---
title: "Vol 2 1"
book: "Philosophical Bases Of Education (Western)"
category: "General"
publisher: "Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd."
type: "Educational Material"
---

According to Latest Syllabus
Read For Sure Success
In University Examination
RATAN
TEXT BOOK
PHILOSOPHICAL BASES OF EDUCATION (WESTERN)
Vol-2
M.A.Education (Sem-II)
Dr. Priya Gahoi
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UNIT – 6
Idealism
Idealism with special reference to the Concepts of Knowledge, Reality, Values and their Educational Implications.
Lesson Structure

6.0 Introduction

6.1    Learning Objectives

6.2    Idealism with special reference to the Concepts of Knowledge, Reality, Values and their Educational Implications
Self Check Exercise (1)

6.3    Idealism in Education – What?; Universal Education; Relevance of Idealism in Education in the Emerging Indian Society
Self- Check Exercise(2)

6.4   Summary

6.5   Glossary

6.6   Answer to Self- Check Exercises

6.7   References /suggested readings

6.8   Terminal Questions

6.0   Introduction
Dear student,
In philosophy, idealism is the group of philosophies which assert that reality, or reality as we can know it, is fundamentally mental, mentally constructed, or otherwise immaterial. Epistemologically, idealism manifests as a skepticism about the possibility of knowing any mindindependent thing. Idealism is a term with several related meanings. Plato's theory of forms or "ideas" describes ideal forms (for example the platonic solids in geometry or abstracts like Goodness and Justice), as universals existing independently of any particular instance. In India,
Idealism has attained the highest watermark under the great seers and sages since the Vedic age. Every one of the great Indian philosophers is more or less an Idealist.

6.1    Learning Objectives
After reading this lesson students will be able to:

/    Understand Idealism with special reference to the Concepts of Knowledge, Reality, Values and their Educational Implications.

/    Explain the Relevance of Idealism in Education in the Emerging Indian Society.

6.2    Idealism with special reference to the concepts of knowledge, Reality, Values and their Educational Implications.
Idealism is a philosophical view that argues that reality is fundamentally shaped by the mind or ideas rather than physical objects or material substances. According to idealists, the material world derives its existence and characteristics from a more fundamental, mental or spiritual realm. In this view, consciousness, thought, and perception hold primary significance in understanding the nature of reality.
Plato, often regarded as the father of idealism, laid the foundation for many of the central ideas within this philosophy. His work, especially The Republic, presents a dualistic view of the world, divided between the world of ideal forms and the physical world. The ideal forms are eternal, perfect, and unchanging, while the physical world is imperfect and constantly in flux. For Plato, true knowledge could only be attained by contemplating these ideal forms, which exist beyond sensory experience and the physical realm.
Concepts of Knowledge in Idealism
For idealists, knowledge is not a mere accumulation of sensory information or experience. Rather, it is the process of uncovering the universal truths that exist within the mind. Plato's theory of knowledge, articulated in works like The Republic, distinguishes between the world of appearances (the material world) and the world of Forms (or Ideas), which represents true knowledge. According to Plato, the world of Forms exists independently of our sensory experiences and can only be understood through the use of reason and intellectual contemplation.
Concepts of Reality in Idealism
In the context of reality, idealism asserts that the material world is only a reflection or manifestation of a higher, mental or spiritual reality. Plato's famous "Allegory of the Cave" illustrates this distinction. Prisoners chained in a cave perceive only shadows cast on the wall, which represent mere appearances. For the prisoners, these shadows constitute their reality. However, once they break free and ascend out of the cave, they see the world of light and truth, a world that represents the higher, more permanent reality.
This allegory symbolizes the idealist view that true reality is not found in the sensory world but in the world of eternal ideas, which can only be accessed through reasoning and intellectual insight. In this sense, reality for idealists is inherently mental and transcendent, independent of the material world and beyond what we can perceive with our senses.
Concepts of Values in Idealism
Values in idealism are closely tied to the pursuit of universal truths and ideals. Plato believed that the highest values—such as beauty, truth, justice, and goodness—are not subjective or relative but absolute and eternal. These values exist independently of human perceptions and societal influences.
In education, idealists stress the importance of nurturing an appreciation for these eternal values. Education, from this perspective, is not merely about acquiring practical skills or knowledge for personal gain, but about aligning oneself with the higher ideals that form the foundation of a just and harmonious society. These values, once understood, guide individual behavior and societal structures toward the good.
Educational Implications of Idealism
Idealism has profound implications for education, particularly in the cultivation of intellectual and moral virtues. In Plato’s view, the role of education is to help individuals access the world of Forms and grasp the eternal truths that reside within the mind. Education, therefore, should be centered on intellectual development and the pursuit of knowledge through reason, rather than sensory experience or material concerns.

1.    Curriculum Design: In an idealist educational framework, the curriculum should emphasize subjects that help students engage with abstract ideas and universal truths, such as philosophy, mathematics, and the arts. These subjects are seen as tools for developing the mind’s ability to reason and understand eternal principles. Mathematics, for example, is considered a perfect subject for idealist education, as it deals with abstract concepts that are timeless and universally true.

2.    Role of the Teacher: Teachers are seen not just as instructors of facts but as guides who help students uncover deeper truths about the world and themselves.

3.Moral Education: Idealism emphasizes the development of the whole person, which includes both intellectual and moral education. Idealist educators believe that education should guide students toward understanding and embodying the highest values, such as justice, virtue, and integrity.

3.    Focus on the Mind and Spirit: Idealism stresses that education should cultivate not only the intellect but also the spiritual and moral dimensions of students. This contrasts with more pragmatic or materialist educational philosophies, which prioritize practical skills or scientific knowledge.
Idealism has been also compared to realism. In the words of Brubachar, “Some realists take the view that mental functions can be reduced to bodily ones, while certain idealists make matter a function of the mind. The idealists arrive at their monism by pointing out that it is mind that is central in understanding the world.”
Eminent educators in the philosophy of education have tried to reduce philosophies to a limited number of types or “schools” of philosophical thought. For example, we find a general agreement in the works of Rusk and Ross as regards their classifications. Rusk classifies schools of Philosophy into Naturalism, Idealism and Skepticism. He again dismisses the last as it contains little vale for the educator, and adds Pragmatism as a fourth category. He describes pragmatism as a combination of the methods of Naturalism with the conclusions of Idealism. Ross agrees with this view. But in the penultimate chapter of his book he introduces Realism. Perhaps he did this being influenced by the philosophy of John Adams. Greater divergences are found in the works of the American writers. J. D. Bulter. For example, he classifies philosophical thought into Naturalism, Idealism, Realism and Pragmatism. R. C. Lodge classifies in the same manner omitting Naturalism. J. S. Brubacher groups Educational
Philosophy as progressive and traditional or Essentialism. But whatever classification we may decide upon, the only conclusion at which one can arrive is at to greater or lesser degree, philosophical theories are eclectic. For example Rousseau, who characterized by Adams as “Perhaps the most prominent Naturalist who ever wrote on education,” is seen by Rusk to be an Idealist who opposed nature, “not to spirit but to social convention, and whose Naturalistic stage of education was merely preparatory to moral, aesthetic and religious training.” Hence classification of philosophies into different ‘schools’ will never be watertight because its categories will overlap.
Idealism may be found in the works of Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi, Sri Aurobindo and Gopabandhu Dash in the modern times. While the Vedas, the Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita as well as the message of the Buddha and Sankara display Idealism in ancient Bharat.
Definitions of idealism
To make the meaning of Idealism more clear give below some important definitions as given by eminent scholars-

i.      “Idealism holds that ultimate reality is spiritualism.’’ D. M. Dutta

ii.     The quote from J.S. Ross reflects a central idea in idealistic philosophy, which holds that
the fundamental nature of reality is mental or spiritual rather than physical. According to idealism, the world, and everything in it, is essentially shaped or constituted by consciousness or thought. This contrasts with materialism, which views matter as the fundamental substance of reality.
Chief Exponents of the Idealism

(i)    The Vedic Rishis.

(ii)    Plato—A Greek Philosopher (427-347 B.C.)

(iii)   Kant—A German Philosopher (1724-1804 A.D.)

(iv)   Hegel—A German Philosopher (1770-1831 A.D.)

(v)   Froebel—A German Philosopher (1772-1852 A.D.)

(vi)    William T. Haris—American Philosopher (1835-1909 A.D.)

(vii)    Swami Dayananda—An Indian Philosopher (1825-1883 A.D.)

(viii)    RabindraNath Tagore—An Indian Philosopher (1861-1941 A.D)

(ix)    AurobindoGhosh—An Indian Philosopher (1872-1950 A.D.)
Upanishads’ Idealism
Asato ma sad gamaya,
Tamaso ma jyotirgamaya,
Mrtyor ma amartamgamaya.
Lead me from unreal to the real,
Lead me from darkness to light,
Lead me from death to immortality.
—Brihadaranyak Upanishad
Yastu Vijnanauan Bhauati
Tasyendriyani Vasyani
Sadasvaiya Saratheh
(He who is possessed of supreme knowledge by concentration of mind must have his senses under control, like spirited steeds controlled by a charioteer.
—Kathopanishad
Chief characteristics of idealism
The following are the chief characteristics of idealism:
Idealism posits that the universe exists within spirit, with spirit being the fundamental constituent of all reality. According to this view, only mental life can truly be known because the mind is limited to understanding its own states and the elements connected to it. Each individual human mind is seen as a part of a universal mind, implying that nothing exists outside of this collective consciousness. As a result, only rational or spiritual
knowledge is regarded as true knowledge. This distinction elevates philosophy and the social sciences above the physical or natural sciences, asserting their superior importance in understanding the nature of existence and reality.The universe exists in spirit. According to idealism, the spirits is the fundamental constituent of the universe. It points out that only mental life can be known, because the mind is capable of knowing only its own states and its adjuncts. Every individual human mind is a part of the universal mind, outside which nothing exists. For this reason, rational or spiritual knowledge is the only true knowledge. BY virtue of this distinction, philosophy and the other social sciences are far more important than the physical or natural sciences.

1.    Teleological explanation of the universe. In the words of Stella V. Henderson, “Idealism emphasizes the spiritual side of man. Because, to the idealist, spiritual values are the most important growing out of metaphysical, idealism would emphasize spiritual growth”. Idealism propounds that human life and natural phenomena have a common goal, and that both man and nature try to achieve this goal. This concept finds its best explanation in the contemporary Indian philosopher Sri Aurobindo’s thought. Idealists do not challenge or deny the importance of science, but they do not completely accept its explanation of the universe since it finds no place for spiritual values.

2.    Man is central in creation. Idealists point out that man is at the centre of the universe. In the words of Rusk, “It bestows dignity and grandeur upon human life by emphasizing the distinctiveness of man’s nature, attributing to him powers not possessed by animals, which issues in ideals –logical, ethical and aesthetic: it admits the existence of a Supreme Being: by its respect for human personality it provides the basis for democracy”.

3.    Emphasis upon normative and social sciences. In the field of education, idealists place greater stress upon normative and social sciences than upon the natural and physical. The normative sciences are-ethics, logic and aesthetics. Of the social sciences the main ones are sociology and psychology. Idealists explain the universe on the basis of these sciences.

4.    Normative description of the universe. Idealists have offered a normative and value-oriented explanation of the universe. For the idealist, facts along are not sufficient explanation. The universe as a whole is explicable in terms of the ideals of truth, good and beauty.

