environment that invites students to explore, investigate, learn, and collaborate. This setting fosters meaningful student engagement and interaction, making learning an active and immersive experience. Flexible instructional spaces encourage student participation, while learning is made visible through the display of student work. Showcasing student projects not only celebrates their achievements but also informs visitors about the type of learning taking place within the space. Both indoor and outdoor learning environments contribute to students' physical, social, and cognitive development. These spaces are thoughtfully organized to provide varied learning opportunities, such as collaborative thinking, artistic exploration, focused instruction, and teamwork. Curriculum resources are designed to reflect students' familiar experiences while also introducing new and innovative learning approaches that help them grasp complex and abstract concepts. Digital technology is carefully integrated into the learning process, allowing students to connect with global resources and develop new ways of thinking. Technology-rich environments and multi-sensory learning tools cater to different learning styles, maximizing student engagement and fostering a lifelong love for learning. Self- Check Exercise (2) 1.    Which of the following is non - projected 2D teaching learning material? e) Model f) Globe. g) Comic strips. h) Overhead head projector. 2.     Which of the following teaching learning material is projected? e)    Models. f)    Film strips. g)    Diorama. h)    Globe. 3.    Which of the following is audio-visual teaching learning material? e)    Motion picture film. f)Television. g)    Video disc. h)    All of the above. 4.      Which of the following is only a visual teaching learning material? e)    Radio broadcast. f)Drawing charts. g)    Motion picture film. h)    Multimedia. 5.    In a class a teacher wants to show climate, soil, forest areas to the students. which kind of map she would use? e)    Physical map. f)    Political map. g)    Economic map. h)    Social map. 6.    It is the combination of various elements like text, colour, graphics, animation, audio and video? e)    Multimedia. f)    Textbooks. g)    Animation videos. h)    None of the above. 7.5    Summary In this lesson we learned about the different types of learning resources and their need and importance. With a greater number if "digital natives" in our college classrooms, the expectation for interactive and multimedia learning resources is growing. For a long time textbooks were the major learning resource in most college courses. With the growth of multimedia and other resource materials teachers need to decide what place textbooks will have in the teaching of a course. Here are some sites that might help you choose the right textbook for your course or program. 7.6    Glossary •    Language Learning Resource: Languages for instruction (including the teaching of the language/s of a host university to non‐native speakers), where the target language is normally used as the language of instruction. •    Field Trip: It is a visit to a place outside the regular classroom which is designed to achieve certain objectives, which cannot be achieved as well by using other means. •    Exhibition: refers to projects, presentations, or products through which students “exhibit” what they have learned, usually as a way of demonstrating whether and to what degree they have achieved expected learning standards or learning objectives. An exhibition is typically both a learning experience in itself and a means of evaluating academic progress and achievement. 7.7    Answers to Self-Check Exercise (1) 1.    a 2. a 3. d 4. a 5. d 6. d 7. d 8. c 9. b 10. d 11. b 12. a 13. a Answers to Self-Check Exercise (2) 1.    The target language is used as the language for instruction. 2.    Individual and Group- instruction. 3.    Zoos, museums, theater, supermarket. 4.    Hands-on Experiences. 5.    Progress and Achievement. 6.    Think critically and public speaking. 7.    Ideas and Knowledge. 8.   Life-Long. 9.   Abstract. 10.    Social- awareness. 7.8    References \ Suggested Reading Baruah, T.C (1984). The English teachers Handbook, Sterling publishers Pvt. Ltd. 1984 Bose, K. (1979). Teaching of English Language A Modern Approach Doaba House Book Sellers & publishers, New Delhi. Choudhary, N.R. (2002): English Language Teaching, Himalaya Publish House. Mumbai David, E (1977): Classroom Techniques- Foreign Languages and English as a Second Language, New York, Harcourt Brace. Dave, Pratima S, (2002): Communicative Approach to the Teaching of English as a Second Language, Himalaya Publish House, Mumbai Grillett, M (1983): Developing Reading Comprehension, London, CUP. Halbe Malati, (2005): Methodology of English Teaching, Himalaya Publish House, Mumbai Johnson, K (1983): Communicative Syllabus Design and Methodology, Oxford, Pergamon Press Widdowson, HG (1979): Teaching language as Communication, London, OUP. Kohli, A .L (1984).Techniques of Teaching English Language IX edition Dhanpat Rai & Sons, Delhi Morgan & Rinvoluri (1991): New Ways of Dictation, London, Longman. Mukalel, J. C. (1998): Approaches to English Language Teaching, Sterling Publishing House, New Delhi. Valdmen., (1987) “Trends in Language Teaching, New York, London Mac Graw Hill. 7.9    Terminal Questions 1.    