5.    Conceptualism. In its epistemology, idealism is conceptualism, for it believes which objects have no existence apart from the concepts related to them. An object and its qualities are not independent as the knowledge of the object. Knowledge influences the object, and this knowledge is obtained, not through perception but indirectly, through the medium of concepts or ideas. Objects have no public reality, for they appear different to different individuals. All existence is related to consciousness.

6.    Universe is knowable. Idealists believe that the universe can be comprehended through the mind, because both the mind and the universe are constituted of the same elements, intellect and spiritual essence. Hegel has gone so far as to identify nature and mind by saying that the various categories of knowledge or mind are the different stages of the universe’s development.

7.    Greater emphasis upon the mental or spiritual aspect of the universe. The idealist conception of the universe does not either deny or neglect the physical aspect of it but is based on the mental or spiritual aspect. It is this higher aspect of reality which grants a measure of meaning to the lower reality.
Idealism as a Philosophical Doctrine
Among the modern schools of philosophy, idealism is perhaps the oldest one and began with the dawn of civilization, when man could systematize his ideas. But as a branch of philosophy it began with Socrates in the western part of the world (Greece). Prof. Hornie in his book “Idealism as a Philosophical Doctrine” pointed out the term “Idealism has been derivered from two distinct sources one is word ‘IDEA’’on the other from “ideal”. The words idea, ideal and ideology all came into the vocabulary of philosophy from the Greek world. These three words, have in common the fact that they refer to something in which, figuratively, things seen by us differs from each other. When so many persons see a particular thing, they express many different views. Therefore, it is very essential to make certain that when we use these words to designate them, we should be careful to understand what each designation refers to
Plato’s Allegory of the Cave demonstrates the difference between the material world and the ideals. In his story, prisoners are chained together facing the wall of a cave so that all they can see is only the shadows on the wall, shadows that in reality are formed by the world outside the cave. That prisoner will then realize that the sun is the source of the light, which reflects
objects outside the cave, but the other prisoners do not believe this. Rather, they continue to believe in the shadows, much as we believe in the material world. We are chained to it by our inability to search for real truths and by our lack of concern for what is real.
An art, a delicate flower or a girl having extraordinary beauty are appreciated by all for their trait of beauty. But the things of beauty, like the art, the flower, and the girl will definitely perish. But the idea of “beauty” persists. Similarly, the idea of good pervades a teacher who devotes all his life to education of the children under his care or a doctor, who does not take money from his patients and serves them with interest or a humanized officer, who does not take bribe and works with devotion. The teacher, the doctor and the officer will all perish, but the idea of goodness                                                                          persists.
The idealists claim that ideas are supreme, not the physical forms. The physical material things will wither away in course of time, whereas the ideas never perish. They do not deny the existence of the world around us-the world of houses, hills, stars, and al the objects and events with which science and our senses acquaint us. They maintain that real as these things are they are not ultimately real. They are manifestation of more fundamental ideas which are more universal in nature.
An art, a delicate flower or a girl having
Essence of Idealism

i.    Idealism believes in the universality of one ultimate reality i.e. , absolute or the self.

ii.    Idealism regards man as a spiritual being.

iii.    The world of ideas and values are more important than the world of matter.

iv.    Values are absolute and fixed.

v.    Evil is not a real existent value but it is the negative value.

vi.    Idealism does not recognize the independent existence of nature.

vii.    This world is the expression of mind.

viii.    Besides the material world there is a mental world, which is more meaningful than the material world.

ix.    The world is not purposeless. It is a purposeful creation.

x.    Human life has its aim. It is not aimless.
Self- Check Exercise(1)

1.    Who Said, “Idealism holds that ultimate reality is spiritualism.’’

(a)    D.M. Dutta                (b) Plato
(c)    J.S. Ross                 (d) R.N. Tagore

2.    Who Said “Idealistic philosophy takes many and varied forms, but the postulate underlying all this is that mind or spirit is the essential world stuff, that the true reality of is of a mental character’’

(a) Plato               (b) J.S. Ross
(c) Vivekananda             (d) D.M. Dutta

3.    Plato wrote the Republic.                       True / false

4.    Idealistic Education systems supports scientific progress. True / false

6. 3 Idealism in Education – What?
Education, according to the idealists, is the most important invention of mankind. Man without education would be living just like an animal. It is education which leads one to the highest moral conduct and deepest spiritual insight. As a result, man is able to develop an insight into the truth, the beauty and the goodness. Idealistic system of education helps man to “seek the truth and avoid error, enjoy the beauty and discard ugliness, espouse the good and deprecate evil.”
Man must learn how to suppress and conquer desire by the help of strong willpower. He can develop this power by the help of education. To realize the ultimate goal of life “education has to feed the conscience by nurturing it in the desired direction.”
Idealism and Aims in Education
For the idealists, there are two sources from which aims of education flow. The first source being the welfare of the individual and the second for the good of the society. The welfare of the individual refers to “self-realization” or “spiritual becoming. “The aim of the life, according to the idealists is self-realization and thus the aim of education.
The second source, being the welfare of the society refers to a perfect democratic society, which emphasizes on the value of equality, fraternity, liberty and justice. Such a form of society can be established only with the help of education based on idealistic philosophy.
The Exaltation of Human Personality or Self-realization
oneself, which, in essence, refers to recognizing the soul’s true nature. Idealism posits that the human soul is part of the universal or supreme soul. Man’s true form lies in realizing this connection with the universal soul, and through self-knowledge, one can achieve a perfect pattern in life.
In the idealist view, the purpose of education is to help individuals achieve self-realization. Education, therefore, is not just about learning facts but about understanding one's true essence, a process that leads to liberation or "mukti.". As J.S. Ross states, the goal of education is the exaltation of personality and the realization of the highest potentialities of the self.
Furthermore, idealism advocates for universal education. Since every mind is seen as a part of the Absolute or God, education should not be limited to a select few but should aim for the development of all individuals in society. Indian sages, deeply rooted in the idea of unity, believed that all levels of life are interconnected. This unity is reflected in the concept of ‘samsara,’ which views the world as a continuous cycle, with all individuals forming part of a larger whole. In this sense, education should nurture a sense of unity, fellow-feeling, and a spirit of brotherhood.
This social and inclusive perspective on education is highlighted by thinkers like Rusk, who emphasized that human nature is inherently social. Education, therefore, should aim to foster the full realization of an individual’s potential within the context of the broader human community. By participating in collective human endeavors and enhancing cultural values that belong to all of humanity, individuals can move closer to realizing their true, universal selves.
Development of Inventive and Creative Powers
The physical world is in a constant state of flux, and it is up to humans to be resourceful and innovative to adapt to these changes, shaping the environment to meet their needs. This process involves transforming nature to serve human purposes. As Ross eloquently puts it, "Moral values, which are spiritual, can be found in physical activities. Intellectual values are pursued in the application of skills to the problems of the physical environment, and aesthetic values are discovered in the mastery man acquires over his material in his craft."
For humanity to effectively alter and mold the physical world, education must play a crucial role in fostering children's inventive and creative potential. It should encourage the development of skills that enable children to actively engage with their surroundings, empowering them to master and shape the material world according to their needs.
Idealism and Curriculum
Idealism denies the reality of external objects independent of the knowing minds. The mind is the primary reality. “Either there are no external objects or, they are mind-independent. Our ideas are not representations of external objects independent of mind. This is the doctrine of idealism.”
To achieve this, idealist educational philosophy stresses a curriculum designed to cultivate a sense of appreciation for truth, beauty, and goodness. Clutton Brock’s view on “spirit” is referenced, which highlights three activities or desires of the spirit: effort (karma), devotion (bhakti), and knowledge (gyan). These three aspects come together to guide the individual towards the pursuit of spiritual perfection.
The idealistic curriculum aims to foster moral and aesthetic development through training in these areas, while also promoting intellectual growth through subjects like science, social studies, mathematics, and language. Physical education is included to ensure the development of the body, contributing to the overall development of the individual’s physical, moral, and intellectual aspects.
In short, idealism in education focuses on holistic development—balancing the physical, intellectual, and moral aspects to help students realize their spiritual nature and connect with higher truths.
Idealists like to give to the children such knowledge as is of permanent value. They attach a higher importance to humanities than physical and biological sciences. They would like to teach about culture, art, morality, history, philosophy and literature.
Idealism Methods of Teaching
The passage you've shared discusses the idealist philosophy in education, particularly focusing on their approach to teaching methods. It points out that idealists are not tied to any specific teaching method but instead emphasize the general nature of teaching methods and their flexibility.
Idealism and Methodology: Idealists do not endorse any one method of teaching but rather speak about the general approach to methods. They focus more on the nature of teaching, with different idealist philosophers adopting various methods.
Philosophers and Their Methods: The passage mentions several key idealist philosophers and their teaching methods:
Socrates used the questioning method.
Plato evolved Socrates’ method into a conversational, logical method.
Aristotle used inductive and deductive reasoning.
Hegel embraced a logical method.
Pestalozzi adopted the self-activity method.
Herbart believed in combining instruction with education and sometimes used discussion and debate.
Froebel viewed the classroom as a garden, where the educator nurtures the learner like a gardener tending to a plant.
Idealists on Education: The passage stresses that idealists focus on the lofty goals of education, aiming to develop individuals through the cultivation of their intellectual and moral potential. The methods themselves are flexible, as long as they support this overarching goal.
Discussion and Lecture Methods: In classroom practice, idealists emphasize the use of discussion and lecture methods. The Socratic method (questioning and dialogue) and the lecture method (well-prepared and participatory rather than authoritarian) are both valued.
Overall, while idealists do not propose a fixed method, they stress that the method should facilitate an engaging and thoughtful learning process, helping students achieve their highest potential in alignment with idealist goals.
Idealism and Discipline
According to the idealists, education is to be ideal-centred. Self-realization is the goal of life and the aim of education. To achieve this aim, idealists do not favour free discipline. They believe that strict discipline is necessary for self-realization. Therefore, teachers should impose discipline upon the students. He should try to prepare an environment which will help the students to realize the higher values of life through self-discipline. It is a spontaneous and selfimposed control. The teacher should act as a guide at every step and inspire his students to achieve higher values in life.
Idealism and the Child
The philosophy of Idealism does not consider the child as a boy. It believes that the child is both mind and body in which mind is more important. The teachers of India laid more emphasis on the spiritual aspect of the child. While preaching “thou art” to the child, they wanted to tell that the child is not only body but Atma. In the form of body the child is tied with time and place.
Whereas in the form of Atma is has universal essence, the idealists of India consider the child as Atma and the function of education is to enable the child to recognize its real nature. Education should develop the spiritual powers of the child.
The student is also a social being. He can actualize his ‘self’ only through the service of other ‘selves’. Such a belief is the foundation of a modern offshoot of idealism known as humanistic idealism. Unlike Rousseau who considered the child as good by nature and Hobbes who considered man as base by nature, idealists look at the child as neither good nor base by nature. They think that it has the potential to be good or bad which depends for its actualization upon the environment and education.
The teacher, and the student are equals as both of them are spiritual in nature and have a common goal-‘self-realization’ The teacher, because of his age has gone ahead of the student towards the goal. He is just like the member of an advance party in a mountaineering expedition.
Idealism and the School
Since each particular idea leads back to one great idea that encompanies all existence, Idealists emphasize the inter relatedness of ideas. The metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and logic of Idealism are all interrelated. This connectedness or interrelatedness can be illustrated by considering the relationship of the school to civilization. Idealists argue that the school, as an institution is a civilizing agency. Its primary function is to civilize the young by imposing and transmitting the cultural heritage upon them.
Idealism and the Teacher
The Svetasvatara Upanishad in one of the mantras has said that the mystical knowledge contained in it could be comprehended by those alone, who are extremely devoted to oth God and the teacher. Since learning is not reading but realization, the teachers occupied their place in the society, next to that of god. Knowledge in modern system of education has been stored up in a library like household furniture. Without the help of books and library, a modern teacher cannot impart instruction. But in Vedic system of education, Knowledge was the furniture of the mind. The teacher was addressed as guru and commanded more respect than that of the king in the society. He possessed the highest moral and spiritual qualifications and influence. Vedic system believed that truth cannot be realized when taught by an inferior man. A guru must be well versed in the sacred lore and must have realized the Brahman. A Brahmanishtha teacher alone can teach the students the truth exactly as he knows. Guru was also addressed as acharya which is derived from the term ‘Char’ which means one who trains up others in good
behavior. The term acharya is also interpreted as the source of all religion. In either sense the teacher was expected to train the students in good behavior, the essence of “Dharma” and naturally possess those qualities himself.
The title acharya belongs to one who initiates a student and teaches him whole veda. One who teaches only a portion of the Veda or who teaches the angas of the Veda was called as Upadhyaya. Acharya is chief among all gurus. He is called atiguru along with father and mother.
The ancient Hindu teacher was devoted to his work and not to the monetary aspects. Society also honored him only so long as he followed hese injunction of the scriptures. The Smriti of Atri says that a teacher who teaches on payment becomes a jackal in his next life. The prajaPatiSmiti condemns such a teacher as being unfit for being invited at Shraddha. Brihad Yama Smiti condemns such a teacher as a dealer in veda. The Veda VyasaSmriti calls him the murderer of a Brahmana. Other authors of more prominent smritis also talk in the same tune. Manu says that such a teacher is unworthy of being invited at any ceremony performed in honour of Gods. Manu, it is very interesting to note, condemns here, not only the person who charges fees on a compulsory basis but also the students who learn from such a teacher. This attitude is an unmistakable expression of how bitterly people hated the system of bartering knowledge with money. Yajnavalkya calls it an Upapataka and puts such a teacher in the same category as persons who kill vows, commit thefts, practice adultery, sell children, etc. Thus the teachers of ancient India occupied a very high position in society, not because they were the custodians of knowledge, but also because they were men of character and discipline.
Relevances of Idealism in Education in the Emerging Indian Society

i)    Lofty Aims of Education
The philosophy of idealism is relevant to the education in the emerging Indian society as it provides quite a few lofty aims of education as self-realization, education for humanization, development of personality, harmony of man and nature, Preservation of Cultural Heritage
Some of the conservative and traditional ideas of the idealist are also relevant to modern Indian education. This philosophy seeks to preserve the cultural heritage of the past by transmitting it to children, the immature members of the society, so that they continue and
extend Indian culture into the future. A great priority is placed on studying and learning systematically organized bodies of knowledge and on cultivation of socially acceptable standards of behavior.

iii)    Position of the Teacher
The position of teacher in the idealist scheme of education is focal. The teacher is described by the idealists as a ‘co-worker with God in perfecting man’, spiritual heritage’, ‘a protector of mind- the highest form of existence in the cosmos’; ‘a maker of democracies’, ‘an apostle of peace and progress’ and ‘a compendium of all virtues’. He is to be the model of knowledge and values that the students of the emerging Indian society can imitate. He should be able to integrate his life harmoniously. As students imitate their teacher, they too are expected to develop a sense of order and perspective though it is difficult for any teacher in the modern Indian society to fit into the exciting role. A teacher with idealistic philosophy should come to the teaching profession to humanize the educative process of modern Indian.

iv)    Self-discipline
The idealists lay emphasis on self-discipline. They believe that human behavior should have internal control rather than such external controls as praises and punishments. They advocate that freedom cannot be enjoyed without self-discipline. The contemporary educationists of India unanimously accept the need for freedom and discipline and agree that self-discipline alone can make the school and college campus quiet and peaceful.
The idealists also assert that truly disciplined persons have a sense of order. In a child’s education, discipline is a mutual responsibility of the home and the school. Together, parents and teachers are to cultivate habits of cleanliness, neatness, orderliness, punctuality, courtesy, obedience and accuracy. The educated person, according to the idealist’s values criterion, would be polite and courteous in social behavior, respects society’s moral codes and realizes that civilized progress requires discipline and perseverance. This particular idea of discipline is quite relevant for modern education in India

v)    Emphasis on Moral Development
The emerging Indian society is passing through a very critical period. Thinkers everywhere in the country lament at the general loss of moral character. The most important
need today is the development of moral character. It is idealism in education which can educate the people to develop a moral sense of their own.
vi) Integrated Curriculum
A new type of arrangement of curriculum has been proposed by the idealists in terms of four interrelated general areas of study directed towards the development of a total personality. They are (i) the universal dimension which helps the people to know about the physical and organism aspects of world (ii) the civilization dimension which includes the study of social sciences (iii) the culture dimension which emphasizes on the study of philosophy, history, art and religion and (iv) the personality dimension, which touches the physical, physiological, emotional and intellectual aspects of human life. Such a dynamic and liberal curriculum is quite relevant for modern Indian education.
The idealists organize the curriculum carefully. Those subjects that contain the greatest intellectual and value possibilities are given priority over those that are more technical and vocational. In deciding what should be included and what must be excluded from the curriculum.
Idealists have been guided by wisdom, emphasizing the importance of reading and writing as essential tools for understanding the cultural legacy. Arithmetic sharpens reasoning, providing the foundation for logical thinking. History and geography offer crucial insights into temporal and spatial relationships, helping individuals understand the past, the world, and their place within it. History, in particular, serves as a repository of humanity's accomplishments, providing lessons from previous generations.
In the context of the emerging Indian society, curriculum designers can reconstruct the educational framework based on these idealist principles. By prioritizing these subjects, they can foster a deep appreciation for cultural heritage, encourage critical thinking, and cultivate a broader worldview, all of which are fundamental to the development of an enlightened and informed society. This approach would not only preserve the richness of the past but also prepare individuals to contribute thoughtfully to the future.
Self- Check Exercise(2)

1.    The concept of the world as a movement or ‘samsara’ is the ideal of the:

(a)    Naturalist                  (b)    Pragmatist

(c)    Idealist                      (d)    Realist

2.    Which of the following is ideal of education according to idealism?

(a)    Citizenship                 (b)    Self realization

(c)    Social adjustment         (d)    Livelihood

3.    The welfare of the individual refers to “self-realization” or “spiritual becoming.”
True / false

6.4    Summary
Idealism is basically a philosophy of life and it has exercised, like all philosophies of life, a general rather than a specific influence on education. In philosophy it has taken many forms but all of them agree to the view that the universe is an expression of intelligence and will; that there are certain absolute and eternal truths of life; that the ultimate reality is in the nature of mind rather than in the nature of mater. The latter is perishable and changing; it is an external manifestation of a reality which is not affected by the phenomenon of change. Through the whole of the universe is running a spirit which along is a reality, and knowledge of and reconciliation with that spirit of the individual’s soul is real knowledge. That is the real truth. Appreciation of that truth in its various forms is real art- a thing of real beauty. Conformity of the human will with the moral administration as the universe is real goodness. The difference between idealism and materialism is fundamental-whereas idealism regards mind as the sole explainer of reality, materialism regards that as a phenomenon of matter.

6.5    Glossary

1.    Idealism: In philosophy, idealism is the group of philosophies which assert that reality, or reality as we can know it, is fundamentally mental, mentally constructed, or otherwise immaterial.

2.    Self-realization: Self-realization involves full knowledge of the self or the soul. Man is basically a soul.

6.6    Answer to Self- Check Exercise(1)

1 .(a)  2.(b) 3.True 4.False 5.(b)
Answer to Self- Check Exercise(2)

1.    (c)  2. (b) 3. True

6.7    References /suggested readings
Y.K. Singh.(2008).Philosophical Foundations of Education, APH, Publishing coop, pvt. Ltd.
Dr. Shukla; Parihar & Singh.(2014). ‘Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education, R. Lall Book Depot.
Dr. Sodhi & Aruna Suri (1998).Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education, Bawa publication, 4141, Urban Estate, Phase II, Patiala-177002.
Indian Eduation Structure and process by M.S. Gore, ISBN 81-7033-232-8

6.8    Terminal Questions

1.    Explain Idealism with special reference to the Concepts of Knowledge, Reality, Values
and their Educational Implications

2.     Write Chief characteristics of idealism.

3.     Discuss Idealism as a Philosophical Doctrine.

4.     Explain the Idealism and Aims in Education.

5.     Explain Relevance of Idealism in Education in the Emerging Indian Society

6.     Write short note on following :

(i)   Idealism and Curriculum

(ii)  Idealism and Methods of Teaching

(iii)    The Exaltation of Human Personality or Self-realization

(iv)    Universal Education
---///---
UNIT – 7
REALISM
Realism with special reference to the Concepts of Knowledge, Reality, Values and their Educational Implications
Lesson Structure

7.0 Introduction

7.1    Learning Objectives

7.2    Realism with special reference to the Concepts of Knowledge, Reality, Values and their Educational Implications
Self- Check Exercise(1)

7.3    Chief Tenets of Realism; Main types of realism
Self- Check Exercise(2)

7.4   Summary

7.5   Glossary

7.6   Answer to Self- Check Exercises

7.7   References /suggested readings

7.8   Terminal Questions

7.0   Introduction
Dear student,
Realism in philosophy is the belief that things exist and have properties independently of human perception or thought. This view holds that the world is made up of objects and phenomena that exist regardless of whether or not anyone is aware of them. In contrast to idealism, which asserts that reality is mentally constructed or otherwise dependent on the mind, realism emphasizes that the external world and its characteristics exist independently of our thoughts or perceptions.
Key Concepts of Realism:

1.    Knowledge: According to realism, knowledge is the accurate understanding of the external world. Realists believe that through the proper use of the senses, reason, and experience, individuals can acquire knowledge of the world that corresponds to its actual state.

2.    Reality: In the realist perspective, reality is independent of human consciousness and is made up of objective facts and entities. This means that the world consists of physical objects and phenomena that exist regardless of whether or not anyone perceives them. According to this view, the nature of reality is not influenced by individual thoughts,feelings, or perceptions but exists on its own, following laws and structures that are consistent and observable, regardless of human awareness. Realism asserts that these objective elements of reality can be understood through scientific observation and reason.
Values: In realist philosophy, values are seen as external and objective. They are not merely subjective or dependent on individual preferences but are instead grounded in the natural world and its inherent structures.
Educational Implications of Realism:

1.    Curriculum and Teaching: The curriculum should emphasize subjects that are rooted in reality, such as the sciences and mathematics, which provide direct knowledge of the natural world. The goal of education is to help students understand the laws and patterns that govern the world around them.

2.    School Management: The principles of school management in a realist framework would likely prioritize structure, order, and discipline, as these elements reflect the natural world’s own organization and regularities.

3.    Educational Methods: Realist education emphasizes the importance of observation, experimentation, and hands-on learning as essential methods of acquiring knowledge. It reflects the belief that true understanding comes from directly engaging with the world around us. In this approach, students are encouraged to interact with the material world, conducting experiments and making observations that help them understand and analyze real-world phenomena. In summary, realism, particularly in education, stresses
the importance of teaching students about the external world as it truly exists, encouraging an understanding of the laws of nature, objective facts, and the development of practical skills to navigate the world effectively.

7.1    Learning Objectives
After reading this lesson students will be able to:

/    Understand Realism with special reference to the Concepts of Knowledge, Reality, Values and their Educational Implications.