What do you understand by learning resources? 2.    Organize a field trip and explain the various experiences. UNIT-8 Language Learning Resources Structure 8.1    Introduction 8.2   Objectives 8.3    Organization of field visits Self-Check Exercise(1) Exhibitions Self-Check Exercise(2) 8.4  Summary 8.5   Glossary 8.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise 8.7   Reference \ Suggested Readings 8.8    Terminal Questions 8.1   Introduction A rich language learning environment offering a variety of carefully chosen, well-presented and easily accessible resources will allow learners to work according to their individual interests, needs and learning styles. It will provide a context in which learners can develop a range of language and transferable skills and which will complement classroombased teaching. Learners will obviously be able to learn most effectively if they are able to choose activities and materials which best accord with their dominant learning style but care must be taken with the choice available. 8.2    Objectives By the end of this lesson, you should be able to: •  Define learning resources and explain their significance. •  Describe the need for learning resources in the educational process. •    Highlight the importance of language learning resources in enhancing language acquisition and development. •    Discuss the role of field visits in providing experiential learning opportunities. •    Explain the purpose and benefits of exhibitions in showcasing learning and fostering creativity. 8.3    Organization of Field Visits A field trip is an educational visit to a location outside the traditional classroom setting, designed to achieve specific learning objectives that cannot be effectively met through other instructional methods. For example, if students are learning about "cheese-making," simply reading about the process may not be sufficient. A field trip to a cheese production facility provides hands-on experience, making the lesson more engaging and impactful. Field trips allow students to step outside their usual learning environment and experience new concepts firsthand. Common destinations include zoos, colleges, museums, theaters, and other educational institutions. Key Features of Field Trips •    Enhancing Conceptual Understanding: Field trips facilitate the learning of abstract concepts by providing students with real-world exposure to the subject matter. •    Boosting Interest and Engagement: These experiences increase student motivation, curiosity, and enthusiasm for learning, making lessons more dynamic and memorable. •    Encouraging Social Interaction: Field trips provide opportunities for collaboration among students, teachers, and even parents. They foster teamwork, discussion, and interaction through activities such as selecting the venue, preparing questions, and reflecting on experiences. •    Developing Social Awareness: Field trips make students more aware of learning opportunities in everyday settings. Visits to places like supermarkets or community centers can help students observe, question, and learn in real-life contexts. Purpose of Field Trips •    Enriching the Curriculum: Field trips provide hands-on experiences that deepen students' understanding of classroom subjects. •    Experiential Learning: Firsthand experiences make learning more meaningful and help students retain information better. •    Developing Practical Skills: Activities like note-taking, report writing, and reflective discussions help students enhance communication and analytical skills. •    Fostering a Positive Attitude Toward Learning: These experiences break the monotony of regular lessons, making learning enjoyable and encouraging students to engage actively with their studies. •    Connecting Theory to Practice: Field trips help students see the relevance of classroom knowledge in real-life situations. For instance, students may learn how to determine blood type in a lab setting, but visiting a hospital can demonstrate the real-world importance of this skill in saving lives. Advantages of Field Trips •    Real-World Experience: Students gain firsthand knowledge by visiting relevant locations. For example, a trip to a farm provides a tangible understanding of domestic animals, reinforcing textbook concepts. •    Enhancing Education Quality: Outdoor learning opportunities deepen student comprehension and make lessons more engaging. •    Strengthening Social Bonds: Working together on field trips fosters stronger relationships among students and between students and teachers. Group activities like cleaning up a natural site can also instill teamwork and responsibility. Challenges of Field Trips •    Time Constraints: Organizing a field trip requires approvals, logistical planning, and alignment with the school’s schedule, which can be time-consuming. •    Lack of Administrative Support: Budget constraints may limit the availability of resources, leaving students to bear the costs. •    Student Behavior Issues: Disruptive behavior or lack of discipline among students can negatively impact the success of the trip and hinder learning. •    Resource Limitations & Venue Selection: Schools may struggle to provide adequate materials, and students may not always have a say in choosing the destination. •    Health and Safety Concerns: Some students may experience motion sickness or other medical issues while traveling, requiring careful planning and supervision. Self- Check Exercise (1) 1.    