/    Explaining main types of realism.

7.2    Realism with special reference to the concept of knowledge,Reality,Values and their Educational Implications.
Realism in Philosophy and Education: An Overview
Realism in Philosophy: Realism in philosophy is the belief that the world exists independently of human thought, perception, or consciousness. It asserts that reality is objective, tangible, and knowable through human senses, emphasizing that the physical world is not shaped or created by the mind. Key to this view is the notion that truth is objective and observable, and that the nature of reality exists whether or not we are there to observe or interpret it.
Realism, as rooted in the works of Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), holds that all things possess an inherent essence or form. For example, a rose has a particular essence that exists regardless of whether a human observes it or not. This idea was significant in shifting the focus of knowledge from the realm of ideas, as promoted by Plato, to the tangible, physical world that we can study empirically.
Aristotle's contributions laid the foundation for Realism by emphasizing the importance of empirical observation and categorization to understand the world. His ideas on "substance" and "form" suggested that physical objects, while undergoing change, still possess an inherent structure or essence that makes them identifiable and understandable.
Later philosophers such as John Locke further contributed to the development of Realism. Locke, in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), proposed that the human mind begins as a "tabula rasa" (blank slate) and gains knowledge through experience and sensory perception. This idea reinforced the realist stance that knowledge is acquired through interaction with the external, physical world.
In the 20th century, with the rapid expansion of scientific knowledge, Realism continued to gain traction. The growth of the scientific method, with its emphasis on observation, experiment, and objectivity, provided a philosophical grounding for Realism as a way of understanding the world.
Realism in Education:
Realism's influence on education centers on the importance of teaching students about the physical world through empirical observation, critical thinking, and scientific inquiry. The central tenets of Realist educational philosophy include:
Objective Knowledge: Realism maintains that the ultimate truths about the world are objective and knowable. In the classroom, this translates to an emphasis on the importance of teaching subjects like science, mathematics, and history, which are grounded in observable, verifiable facts.
Scientific Method: Realism supports an education system that emphasizes the scientific method—encouraging students to question, hypothesize, experiment, and conclude based on observable evidence. This aligns with the belief that knowledge about the world can be systematically discovered and understood.
Curriculum Design: A Realist curriculum is typically structured around subjects that study the physical world, such as natural sciences, mathematics, and social sciences. The goal is to teach students the facts, theories, and principles that underlie our understanding of reality. These subjects are seen as essential for developing practical skills that will be useful in the real world.
Emphasis on Practical Skills: Realist education advocates for teaching practical skills that students can apply to real-world situations. It stresses the importance of acquiring
knowledge that helps individuals navigate the material world, solve problems, and contribute to society. This is why subjects like engineering, medicine, and agriculture are highly valued in a Realist educational framework.
Critical Thinking: Since Realism values empirical observation, students are encouraged to think critically, analyze data, and draw conclusions based on objective facts rather than subjective interpretations. This helps in developing reasoning skills and an understanding of the objective world.
Moral and Ethical Values: While Realism is more concerned with the physical world and scientific truth, there are still values that can be taught through this lens. Realists believe that education should not only impart knowledge but also guide students in developing practical, ethical decision-making skills based on objective principles.
Implications for Education:
Practical Application of Knowledge: Realism encourages an education system where students are exposed to real-world experiences and applications of their learning. For instance, students may engage in experiments, fieldwork, and internships to gain hands-on understanding of concepts they study.
Focus on Foundational Subjects: The Realist perspective places a premium on foundational subjects such as mathematics, science, and history. This aligns with the notion that these subjects provide students with essential tools to understand the world and make informed decisions.
Emphasis on Observation and Experimentation: Given its roots in empirical observation, Realism advocates for learning through direct engagement with the world. Field trips, laboratory work, and other experiential activities would be integral parts of a Realist-inspired curriculum.
Criticism of Abstract Theories: Realism often stands in contrast to more abstract or idealistic educational philosophies, such as Idealism or Progressivism, which emphasize subjective experiences or the mind's role in shaping knowledge. Realists argue that
abstract theories without practical grounding fail to connect students with the tangible world.
Conclusion:
In summary, Realism in philosophy and education stresses the importance of understanding and engaging with the physical world through empirical observation and scientific inquiry. Its focus on objective knowledge, critical thinking, and practical skills provides a framework for an education system that seeks to equip students with the tools to navigate and understand the world around them.
Basic Concepts of Realism
Realism and the Nature of Reality
Realism as a Philosophy of the World We Live In:
Realism, as a philosophical stance, emphasizes the study of the real, physical world around us, rather than the realm of abstract ideas or forms. It concerns itself with what is tangible and observable in nature, rejecting the notion that the world of ideas is the primary focus of human knowledge.
Knowledge Derived from Experience:
Realism holds that all knowledge is grounded in experience. According to realists, humans acquire understanding through direct interaction with the world, whether it’s through perception, experimentation, or observation. This contrasts with idealist views that might place more emphasis on abstract reasoning or innate ideas.
The Real World as the World of Nature:
Realists believe that the ultimate reality is the natural world. Nature is seen as the fundamental context for all existence, with everything that exists being part of the natural order. The world we live in, with its material existence and natural processes, is the foundation of all reality.
The Universe as Matter and Energy:
According to realism, everything in the universe can be explained as matter, energy, or
matter in motion. This suggests a materialistic view of the world, where everything— whether it be physical objects, forces, or phenomena—is composed of matter or energy.
The Laws of Nature and Realism
Realists assert that the universe operates according to natural laws—consistent, observable patterns and principles that govern how matter and energy behave. These laws are universal and apply to all things, from the tiniest particles to the largest structures in the cosmos. Realists believe that understanding these laws is essential for making sense of the world.
Realism and Science
Science plays a central role in realism. Realists advocate for the use of scientific methods—empirical observation, experimentation, and rational analysis—as the best means of discovering truth. For realists, science is the tool to uncover the laws of nature and to understand the universe in a systematic, objective way. Scientific progress, in this view, allows humanity to better control and manipulate the environment for practical benefits.
Realism and Religion
Realism does not inherently oppose religion, but many realists adopt a naturalistic or materialistic perspective that leads them to question religious claims, especially those concerning supernatural entities or forces. Some realists argue that religion is a human construct, shaped by societal needs and psychological factors, while others may hold more agnostic or atheistic positions, rejecting the existence of a deity or any supernatural forces altogether.
Realism and Value
Realists often assert that the aesthetic value of an object is tied to its harmony with nature. That is, things are considered beautiful to the extent they reflect the natural world’s forms and patterns. When it comes to ethics and behavior, realists tend to focus on social norms and rationality—what is considered acceptable behavior is often based on logical reasoning and societal consensus rather than abstract or theological ideals.
In summary, realism presents a world rooted in the tangible and the measurable. It emphasizes empirical knowledge, the laws of nature, and the application of scientific methods to understand reality. While it may not inherently conflict with religion, it often adopts a materialistic perspective that prioritizes the natural world over supernatural explanations.
Realism and Objectives of Education
Broadly speaking, there are two objectives of education according to realism:

1.    Equipping students with knowledge and skill needed to Under-stand and master their physical environment.

2.    Enabling students to adjust themselves to the realities of the physical world and to adjust with adult approved behaviour.
Realism in Educational Practice
The realist is concerned with the systematic organization of teaching and learning. Scientific evaluation is the most important contribution made by realism in the field of education. Realism lays stress on the use of standardized tests.
Role of the Teacher:

1.    Facilitator of Learning: In a realist education framework, the teacher’s role is to facilitate learning by guiding students to explore and understand the natural world. Teachers help students acquire knowledge through direct experience, observation, and practical engagement with the world around them. They encourage inquiry, critical thinking, and scientific methods of investigation.

2.    Provider of Real-World Knowledge: Realist teachers focus on imparting knowledge that is grounded in the real, physical world. They connect lessons to concrete examples and experiences that are observable, measurable, and relatable to students' lives. The teacher might use experiments, case studies, or field trips to illustrate how natural laws work in the real world.

3.    Promoter of Scientific Thinking: Teachers in a realist framework encourage scientific thinking and inquiry. They help students understand the importance of empirical observation and the scientific method in discovering truths about the world. Teachers
may incorporate experiments, discussions, and problem-solving activities that reflect real-world processes.

4.    Supporter of Rational and Socially Acceptable Behavior: Realism emphasizes rationality in both knowledge and behavior. The teacher's role is to model socially acceptable and rational behavior, helping students understand the connection between logical reasoning and ethical decision-making. They guide students in recognizing and applying socially accepted norms.
Role of the Curriculum:

1.    Rooted in the Real World: A realist curriculum is centered on the natural world, with a focus on physical sciences, mathematics, and observable phenomena. The curriculum emphasizes subjects that allow students to interact with the world in tangible ways, such as biology, chemistry, physics, and environmental studies.

2.    Focus on Empirical Knowledge: The curriculum encourages knowledge that is grounded in experience and observation. It prioritizes subjects where students can conduct experiments, explore natural laws, and learn through firsthand interaction with the material world.

3.    Structured Around Natural Laws and Scientific Principles: A realist curriculum is designed to help students understand and apply the laws of nature. Subjects like physics and chemistry play a prominent role, as they provide the tools and concepts to understand the workings of the universe. Students learn about natural processes and phenomena in a systematic and structured way.

4.    Practical Application: A realist curriculum emphasizes practical application. Students are encouraged to apply the knowledge they acquire to solve real-world problems. This may include solving practical problems through science, technology, engineering, or mathematics (STEM) projects, or engaging in hands-on learning activities.

5.    Ethics and Social Responsibility: While realism is often associated with materialism, many realists also believe in the importance of social responsibility. The curriculum may incorporate discussions on ethics, highlighting what is rational, socially acceptable, and beneficial for society. The goal is to help students develop a sense of responsibility toward the natural world and society.

6.    Emphasis on Objective Truth: The curriculum encourages the pursuit of objective truth. In subjects like history, geography, or social sciences, the focus is on understanding events, facts, and data in a way that is grounded in objective analysis rather than subjective interpretation.
Teacher and Curriculum Interplay:

•    Curriculum as a Tool for Teachers: The curriculum serves as a roadmap for teachers, guiding the content and structure of lessons. It ensures that teachers stay focused on teaching empirically grounded knowledge and engaging students in a way that fosters scientific inquiry and critical thinking.

•    Teachers Adapting to the Curriculum: While the curriculum provides a framework, teachers play a vital role in adapting it to the needs and interests of their students. They might modify lesson plans, incorporate new research, or adjust teaching strategies to help students connect with the material.

•    Real-World Connection: Teachers help students bridge the gap between the theoretical knowledge provided in the curriculum and its practical application in the real world. This can involve real-life examples, hands-on projects, and interdisciplinary connections to show how the curriculum applies to everyday life.
Conclusion:
In the context of realism, teachers and the curriculum work together to provide students with knowledge that is grounded in the natural world. Teachers act as facilitators of inquiry, guiding students to discover truths through experience and observation, while the curriculum provides a structure that emphasizes scientific knowledge and practical application. This combination helps students develop both intellectual skills and socially responsible behavior.
Check Exercise(1)

1.    Who was the most famous Neo Realist?

(a) Bacon                   (b) A.N. White head
(c) Bertrand Russell          (d) Mulcaster

2.    Which Realism laid maximum impression on child?

(a)   Social Realism           (b)    Humanistic Realism

(c)   Sense Realism           (d)   Neo Realism

3.    Realism believes that all knowledge is a sources of experience. True/False

7.3 Chief Tenets of Realism

1.    Existence of Objects:

•    Native Realism: Objects exist independently of whether we know them or not. Their existence does not depend on our perception.

•    Scientific Realism: Objects exist independently of knowledge, but our thoughts about these objects are still influenced by the mind.

2.    Qualities of Objects:

•  Native Realism: The qualities we perceive in an object are inherent in the object itself.

•  Scientific Realism: Differentiates between primary qualities (inherent in objects, like
shape and motion) and secondary qualities (like color or taste, which are attributed by the mind).

3.    Knowledge and Objects:

•    Native Realism: Knowledge does not affect the object or its qualities; objects remain as they are regardless of our perception.

•    Scientific Realism: This is true for primary qualities but not for secondary qualities, as our perception of secondary qualities is influenced by the mind.

4.    Directness of Knowledge:

•    Native Realism: Knowledge is direct and perceptual — we know the object as it is directly through perception.

•    Representationism: In simple thoughts, knowledge is direct, but in complex thoughts, it’s indirect since these are made up of simpler thoughts.

5.    Commonality of Objects:

•    Native Realism: Objects are common and known directly to everyone.

•    Scientific Realism: Objects may be perceived differently by different individuals depending on their senses or perspectives.

6.    Relation Between Object and Thought:

•    Native Realism: There is a direct relationship between objects and our thoughts about them.

•    Scientific Realism: Rejects the direct connection between objects and thoughts, emphasizing the mediation of perception and cognitive processes.
Main Types of Realism:

1.    Naïve Realism: Objects are independent of the mind, have inherent qualities, and exist whether we know them or not. Knowledge does not affect objects.

2.    Representationism: Objects exist independently of knowledge, but our thoughts are influenced by the mind. Knowledge of objects is direct for simple thoughts but indirect for complex ones.

3.    Neo-Realism: This draws on Platonic ideas, suggesting that while the totality of an object isn’t known, its aspects are, and knowledge of these aspects is direct.

4.    Critical Realism: Objects exist independently of knowledge, but knowledge can influence our understanding of objects. Knowledge may be direct or indirect, and different people can perceive the same object in different ways.
The Artist Quote:
The quote at the end highlights the importance of focusing on the artist as a painter, not as a moralist or a literary figure. It suggests that an artist's work should be evaluated based on the visual expression itself, rather than its moral or narrative content. This aligns with some realist
ideas in the sense that the focus is on the objective qualities of the art or object itself, rather than the subjective thoughts or interpretations we may have about it.
In sum, these different forms of realism reflect various ways of thinking about the relationship between reality, perception, and knowledge. Each theory offers a different lens through which to understand how we know and experience the world.
Self- Check Exercise(2)

1.    Who among the following was a realist in education?

(a)    Aristotle                     (b)    Plato

(c)   John Dewey             (d)   Rousseau

2.    Which realism emphasized sense training?

(a) Humanistic Realism          (b) Social Realism

(c) Sense Realism              (d) Neo Realism

3.    Which one is not the chief tents of realism :

(a) Knowledge of objects is direct        (b) Objects are not common

(c) Qualities are inherent in known object (d) Knowledge does not affect the object

7.4    Summary
Realism, though never a unified movement, is regarded as the first modern artistic movement, emerging as a response to the societal shifts following the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution. It began in France during the 1840s and revolutionized the art world by challenging the conventional forms of art, literature, and social structures that had been dominant for centuries. In a period of political unrest and dramatic social transformation, Realist artists shifted the focus of painting from idealized representations to the depiction of everyday life and real-world events. They sought to represent the struggles and experiences of ordinary people, giving equal importance to scenes of everyday life, working-class figures, and mundane activities, which had previously been marginalized in favor of grand history paintings or allegorical subjects.

7.5    Glossary

1.    Realism: In philosophy, the viewpoint which accords to things which are known or perceived an existence or nature which is independent of whether anyone is thinking about or perceiving them.

7.6    Answer to Self- Check Exercise(1)

1.    (c ) 2.(b ) 3. True
Answer to Self- Check Exercise(2)

1 .(a) 2.(c )  3. (b)

7.7    References /suggested readings
Y.K. Singh.(2008).Philosophical Foundations of Education, APH, Publishing coop, pvt. Ltd.
Dr. Shukla; Parihar & Singh.(2014). Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education, R. Lall Book Depot.
Dr. Sodhi & Aruna Suri (1998).Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education, Bawa publication, 4141, Urban Estate, Phase II, Patiala-177002.
Indian Eduation Structure and process by M.S. Gore, ISBN 81-7033-232-8

7.8   Terminal Questions

1.     Explain Basic Concepts of Realism

2.     Discuss Realism with special reference to the Concepts of Knowledge, Reality, Values
and their Educational Implications

3.     Write short note on following :

(i)    Realism and Curriculum

(ii)    Realism and Methods of Teaching
UNIT – 8
NATURALISM
Naturalism with special reference to the Concepts of Knowledge, Reality, Values and their Educational Implications
Lesson Structure

8.0 Introduction

8.1    Learning Objectives

8.2    Naturalism with special reference to the Concepts of Knowledge, Reality, Values and their Educational Implications
Self- Check Exercise(1)

8.3    Arguments for Naturalism
Self- Check Exercise(2)

8.4   Summary

8.5   Glossary

8.6   Answer to Self- Check Exercise

8.7   References /suggested readings

8.8   Terminal Questions

8.0   Introduction
Dear student,
Naturalism is a worldview that rejects the existence of supernatural or spiritual realms, focusing instead on understanding the natural world through science and reason. According to naturalists, everything, including human behavior, can be explained by physical processes and laws of nature. They emphasize that instincts, emotions, and evolutionary processes shape human life, and values are seen as social constructs that emerge from our interactions with the environment, rather than absolute or divine truths.
From a naturalist perspective, there is no inherent "good" or "evil" in the world. Morality is not dictated by any higher power but is a product of human needs, survival, and adaptation. In this view, the mind is considered a byproduct of evolution and the functioning of the brain, rather than a source of transcendental knowledge. The senses, rather than abstract or spiritual faculties, are the primary means by which humans acquire knowledge about the world.

8.1    Learning Objectives
After reading this lesson students will be able to:

/    Understand Naturalism with special reference to the Concepts of Knowledge, Reality, Values and their Educational Implications.

/    Explain the philosophical forms of naturalism.

8.2    Naturalism with special reference to the Concepts of Knowledge, Reality, Values and their Educational Implications
Naturalism is a philosophical perspective that asserts that only the natural world exists, rejecting the existence of supernatural entities or forces, such as gods, spirits, or souls. It is often referred to as Metaphysical Naturalism or Ontological Naturalism to distinguish it from Methodological Naturalism, which is the approach that uses empirical scientific methods to explore the world without necessarily claiming that everything is purely natural.
From a metaphysical standpoint, naturalism maintains that all mental phenomena, including thoughts, consciousness, and emotions, are entirely the result of natural processes. In other words, the mind and all its attributes are understood to be dependent on physical, non-mental entities, and mental properties have no existence apart from the physical world. Some naturalists even argue that what is often considered "supernatural" can, in fact, be explained as part of the natural world, suggesting that all phenomena, even those previously thought to be beyond scientific understanding, are ultimately natural.
Historically, naturalism in philosophy of education is as ancient as idealism. The philosophy emphasizes the importance of nature in all areas of education. It asserts that educational goals, methods, and curricula should be derived from the natural world. Early proponents of naturalism included figures like Democritus, who proposed an atomistic view of the universe, and Epicurus,
who refined these ideas. Democritus, in particular, introduced a materialistic view of the world, emphasizing the role of indivisible atoms in the composition of everything.
Philosophically, naturalism has evolved into a broader approach to understanding problems across different domains, such as epistemology, ethics, and philosophy of mind. It challenges the traditional view
The term "naturalism" in philosophy is broad and encompasses various doctrines and positions, and how exactly it is defined is itself a matter of ongoing philosophical debate. Despite this, the general landscape of naturalism can be outlined. This discussion does not aim to defend or critique a specific version of naturalism, but rather to describe the range of views that are typically classified as naturalistic and to explore what motivates those views. It will also place the debate on naturalism within the broader context of philosophical inquiry.
Throughout different historical periods in philosophy, different questions and concerns have dominated the field, influencing the development of naturalist positions. In antiquity, key questions revolved around the nature of reality, the constitution of substances, and whether those substances are material. Philosophers debated the relationship between matter and whatever else might be foundational to reality. Views varied from naturalistic materialism to more non-materialist or non-naturalist theories, such as Platonism and Aristotelianism.
In the Medieval period, philosophy was heavily influenced by religious thought, and debates focused on the nature of universals, the intellect, the will, and the soul. These discussions were intertwined with issues of natural theology. For example, philosophers debated the connection between the soul and the body, and whether the soul could survive the death of the body.
These concerns were tied to fundamental questions about personal identity, the possibility of immortality, and divine providence, all of which were significant in the three major Western religious traditions. These questions, which have roots in classical philosophy, continue to be central in philosophical discourse.
Philosophical pre-suppositions
In metaphysics, the ultimate reality, according to naturalism, is the Nature and Nature is material. In epistemology, the naturalists are empiricists. They believe that knowledge is
acquired through sense organs and with the help of the brain. They do not accept the rationalist’s position that all knowledge is innate. In modern western philosophy John Locke, Bishop Berkeley and David Hume, the British philosophers were empiricists. They believed in the possibility of direct knowledge. In axiology, the naturalists believe in living according to Nature as the best type of life. ‘Follow Nature’s is their slogan. Be natural is their motto.
Three philosophical forms of naturalism

1.       Naturalism of the Physical World:
o This view emphasizes that all human actions, experiences, and emotions can be explained using the principles of physical science. It prioritizes scientific knowledge above all other types of knowledge, including philosophical or moral knowledge. The focus here is on the physical and material aspects of reality, suggesting that everything, including human consciousness and behavior, can be understood through the lens of science, particularly the physical sciences.
o Implications for Education: The emphasis on science over other forms of knowledge leads to a limited scope for educational approaches. It suggests that the role of education is primarily to impart scientific knowledge, potentially neglecting areas like philosophy, ethics, and subjective human experiences.

2.    Mechanical Positivism:
o This form posits that the universe is like a machine, consisting solely of matter and governed by physical laws. It views human beings as complex machines whose behaviors are determined by environmental stimuli and responses.
Consciousness is seen as a mere byproduct of the material processes of the brain, and all mental activities (like thinking, memory, etc.) are understood in physiological terms.
o Implications for Education: The mechanical view of humans implies that educational practices could be based on conditioning and stimulus-response models. The behaviorist school of psychology, which emerged from this perspective, focuses on observable behaviors rather than inner mental states. Education, therefore, might prioritize measurable outcomes and reinforcement techniques, overlooking the internal experiences or psychological depth of students.

3.    Biological Naturalism:
o Biological naturalism extends the concept of naturalism to include biological evolution as a driving force behind human development. It posits that humans, like animals, are products of evolution, and that both physical and mental characteristics have evolved over time. This form recognizes the complexity of human beings, acknowledging not only physical and material evolution but also mental, moral, and spiritual development. It draws parallels between human and animal behavior, but it also highlights that human beings evolve in more complex ways due to their higher cognitive and moral capacities.
o Implications for Education: Biological naturalism has a profound influence on education, as it suggests that human development, including learning and behavior, is shaped by evolutionary principles. Education, in this context, may focus on understanding the biological and evolutionary foundations of human nature and learning processes. The emphasis is on nurturing the development of humans as complex, evolving beings, integrating both physical and mental growth.
Summary of Key Philosophical Themes:

•    Physical Sciences vs. Other Forms of Knowledge: The first form of naturalism (naturalism of the physical world) places a premium on the physical sciences, suggesting that they offer the only valid form of knowledge.