Language Learning Resources refer to. 2.    The need of language learning resources include. 3.    The place for field trips can be. 4.    Field trips are rich in. 5.    Field- trips facilitate the learning of __________ concepts. 6.    Field -trips develops . Exhibitions Exhibitions, whether international, national, or local, provide a platform to showcase students' ideas, projects, and creative work. They offer educators, parents, and the broader community an opportunity to engage with and reflect on students’ learning journeys. One notable example is The Hundred Languages of Children exhibition, which shares the educational experiences, research, and creativity of students, teachers, and parents from Reggio Emilia. This evolving project serves as a space for discussion, comparison of ideas, and deeper reflection on education. In educational settings, exhibitions are used to present student learning outcomes, demonstrating the knowledge and skills they have acquired. They serve both as a learning tool and an assessment method. Types of Exhibitions 1.    Culminating Exhibitions: These serve as final-year projects or capstone presentations where students showcase their cumulative learning and intellectual growth. 2.    Performance-Based Exhibitions: Used as summative assessments, these presentations evaluate student progress at the end of a course or unit. Role of Exhibitions in Education •    Encouraging Critical Thinking & Problem-Solving: Students must analyze and present their ideas effectively. •    Developing Key Skills: Exhibitions promote oral communication, public speaking, research, teamwork, and goalsetting. •    Interdisciplinary Learning: They often require students to integrate knowledge from multiple subjects, fostering a broader understanding. •    Connecting Learning to the Community: Many exhibitions incorporate real-world issues and community-based projects, making education more relevant. Exhibitions are typically assessed using standardized rubrics or evaluation criteria to ensure fairness and consistency. They may be reviewed by teachers, peers, or external experts, and in some cases, students present their reflections on their learning experiences. Some exhibitions are even open to the public, inviting broader community participation. Through exhibitions, students gain valuable experience in presenting their knowledge and engaging with an audience, preparing them for future academic and professional challenges. Self- Check Exercise (2) 1.    Exhibitions are means of evaluating academic _________ & . 2.    Exhibitions encourage students to . 3.  Language learning resources provide opportunities to explore ______ & . 4.  The Multi- sensory resources engaging students to become ________learners. 8.4    Summary In this lesson we learned about the different types of learning resources and their need and importance. With a greater number if "digital natives" in our college classrooms, the expectation for interactive and multimedia learning resources is growing. For a long time textbooks were the major learning resource in most college courses. With the growth of multimedia and other resource materials teachers need to decide what place textbooks will have in the teaching of a course. Here are some sites that might help you choose the right textbook for your course or program. 8.5    Glossary •    Language Learning Resource: Languages for instruction (including the teaching of the language/s of a host university to non‐native speakers), where the target language is normally used as the language of instruction. •    Field Trip: It is a visit to a place outside the regular classroom which is designed to achieve certain objectives, which cannot be achieved as well by using other means. •    Exhibition: A project, presentation, or product through which students showcase their learning, demonstrating the extent to which they have met expected learning standards or objectives. An exhibition serves as both an educational experience and an assessment tool for measuring academic progress and achievement. 8.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise (1) 1.    The target language is used as the language for instruction. 2.    Individual and Group- instruction. 3.    Zoos, museums, theater, supermarket. 4.    Hands-on Experiences. 5.    Abstract. 6.    Social- awareness. Answers to Self-Check Exercise (2) 1.    Progress and Achievement. 2.    Think critically and public speaking. 3.   Ideas and Knowledge. 4.   