•    Human as Machine: Mechanical positivism views humans as complex machines, with behavior explained purely in terms of environmental stimuli and responses. This deemphasizes consciousness or individual experience in favor of observable behavior.

•    Evolutionary Perspective: Biological naturalism integrates evolutionary theory into its view of human beings, asserting that both physical and mental traits are products of evolution. It also acknowledges the moral, spiritual, and intellectual dimensions of human growth, distinguishing humans from animals in terms of cognitive and moral complexity.
Conclusion:
Each of these forms of naturalism offers a different lens through which to understand human nature, behavior, and the role of education. The first emphasizes science and the material world, the second adopts a mechanistic view of human beings, and the third incorporates biological evolution to explain both human and animal behavior, with particular attention to the mental and moral development of humans. These philosophies have profound implications for education, particularly in terms of how we understand the development of knowledge, behavior, and human growth.
Self- Check Exercise(1)

1.    Who Said, “Everything is good as it comes from the hands of author of Nature, but everything degenerates in the hands of man. God makes all things good. Man meddles with them and they become evil”?

(a)   Wordsworth       (b)   T.P. Nunn

(c)   Rousseau         (d)   Pt. JawaharLal Nehru

2.    “Return to nature” and “break the chains of society” are the slogans of;

(a)    Idealists                    (b)    Realists

(c)    Naturalists                 (d)    Pragmatists
8.3 Arguments for Naturalism
/ Argument from Precedent: For over three hundred years, empirical methods have consistently discovered only natural things and causes, even underlying many things once thought to be supernatural. Hence, we should presume that any unexplained fact has a natural explanation until we have empirically proven otherwise.
/ Argument from Best Explanation: Sound naturalist hypotheses about scientifically unexplained facts still out-performall other hypotheses in explanatory scope and power, and have to resort to fewer ad hoc assumptions than any supernatural alternatives.
^ Argument from Absence: If the supernatural does exist (whether as gods, powers or spirits), it is so silent and inert that its effects are almost never observed, despite extensive searching.
^ Argument from Physical Minds: Scientists have accumulated vast evidence that the human mind is a product of a functioning brain, which is entirely constructed from different interacting physical systems that evolved over time through the animal kingdom.
/ Cosmological Argument: The formation of intelligent life via natural processes is very unlikely unless the universe were immensely old and big, but that is exactly what we have found to be the case, and supernaturalism has not given us any insights into a more likely alternative universe.
/ Argument from the Implausibility of Alternatives: In the absence of any reasonable argument to believe anything supernatural exists (or explains anything), and in the presence of some reasonable arguments to believe the natural world exists (and explains everything), then Naturalism should be accepted until disproved.
Self- Check Exercise(2)

1.    The formation of intelligent life via natural processes is very unlikely unless the universe were immensely old and big, but that is exactly what we have found to be the case, and supernaturalism has not given us any insights into a more likely alternative universe.
True/False

2.    Pestallozzi, Tagore, Rousseau, Bacon, Spencer, and Nunn are some of the prominent;

(a)    Naturalist thinkers         (b)    Pragmatist thinkers

(c)    Realist thinkers             (d)    Idealist thinkers

8.4    Summary
In conclusion we can say that naturalism has secured freedom for the child and has further succeeded in freeing the child from many a tyranny of rigidity, interference and strict discipline. Naturalism has given an impetus to new psychological methods in education. Self- expression, follow nature, auto-education, play-way, Pedocentricism, sense-training, self- discipline and
learning by doing are some of the main characteristics of modern education.

8.5    Glossary

1.    Naturalism: The philosophical belief that everything arises from natural properties and causes, and supernatural or spiritual explanations are excluded or discounted.

8.6   Answer to Self- Check Exercise-I

1 .(c)  2.(c) 3.(a)
Answer to Self- Check Exercise-I

1.    True 2. (a)

8.7    References /suggested readings
Y.K. Singh.(2008).Philosophical Foundations of Education, APH, Publishing coop, pvt. Ltd.
Dr. Shukla; Parihar & Singh.(2014). Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education, R. Lall Book Depot.
Dr. Sodhi & Aruna Suri (1998).Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education, Bawa publication, 4141, Urban Estate, Phase II, Patiala-177002.
Indian Eduation Structure and process by M.S. Gore, ISBN 81-7033-232-8

8.8   Terminal Questions

1.     Explain Basic Concepts of Naturalism.

2.     Discuss Naturalism with special reference to the Concepts of Knowledge, Reality, Values
and their Educational Implications.

3.     Write short note on following :

(i)    Naturalism and Curriculum

(ii)    Naturalism and Methods of Teaching
UNIT – 9
Pragmatism
Pragmatism with special reference to the Concepts of Knowledge, Reality, Values and their Educational Implications
Lesson Structure

9.0    Introduction

9.1   Learning Objectives

9.2    Pragmatism with special reference to the Concepts of Knowledge, Reality, Values and their Educational Implications.;Pragmatism in education
Self- Check Exercise(1)

9.3    Comparison between the Idealistic View and the Pragmatic View about the StudentTeacher Relation; Discipline; Pragmatism and the School; Relevance of Pragmatism in Education in the Emerging Indian Society
Self- Check Exercise(2)

9.4  Summary

9.5   Glossary

9.6   Answer to Self- Check Exercises

9.7   References /suggested readings

9.8   Terminal Questions

9.0   Introduction
Dear student,
Pragmatism is a philosophical approach that suggests truth is defined by the practical consequences and utility of a belief or idea. Key points about pragmatism include:

1.    Truth and Practical Consequences: Pragmatists assert that the truth of a belief or proposition lies in its practical outcomes. If a belief works satisfactorily in real life, then it is considered true. In other words, if an idea has practical value, it holds truth.

2.    Rejecting Metaphysical Disputes: Pragmatism tries to solve long-standing metaphysical disputes by focusing on the practical consequences of various positions. For example, questions like "Is the world one or many?" or "Are humans free or fated?" are addressed by examining the practical outcomes of each view. Pragmatists avoid getting trapped in abstract, speculative debates that don’t lead to concrete results.

3.    Value of Ideas: Unpractical or abstract ideas without tangible outcomes are rejected. The value of knowledge, according to pragmatism, is directly linked to its ability to solve problems and improve human experience.Top of Form

9.1    Learning Objectives
After reading this lesson students will be able to:
^ Pragmatism with special reference to the Concepts of Knowledge, Reality, Values and their Educational Implications.
^ Existentialism with special reference to the Concepts of Knowledge, Reality, Values and their Educational Implications.

9.2    Pragmatism with special reference to the Concepts of Knowledge, Reality, Values and their Educational Implications.
Pragmatism is a significant philosophical tradition that emerged in the United States around the 1870s, with key figures such as Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey leading the charge. Although the influence of pragmatism waned during the first two-thirds of the 20th century, it has experienced a resurgence since the 1970s.
Philosophers like Richard Rorty, Hilary Putnam, and Robert Brandom have drawn on the ideas of classical pragmatists while developing their own interpretations of the tradition.
At the core of pragmatism is the pragmatist maxim, a rule used to clarify the meaning of hypotheses by considering their practical consequences. For Peirce and James, this maxim was particularly influential in the understanding of truth. Pragmatists tend to
share a fallibilist and anti-Cartesian view of inquiry, challenging traditional assumptions about certainty and the structure of knowledge.
The term pragmatism itself originates from the Greek word "pragma," meaning action or affair. The term was initially used by Greek historian Polybius, who described his writings as "pragmatic," meaning that they were intended to be useful and instructive. Later, philosophers like Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel referenced a “pragmatical” approach in reflective historiography.
In the context of the philosophy of education, pragmatism emphasizes the idea that learning occurs most effectively through active engagement and hands-on experiences. This approach suggests that children learn best when they are involved in real-world activities and problems, allowing them to make connections between theory and practice. Pragmatist educators like John Dewey argue that education should be centered around the needs and experiences of the learner, fostering critical thinking, problem-solving, and adaptability.
In linguistics, pragmatics refers to the study of how people use language in social contexts and how meaning is shaped by factors such as tone, intention, and the situation in which communication occurs. While semantics deals with the literal meanings of words and phrases, pragmatics is concerned with how speakers use language in real-life interactions, considering things like implied meaning, context, and the relationships between speakers. For instance, a statement like "Can you pass the salt?" is not just about the ability to pass the salt but is typically understood as a request based on the social context.
Both concepts, while emerging in different fields, share a focus on the practical and contextual aspects of human activity—whether in learning or communication.
Pragmatism –What?
Core Concepts of Pragmatism

•    Focus on Practical Consequences: Pragmatism is centered around the practical consequences of ideas and actions. William James emphasized moving away from
abstract principles and instead focusing on real-world outcomes, suggesting that truth is not about static ideals but about what works in practical situations.

•    No Absolute Truths: Pragmatism rejects fixed truths, as highlighted by Papini’s metaphor of the corridor in a hotel. All theories must pass through pragmatism as a test for their effectiveness in the real world. This suggests a dynamic, fluid conception of truth and reality.

•    Humanistic and Biological Aspects: Pragmatism is closely tied to human needs and biological adaptation. Ideas are considered valuable only insofar as they help individuals adjust and thrive in their environment. This ties into the concept of Instrumentalism, where ideas are tools used to solve problems and create knowledge.
Key Principles of Pragmatism

1.    Reality is in Flux: Reality is not something fixed but a continuous process of change. This aligns with Charles Darwin’s view that reality is found in becoming, not in static being.

2.    Truth is Functional: Truth is not abstract but something that works in practical situations. The principle of utility stresses the importance of practical application and solving real-life problems.

3.    Active Engagement: Human beings are active agents who engage with their environment and shape their knowledge and reality through action and experience.

4.    No Fixed Values: There are no universal or absolute values. Instead, values are flexible and contingent on the context, needs, and circumstances.
Pragmatism in Education
Pragmatism greatly influences educational philosophy, emphasizing that education should serve to solve real-life problems and prepare students for active engagement with the world:

•    Active, Problem-Solving Focus: Education is not about teaching abstract knowledge for its own sake but about preparing students to meet biological, social, and personal challenges.

•    Flexibility in Teaching Methods: Teachers should adapt their methods to the needs of students, using flexible and varied approaches. A project-based approach is preferred, and the curriculum should focus on practical knowledge that equips students for real-world situations.

•    Child-Centered Approach: The student’s needs, interests, and experiences should be the focal point of education.
Pragmatism’s Influence

•  Humanistic Pragmatism: Truth is relative to human needs and satisfaction.

•  Experimental Pragmatism: Truth is verified through experimentation and experience.