Life-Long. 8.7    References \ Suggested Reading Baruah, T.C (1984). The English teachers Handbook, Sterling publishers Pvt. Ltd. 1984 Bose, K. (1979). Teaching of English Language A Modern Approach Doaba House Book Sellers & publishers, New Delhi. Choudhary, N.R. (2002): English Language Teaching, Himalaya Publish House. Mumbai Dave, Pratima S, (2002): Communicative Approach to the Teaching of English as a Second Language, Himalaya Publish House, Mumbai Grillett, M (1983): Developing Reading Comprehension, London, CUP. Halbe Malati, (2005): Methodology of English Teaching, Himalaya Publish House, Mumbai Johnson, K (1983): Communicative Syllabus Design and Methodology, Oxford, Pergamon Press Widdowson, HG (1979): Teaching language as Communication, London, OUP. Kohli, A .L (1984).Techniques of Teaching English Language IX edition Dhanpat Rai & Sons, Delhi Morgan & Rinvoluri (1991): New Ways of Dictation, London, Longman. Mukalel, J. C. (1998): Approaches to English Language Teaching, Sterling Publishing House, New Delhi. Valdmen., (1987) “Trends in Language Teaching, New York, London Mac Graw Hill. 8.8    Terminal Questions 1.    What do you understand by learning resources? 2.    Organize a field trip and explain the various experiences. UNIT-9 Importance and Qualities of Various Teaching Aid in Language Teaching Structure 9.1    Introduction 9.2   Objectives 9.3    Meaning of Teaching aid; Importance of Teaching aid in Language Learning Self- Check Exercise(1) 9.4    Uses of Language Laboratory in developing linguistic skills Self-Check Exercise(2) 9.5  Summary 9.6   Glossary 9.7    Answers to Self-Check Exercises 9.8    References \ Suggested Readings 9.9    Terminal Questions 9.1    Introduction Teaching aids play a crucial role in enhancing the learning experience by creating a more visual, interactive, and engaging environment for students. When students are actively involved, they are more likely to grasp and retain the concepts being taught. Educators incorporate various teaching aids, including visual, audio, and hands-on tools, from the earliest stages of education. These aids can range from simple tools like blackboards and whiteboards to advanced audio-visual equipment such as DVD players and projectors. Interactive teaching aids, such as computers, maps, and other hands-on resources, foster greater student participation and comprehension. By integrating these tools into the curriculum, teachers can enhance engagement and improve learning outcomes effectively. 9.2    Objectives After going through this lesson, you should be able to: >    Explain the meaning of teaching aid >    Explain the importance of teaching aid in learning language >    Discuss the uses of language laboratory in developing linguistic skill 9.3    Meaning of Teaching Aid: A teaching aid is a tool that educators use to facilitate the teaching and learning process in the classroom. It serves as a bridge between theoretical concepts and real-world applications, making lessons more engaging and relatable for students. Teaching aids bring the environment into the classroom indirectly, transforming abstract ideas into concrete experiences for learners. The ultimate goal is to create a connection between classroom learning and students' everyday lives. Teaching aids encompass a variety of materials that help teachers convey concepts effectively. These can range from physical objects like counting beans for early math lessons to visual displays of historical figures and landmarks. Modern technology also plays a crucial role, with interactive whiteboards, tablets, and computers enhancing student engagement through virtual experiences. For example, a virtual tour of the Egyptian pyramids can make history come alive in ways that a textbook cannot. Similarly, live video interactions with scientists conducting field research can immerse students in real-world learning. Interactive tools, such as whiteboards connected to projectors, enable students to actively participate by manipulating objects on a touch screen. These hands-on experiences transform students from passive learners into active participants in the learning process. Importance of Teaching Aids in Language Learning The quality of teaching and learning is significantly influenced by the availability and use of teaching materials. Today, a wide variety of teaching aids, including audio recordings, videos, books, and digital resources, support effective instruction. Teaching aids simplify complex topics, making them easier for students to understand. They serve as visual representations of lessons, especially when introducing unfamiliar concepts. For instance, teaching children in a remote village about different types of houses would be far more effective with pictures or videos, as they may have never encountered such structures before. Various teaching tools have been proven to enhance learning outcomes. Educators who incorporate these resources, whether free or paid, often observe noticeable improvements in student comprehension and performance. Key Benefits of Teaching Aids in Language Learning •    Enhance Motivation – Engaging teaching aids capture students' interest, encouraging them to learn more effectively. •    Improve Clarity – Visual and interactive aids help teachers explain concepts more clearly. •    Discourage Rote Memorization – By promoting understanding, teaching aids reduce reliance on rote learning. •    Expand Vocabulary – Exposure to diverse teaching materials enhances students' language skills. •    Save Time and Effort – Lessons delivered with teaching aids require less repetition, leading to more efficient learning. •    Create an Active Classroom – Teaching aids make lessons dynamic and interactive, preventing monotony. •    Eliminate Dullness – Engaging materials make learning more enjoyable and stimulating. •    Provide Direct Experiences – Teaching aids expose students to expert insights and real-world experiences. The Need for Teaching Aids •    Help students retain concepts more effectively. •    Improve learning by fostering motivation. •    Enhance conceptual thinking through sensory experiences. •    Make lessons more interesting and engaging. •    Expand students’ vocabulary. •    Support teachers in making learning more permanent and impactful. •    Provide students with direct, real-world experiences. Self-Check Exercise(1) 1.    ''Lingua phone'' is like a: a)    Recorder. b)    Gramophone. c)    Television. d)    None of these. 2.    School television in India was started by: a)    All India Radio. b)    BBC c)    CCTA. d)    All of the above. 3.     ____________ in language teaching is the major force today. a)    Mechanical aids. b)    Electronic aids. c)    Technological aids. d)    All of the above. 4.    Teacher can use teaching aids for: a)    The sake of its use. b)    Time management. c)    Making students attentive. d)    Making teaching more interesting. 5.      Television is superior to radio as a teaching aid because: a)    It offers sound and sight in providing information. b)    It has gained popularity and cheap. c)    It has round the clock service and advertisements. d)    It offers live casts & reality shows. 6.        Teacher use visual aids to make teaching: a)    Passive. b)    Quicker. c)    Complex. d)    Interesting. 7.       Which of the following statements about teaching aids are correct? a)    They help student learn better. b)    They enhance rote learning. c)    They enhance memorizing information. d)    All. 8.       Techniques used by a teacher to teach include: a)    Interactive lecture. b)    Lecture. c)    Group work. d)    All of the above. 9.       The use teaching aids is justified on the grounds of : a)    Attracting student's attention in the classroom. b)    Optimizing learning outcomes of students. c)    Effective engagement of students in learning tasks. d)    Minimizing indiscipline problem in the classroom. 10.     Which of the following learner characteristics are likely to influence the effectiveness of teaching? a)    Learner's percentage, socio- economic background, and performance in learning of the concerned subject. b)    Learner's maturity level, academic performance level and motivational dispositions. c)    Learner's family background, age and habitation. 11.         There are teaching aids which are centered on certain skills such as reading, listening, & pronunciation etc. such teaching aids are called as: a)    Scientific teaching aids. b)    General Knowledge teaching aids. c)    Skill- based teaching aids. d)    Audio- Lingual teaching aids. 12.             To select media to teach lesson to a class, teacher should consider objectives of the lesson, age group of student knowledge about media to be used &: a)    Teaching Aids. b)    Teaching methods. c)    Evaluation system. d)    Mass media. 13.            Which of the following is a teaching aid? a)    Tape recorder. b)    Green board. c)    LCD Projector. d)    All of the above. 14.          Instrumental aids are used by the teacher to: a)    Clarify the concepts. b)    Ensure discipline. c)    Glorify the class. d)    All of the above. 15.       An effective teaching aid is one which: a)    Is colorful & good looking. b)    Activates all faculties. c)    Is visible to all students. d)    Easy to prepare & use. 9.4    Uses of Language Laboratory in Developing Linguistic Skills: Language learning is distinct from other academic subjects as it extends beyond passing exams or earning degrees. Mastering a language requires continuous practice in the four essential skills—reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Effective communication is a crucial asset, especially when seeking employment, as it involves attentive listening to understand meaning and responding with appropriate words and clear pronunciation. The language laboratory plays a pivotal role in facilitating the language learning process. As a technological tool, it provides advanced features that enhance students’ proficiency in a language, enabling effective communication. While its importance has grown significantly in modern education, it also presents certain challenges for both learners and educators. This article explores the significance of language laboratories and the obstacles they may pose. For any learner, a strong command of language is essential for effective communication, with clarity and accuracy being key components. Achieving language proficiency depends on both the learning process and the methods employed. In India’s current educational system, laboratory sessions are primarily associated with science subjects, while arts subjects lack practical components. Consequently, language laboratories are a relatively new concept for Indian students. In contrast, Western countries commonly use language labs to enhance language acquisition from an early stage. Advancements in technology have introduced innovative tools that support language learning. Digital multimedia