•    Biological Pragmatism: Truth is what helps human beings adapt to their environment, emphasizing practicality.
Conclusion
Pragmatism is a dynamic, flexible philosophy that prioritizes the practical consequences of ideas and actions. It has significantly influenced various fields, especially education, by stressing real-world applicability, human needs, and the adaptability of knowledge. This approach encourages a focus on problem-solving, action, and critical thinking in response to changing realities.
Would you like to explore any specific part of pragmatism in more detail, such as its impact on modern education or its relationship with other philosophical schools?
Pragmatism in Education –Why?
Natural Necessity: The Importance of Education for Humans
fundamental requirement for human beings, serving as a cornerstone for survival and development. Unlike many other species, human offspring are reliant on adult members of society for an extended period of time to mature physically, mentally, and socially. This
prolonged period of dependency emphasizes the importance of education in shaping individuals.
Without education, humans would struggle to fully realize their potential. It provides the knowledge and skills necessary for adaptation and growth, ensuring that individuals are prepared to navigate the challenges of the world. Through education, humans are empowered to evolve, progress, and contribute meaningfully to society, fostering both personal fulfillment and collective advancement.
Social Necessity: Education is also crucial because it facilitates the socialization process. Through education, individuals learn how to interact with others, understand societal norms, and function within a community. Without education, society would struggle to maintain stability and continuity, as there would be no shared knowledge or framework for individuals to participate in and contribute to societal life.
Pragmatism in Education – What?
Education, according to the pragmatist is a direction for self-expression. Education is considered as growth. Since growth is the characteristic of life, education is life itself. Dewey saw self-expression as a prime goal of schooling, and knowledge as natural outcome of the search for self-realization. His thought of education as the process of living rather than preparation for future living. Dewey believed that the only way to prepare learners for future life is to give them command of themselves. Dewey regarded children’s individual needs, interests, and social activities-rather than the subject-oriented structure of knowledge-as the true basis of learning.
Pragmatism and the Aims of Education
Pragmatism rejects the idea of fixed, predetermined, or ultimate goals for education. Since the aims of human life evolve based on time, place, and circumstances, no single, universal aim of education can be established. As philosopher W.D. Ross points out, "since life itself is experimental, there is no definite goal towards which the child must advance." In this view, educational aims should be flexible, tailored to individual children and responsive to the changing conditions of society and culture.
John Dewey, a leading figure in pragmatic philosophy, emphasizes this idea, arguing that "education, as such, has no aim; 'education' is an abstract idea. Only persons have aims. And the aims of persons are indefinitely varied, differing with different children, changing as children and their teachers grow." Dewey stresses that any stated educational aims should be seen only as guidelines or suggestions. They should not be rigid goals but instead serve as prompts to reflect on the outcomes of education, observe changing conditions, and choose appropriate methods to guide children’s development.
To Cultivate a Dynamic and Adaptable Mind
The aim of education, according to pragmatism is to provide dynamic direction and guidance to the child. As a result he can develop according to his natural interests, aptitudes and capacities in the field of academic activities and face the changing problems and challenges of modern life successfully. For this education should develop “a dynamic, adaptable mind which will be resourceful and enterprising in all situations which will have power to create values in unknown future.”
Education Must Create New Values
The pragmatists view the aim of education as the creation of new values, emphasizing that education should have a functional purpose rather than existing for its own sake. Unlike idealists, who focus on spiritual values, pragmatists believe that education helps children meet their biological and social needs by developing practical, adaptable values. These values evolve over time, shaped by changing societal circumstances and individual needs.
According to Ross, the main goal of education within the pragmatist framework is to empower individuals to create values that are meaningful and relevant to their personal needs and the environment around them. In this view, education is not about instilling a rigid or predetermined set of values. Instead, it focuses on helping children develop the ability to navigate and thrive in a world that is constantly changing. The educator’s role is to guide children in a way that aligns with their interests, impulses, and abilities, enabling them to engage with the world dynamically
and adaptively. This approach emphasizes the importance of active, experiential learning in world experiences.
Education as Continuous Reconstruction of Experiences
Pragmatists argue that education is not just about acquiring theoretical or bookish knowledge. Instead, education is seen as a continuous process of growth and development. Knowledge is not fixed or predetermined but evolves over time and with varying circumstances. It is shaped by experiences and experiments, which lead to real knowledge. Each experience paves the way for the next, gradually expanding the learner’s understanding. This process, known as the reconstruction of experiences, modifies the behavior patterns of the child. Through this continuous process, an individual’s personality develops and adjusts to their environment. As John Dewey famously stated, "Education is a process of living through a continuous reconstruction of experiences. It is the development of all those capacities in the individual that will enable him to control his environment and fulfill his potential      .
Pragmatism and Curriculum
John Dewey's, emphasizing a child-centered approach that was a direct contrast to traditional education methods. Dewey’s curriculum was shaped by pragmatism and instrumentalism, philosophies that prioritize practical experience and problem-solving. His essay "The Child and the Curriculum" offers a clear understanding of his educational philosophy. Dewey argued that education involves two key elements: the child, who is an immature being, and the social aims and values that reflect the mature experiences of adults. The interaction between these two factors—child and social values—creates the learning process.
In contrast, the conservative educational model focused heavily on subject matter division, with the curriculum structured around logical divisions of content. The curriculum was created by adults, designed with little regard for the child’s stage of development, abilities, or interests. This model treated the child as a "little adult," expecting them to absorb the knowledge accumulated by mature minds, with little room for individual growth or creativity.
Dewey rejected this traditional approach, advocating for education that nurtures the child’s latent potential. For Dewey, the child is central to the learning process: “The child is the starting
point, the center, and the end. His development and growth are the ideal. It also furnishes the standard.” In Dewey’s view, the child’s growth is the ultimate goal of education, and all studies should serve the child’s developmental needs. This child-centered perspective aligns with the educational ideas of thinkers like Rousseau and Froebel, who emphasized the importance of focusing on the child's experience rather than imposing a rigid, adult-designed curriculum.
Learning, according to Dewey, is an active process, not a passive one. He believed that when education focuses on the mechanical memorization of facts, it becomes dull and disengaging for the child. Dewey proposed that the most crucial aspect of learning is the development of experience. He defined experience as the “interaction of the human being with its environment.” This interaction has two key components: the individual actively engages with elements of the environment, and this engagement leads to the formation of new experiences that can enrich the child's learning and understanding.
Thus, Dewey’s curriculum was a dynamic, evolving process where education centered on the child’s active participation, growth, and interaction with the world around them, making the learning process both meaningful and engaging.
Methods of Teaching
The focus of pragmatic methods of teaching is on the ‘child-in-society’ and his activities therein rather than the book, the teacher, the subject or exclusively the child-of-nature. Learning always occurs as a result of movement and activity. The teacher has to capitalize upon the activities of children to direct the teaching-learning process. Activity is the basis of all teaching. The child should be enabled to find out by himself instead of pouring information on him. Children should be encouraged to discover and investigate the facts of life. Education must develop the laboratory habit of mind. The method of teaching should be experimental.
Dewey feels that methods of teaching should develop reflective thinking in children. They must ask the why of things and not merely the how of things. Method cannot be conceived in isolation from matter. Therefore, method should vary as matter varies.
If we study the educational philosophy of Dewey, we will find that there is no hard and fast line between his view about curriculum and those about methods of teaching. Hence the project method introduced by him is not only a method of teaching but also a device to cut
across the school curriculum for children. Project method is a direct outcome of his theory “Learning by Doing”, the problem of method of teaching and the curriculum is to be viewed from child’s point of view, of purpose, interest and usefulness. It shifts the emphasis from teaching to learning which can be only effective if it takes place not only through doing but also through living. Emphasis must be laid on enable the children to live an active life. They should set to themselves a problem or task and carry it out through their own planning and activity. Thus learning will be incidental and an outcome of purposeful activity. No formal learning is to be forced on the child. The child is to be prepared for life by making him live it in reality. The project method of Dewey aims at “Learning by Living.” According to this, things are learnt through carrying out certain projects as presented by real life.
Some educators have attempted to define the project more clearly. Stevenson in his book “The Project Method of Teaching” has described it as a problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting. A project, according to Kilpatrick “is a wholehearted purposeful activity proceeding on a social environment.” According to Ballard,” A project is a bit of real life that has been imparted into the schools.”
Procedure and Plan of the Method
Since the project method aims at teaching the students through the carrying out of some projects, a definite procedure has been laid for carrying it out. They are as follows:

i.     Providing a Situation: A project is never to be forced upon the children. The
teacher’s job is to provide such a situation wherein the children feel a spontaneous urge to carry out a particular project according to their needs and interest. Attempts should be made to provide situations by conversations on different topics, discussions on pictures, building of cities, by telling stories or taking out students on excursions and educational tours to different places.

ii.      Planning:
Planning.Once the project decision is made, the next crucial step is to develop a clear and structured plan for its execution. This phase should be student-led, with guidance from their teachers. Encouraging open discussions and brainstorming sessions is essential, as it allows students to express their ideas, suggest solutions, and develop a deeper understanding of the project’s scope.
Teachers should guide the students in organizing their thoughts, prioritizing tasks, and setting realistic goals. After these discussions, students should document the plan in their project books, ensuring that it’s clear and comprehensive. This written plan serves as the roadmap for the project’s execution, providing direction and clarity for all involved.
By being actively engaged in the planning process, students not only learn project management skills but also gain ownership of the project, making the final outcome more meaningful and fulfilling.

iii.     Executing: When the plan is ready, the teacher should encourage the students to
put it into practice. He may advise the students to assign duties or distribute work among themselves according to their interest and capacity. For the successful completion of the project, each student must be given some duty. While executing the project, they can gain varied types of experience.

iv.     Judging or Evaluating: No project is complete, unless it is critically reviewed by
the students. This step gives an opportunity to the students to assess their activities. They should note down their mistakes, if any, and judge whether they have proceeded on the right lines. Thus they can evaluate their own activities.

v.     Recording: For effective learning, students should maintain a project book to
record key activities such as planning, research, discussions, and challenges faced. Dewey's project method encourages learning by doing, fostering active engagement rather than passive knowledge acquisition. This approach allows students to connect knowledge with real-life As Thron suggests, we learn best by living and experimenting with life, not just. Pragmatism and the Student
The child is also a social being. Unlike the previous conception of education as a bipolar process, the child and the educative process being the two poles, pragmatists think of it as a tripolar process, the immediate society being the third pole. The child needs to be familiarized with the life – customs, traditions, folkways, mores, norms, values and behavior of the society or, rather socialized.
Position of the Teacher
In spite of the child being viewed as a central, positive factor in the educational process, a teacher's role is not undervalued in Dewey's ideal school. Dewey himself was a highly respected teacher. As a practical educator, he entrusted teachers with significant responsibility. The primary duty of a teacher, according to Dewey, is to guide children through the complexities of life. Teachers must observe, plan, and foster students' activities while providing the necessary environment and experiences. The teacher is not only a mentor but also a friend, philosopher, and guide. It is crucial for the teacher to not only encourage democratic cooperation among students but also to lead them toward the highest intellectual achievements and the richest aesthetic experiences. Above all, the teacher's responsibility is to facilitate the growth and development of students in a socially enriching atmosphere. Teacher-Student Relation
We have already discussed in the first chapter of his book that according to Adams, Education is bi-polar process. While discussing about the bi-polar theory of education, he also regarded education as a unipolar process. Sir J. E. Adamson was not satisfied with the above views of Adams. Therefore, he proposed a tri-polar theory of Education. The Dewey School of thought seems approximately of the view of Sir J. E. Adamson, that education is a tri-polar process. Right education comprises the interplay among the students who receive education, the teacher who imparts it and the social milieu or the environment in which education is imparted. He adds the sociological side and opines that “all education proceeds by the participation of the individual in the social consciousness of race.” Regarding student-teacher relation Dewey stated, “the school master comes to his own. This fact at once expresses its strength and its weakness. The conception that the mind consists of what has been taught, and that importance of what has been taught consists on its availability for further teaching, reflect the pedagogue’s view of life. The philosophy is eloquent about the duty of the teacher instructing students; it is almost silent regarding his privilege of learning. It emphasizes the influence of the intellectual environment, and evolves a personal sharing of common, experience.” On some other occasion, he further stated, “The educators part in the enterprise of education is to furnish the environment which stimulates, responds and directs the learners course. In the last analysis, all that the educator can do is modify stimuli so that response will as surely as is possible result in the formation of desirable intellectual and emotional dispositions.” Thus the educator tries to modify the personality of child. Education “thus may be defined as planned interaction within an institution, devised specially for the purpose, based upon the belief
in the plasticity of a human being and resulting in the desired modification of behavior of individual involved.”
Self- Check Exercise(1)