controls, wireless headsets and microphones, and interactive response pads are just a few examples of resources that facilitate language education. These tools are designed not only to improve language instruction but also to aid in classroom assessments and remote learning. One of the primary benefits of a language laboratory is its role in evaluating students' speech. The technical resources available allow learners to access high-quality pronunciation samples, aiding in the development of clear and accurate speech. The combination of electronic devices engages both auditory and visual senses, accelerating the language acquisition process. Additionally, language laboratories provide a comprehensive collection of materials to support aural comprehension, oral and written proficiency, and cultural awareness. Learners can access broadcasts, television programs, web-assisted resources, and pre-recorded videos in the target language. These facilities offer an immersive experience akin to interacting with native speakers, significantly enhancing communication skills. Given the increasing demand for effective communication, the language laboratory has become an essential component of language learning. It serves as a powerful tool for students to refine their linguistic abilities, making it an indispensable resource in today’s educational landscape. Self-Check Exercise(2) 1.    Teaching- Aids are like the _______ of the lesson. 2.    Teaching- Aids discourage the act of __________. 3.    Teaching- Aid provides __________ of great __________ to the learners. 4.    The __________ lesson allows students to manipulate objects on the screen. 5.    Teaching -Aids provide complete example for_________ thinking. 6.    Presentation refers to the communication of _________. 9.5    Summary In this lesson, we explored the concept of teaching aids, their role in education, and the significance of textbooks. The textbook serves as a fundamental tool for language teachers, particularly those teaching foreign languages. While it is possible to learn a language without a textbook, doing so may lead to unnecessary repetition, omissions, and inefficiencies in learning. Without a structured textbook, language instruction can lack organization, leading to wasted time and energy. However, when properly designed and utilized, a textbook becomes a valuable resource for both teachers and students. Additionally, we examined the role of the language laboratory in language learning. In today’s interconnected, multilingual, and multicultural world, technological advancements have transformed communication, making language learning more essential than ever. Language laboratories provide an effective means of utilizing technology to enhance communication skills. They are not limited to learning a single language but can be used for acquiring multiple languages efficiently. By offering high-quality audio samples of spoken language, the language laboratory helps learners develop an understanding of pronunciation, sounds, and rhythm, making it a crucial tool for language acquisition. 9.6    Glossary •    Teaching Aids: Teaching aids are tools that assist teachers in facilitating the teaching and learning process within the classroom. They help bring theoretical concepts to life by creating an interactive and engaging learning environment. •    Language Laboratory: A language laboratory is a technological learning aid equipped with advanced tools that enhance language proficiency and communication skills. It provides students with interactive resources to improve their listening, speaking, reading, and writing abilities effectively. 9.7    Answers to Self- Check Exercise(1) 1.    b 2. a 3. c 4. d 5. a 6. d 7. a 8. d 9. c 10. b 11. c 12. a 13. d 14. a 15. b Answers to Self- Check Exercise(2) 1. Picture.2. Cramming. 3. Direct- experience, Experts4. Interactive. 5. Conceptual.6. Knowledge. 9.8    References \ Suggested Readings Baruah, T.C (1984). The English teachers Handbook, Sterling publishers Pvt. Ltd. 1984 Bose, K. (1979). Teaching of English Language A Modern Approach Doaba House Book Sellers & publishers, New Delhi. Choudhary, N.R. (2002): English Language Teaching, Himalaya Publish House. Mumbai David, E (1977): Classroom Techniques- Foreign Languages and English as a Second Language, New York, Harcourt Brace. Dave, Pratima S, (2002): Communicative Approach to the Teaching of English as a Second Language, Himalaya Publish House, Mumbai Grillett, M (1983): Developing Reading Comprehension, London, CUP. Halbe Malati, (2005): Methodology of English Teaching, Himalaya Publish House, Mumbai Johnson, K (1983): Communicative Syllabus Design and Methodology, Oxford, Pergamon Press Widdowson, HG (1979): Teaching language as Communication, London, OUP. Kohli, A .L (1984).Techniques of Teaching English Language IX edition Dhanpat Rai & Sons, Delhi Morgan & Rinvoluri (1991): New Ways of Dictation, London, Longman. Mukalel, J. C. (1998): Approaches to English Language Teaching, Sterling Publishing House, New Delhi. Valdmen., (1987) “Trends in Language Teaching, New York, London Mac Graw Hill. 9.9    Terminal Questions 1.    State the meaning and importance of teaching aid. 2.    Explain the role of language laboratory in developing linguistic skill. 104