1.    Pragmatism as a philosophical tradition began in the United States around
(a)1870 (b) 1850 (c) 1837 (d)  1910

2.    Pragmatism in education has much faith in:

(a) Universal Education (b) Compulsory Education

(c) Both (a) and (b)      (d) None of the above

9. 3.Comparison between the Idealistic View and the Pragmatic View about the StudentTeacher Relation
H. H. Home, while comparing idealistic with the pragmatic view about student-teacher relationship stated, “The role of the teacher in the one philosophy s to keep himself out of personal relations with the student as much as possible, substitute indirect for direct control, and so assist in handling the situation that students will respond to it and not to the teacher. In the other philosophy the role of the teacher is to establish personal relations with every students so far as possible to utilize direct control by personal suggestions as well as indirect, and to secure responses to the teachers idea and ideals as well as the situations. Teaching is a personal relation between teacher and student as well as impersonal relation between student and problem.” He further added, of course that the new type of teacher does conceive his role as that of modifying stimuli and providing suitable environment. And of course all teachers have always done this to some extent, even when writing was done on palm leaves and computation was done in the sand. But in a personalistic in distinction from a pragmatic philosophy of education, the teacher not only supplied the environment but is environment, not only modified, stimuli but is a stimulus. And the responses of the student are made only to the stimuli of an impersonal situation but to the stimulus of a personal guide and friend. As usual, the idealistic philosophy does not so much reject as supplement the pragmatic philosophy.
Thus in respect of student teacher relation, one point of view supplements the other though outwardly, it seems that they oppose each other.
Discipline
John Dewey’s perspective on discipline in education centers on the idea of selfdiscipline and free-discipline—a concept where the child learns and grows through purposeful, creative activities, rather than through external control or punishment. Dewey argued that real discipline emerges from the child’s involvement in activities that are both purposeful and socially constructive. Dewey’s vision for discipline is rooted in a democratic society where students participate in cooperative activities within the school community. The goal is for students to gain an understanding of social norms, values, and responsibilities through interactions with others, rather than through punitive measures. Discipline, in Dewey’s view, is not just about control—it is about the development of the individual’s ability to work within a community, contributing to both personal and social efficiency.
For Dewey, school is not separate from life; it is a miniature society where the child learns how to interact, collaborate, and contribute to a larger social context. He argued that the curriculum and methods should reflect the social nature of learning, making the school environment a microcosm of the society at large. In this way, the distinction between learning and living dissolves, and the student’s education becomes a continuous part of their social existence.
The ultimate aim of Dewey’s educational philosophy is to create individuals who are both selfdisciplined and socially responsible—able to move from thought to action in a purposeful, cooperative, and socially aware manner. In essence, discipline becomes a positive force for personal and collective growth, centered around democratic principles and active participation in society.
Pragmatism and the School
A progressive school classroom emphasizes student autonomy and active participation in their own learning. Unlike conventional classrooms, students in a progressive setting take on more responsibility and initiative, often engaging in hands-on activities like conducting science experiments. The instruction is personalized to cater to diverse interests, needs, and learning
speeds. Socialization is a key component, with a focus on discussions, drama, music, and collaborative group activities. The environment is more flexible and informal compared to traditional classrooms, encouraging freedom and activity. While fundamental skills are still taught, they are often introduced through discovery-based methods rather than rote memorization.
Relevance of Pragmatism in Education in the Emerging Indian Society
Relevance of Pragmatism in 21st-Century Indian Education:
Focus on Experiential Learning: Pragmatism encourages hands-on, experience-based learning rather than passive memorization. In India, where rote learning has often been the norm, moving toward experiential methods can foster critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving skills. This would help students not only learn academic content but also apply that knowledge practically in everyday life, preparing them for future careers.
Emphasis on Adaptability: The rapid pace of technological change and globalization demands that students develop the ability to adapt to new situations and challenges. Pragmatism promotes flexibility in thinking and encourages students to experiment, learn from failures, and adjust their approaches accordingly. In a dynamic world, such a mindset is crucial for success.
Integration of Real-World Problems: In India, education often feels disconnected from real-world issues, especially in rural or underdeveloped areas. Pragmatism advocates for a curriculum that connects academic learning with the challenges students face in their communities, making education more relevant and engaging. This could involve local problems, such as environmental issues, health challenges, or socio-economic disparities, and encourage students to work on solutions.
Inclusive Education: Pragmatism’s focus on diversity of thought and experience can be highly valuable in India, with its rich cultural and linguistic diversity. A pragmatic educational system would accommodate different learning styles, backgrounds, and needs, promoting inclusivity and equity in education. By encouraging critical thinking and respecting diverse perspectives, pragmatism could help bridge educational gaps.
Collaborative Learning: Pragmatism also promotes collaboration and teamwork. As India moves toward preparing students for an interconnected global economy, working with others—both within India and internationally—becomes essential. By emphasizing group work and interdisciplinary learning, pragmatism helps students develop skills necessary for teamwork, communication, and global cooperation.
Preparation for a Knowledge Economy: As India continues to evolve as a knowledge-driven economy, pragmatism can help align educational goals with the demands of the future workforce. The focus on practical skills, critical thinking, and real-world problemsolving would better prepare students for careers in science, technology, engineering, and business, among others.

i)    Emphasis on Practical Utility
Pragmatism in education lays more emphasis on practical utility, not in any readymade principles. This philosophy holds that the value and truth of ideas are tested by their practical consequences. Since this philosophy of education lays emphasis on practical utility, it is considered as progressive education. Modern India neds such type of education for its present and future progress.

ii)    Emphasis on Social Necessity
A democratic values. A democratic society pronounces values like stability and continuity for its progress. John Dewey therefore says “A government resting upon popular suffrage cannot be successful unless those who elect and obey their governors are educated.” Since India has adopted democratic form of government, pragmatism in education is quite relevant for the country.

iii     Pragmatism in education, which lays emphasis on a truly progressive approach
calls for “re-creating the curriculum” to develop new subject matter from human experience, which is spoken of as the “experience centered curriculum”. On “Learning by doing., “the progressive educator believes that learning is better when learners are interested in what they are doing. Learning by doing emphasizes intelligent reflection upon what is being done and what can be learned from the experience of doing.
Progressive educators regard this as the essence of reasoning, and they value it highly.
Dewey insisted that the process of education and the goal of education are the same. Although Dewey regarded education as the fundamental method of social progress and reform, he did not believe that the schools should be used to remake the social order.

iv)    Emphasis Education of the Whole Child
The progressive educator values both affective development and cognitive development and insists that neither can be fully nurtured without the other. Thus progressive education emphasizes the round development of the whole child. Children’s learning should be derived from their interests and needs. In the child-centered school, it is the teacher’s responsibility to organize, select, and direct children’s experience so that participation in activities will bring maximum understanding and knowledge to the students.

v)    The Project Method of Teaching
Pragmatism advocates project method of teaching. It imparts education in the form of a purposeful task or socialized activity like play acting or canal digging, in carrying out which, certain skills and principles are acquired, not formally but incidentally. Unless a series of projects are well planned, the child’s knowledge is bound to be unsystematic and incomplete. Pragmatism, according to Rusk, seeks to combine Naturalism and Idealism, typifying the contradiction inherent in American life, industrial efficiency and material success on the one hand, and idealistic tendencies on the other. Thus the methods of pragmatism are scientific. Hence it is relevant for education in the emerging Indian society.

vi)    Emphasis on Universaval Education
Pragmatism in education emphasizes the importance of practical experience and problem-solving in the learning process. It believes that education should be relevant, adaptable, and focused on real-life situations. One of the key tenets of pragmatism is that every individual should be provided with the opportunity for education, as it is essential for personal growth and societal progress.
As India works towards the universalization of education, pragmatic educational practices become particularly relevant. They ensure that the educational system is not just theoretical but grounded in the realities of students' lives, equipping them with the skills necessary to thrive in a rapidly changing world. Moreover, pragmatism in education encourages the development of
the whole person, integrating academic knowledge with practical skills, and promoting lifelong learning.
Therefore, pragmatism aligns with the goals of inclusive and comprehensive education in contemporary India, advocating for education that is accessible, practical, and geared toward personal and societal development.

vii)    Pragmatism does not Banish the Teacher
Idealism, truly speaking, exaggerates the place of the teacher in education. He is to influence the personality of the educand. Pragmatism regards the teacher only as a guide to provide the child with suitable environments to enable him to experience the truth. Like naturalism, pragmatism does not banish the teacher altogether.
Education, in India, is passing through a very critical but interesting phase. Now emphasis is laid on making education life centred. Under the circumstances, pragmatism is the only philosophy which can be applied to the present educational theory and practice of Indian education.
Self- Check Exercise(2)

1.    Which one lays emphasis on a truly progressive approach calls for “re-creating the curriculum”

(a) Realism in education      (b) Naturalism in education

(c) Pragmatism in education (d) Idealism in education

2.    Who believed in the theory of free-discipline and self-discipline.

(a) Dewey              (b) Friedrich Hegel

(c) Muller               (d) William James

3.    Pragmatism rejects the idea that the function of thought is to describe, represent, or mirror reality.                                                                              True / false

9.4    Summary
Pragmatism contrasts with both Idealism and Naturalism, inspiring students to focus on creating new values that shape their future, leading to a richer, more fulfilling life. It stresses the
importance of providing students with a social environment that nurtures their ability to adapt and think dynamically.
Rusk’s perspective, as quoted in the original text, emphasizes that pragmatism represents a new stage of idealism—one that balances practical and spiritual values and promotes a culture of efficiency, rather than rejecting it. Pragmatism is an approach that opposes tradition, fostering innovation, experimentation, and problem-solving both in life and education. It highlights the interconnectedness of philosophy and education, where each can shape and transform the other.
This philosophy is both a mindset and a way of life, urging individuals to think creatively, adapt, and engage with the world in a manner that is both practical and meaningful.

9.5    Glossary
Pragmatism is a philosophical approach that focuses on the practical aspects of ideas and their real-world applications. In this framework, an idea or theory is considered true if it leads to successful, beneficial outcomes when applied in practice. The meaning of a proposition is closely tied to the practical consequences of adopting it—essentially, an idea's value is determined by how well it works in solving problems or guiding action. In contrast, concepts or ideologies that don't yield practical results or contribute to real-world effectiveness are regarded as less valuable or unworthy of acceptance.

9.6    Answer to Self- Check Exercise(1)

1.    (a)   2. (c)
Answer to Self- Check Exercise(2)

1.    (c)  2. (a)  3. True

9.7    References /suggested readings
Macquarrie, J. (1968) : Existenatialism, Pelican Book.
Chaube S.P. & Chaube A. (1996) : Foundations of Education, Publishing House, New Delhi. Chandra S.S. & Sharma R.K. (2004) : Philosophy of Education, Atlantic Publishers.
William James (1909). The Meaning of Truth. Retrieved 5 March 2015.

9.8   Terminal Questions

1)    Explain the basic principles and chief affirmations of Pragmatism.

2)    Which are the forms of pragmatism.

3)    Discuss the educational implications of pragmatism
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