--- title: "Complete Book 0" book: "MPUB 403 Disaster Management Techniques" category: "General" publisher: "Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd." type: "Educational Material" ---  According to Latest Syllabus Read For Sure Success In University Examination RATAN TEXT BOOK DISASTER MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES M.A.Pub.Ad.(Sem-IV) Dr. Tapis Chaudhary Published by Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd. 2nd Floor, Centre Plaza, Parinay Kunj, Lajpat Kunj Marg, Agra-282002 Copyright Authors & Publishers Published by Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd. 2nd Floor, Centre Plaza, Parinay Kunj, Lajpat Kunj Marg, Agra-282002 ISBN :978-81-69604-36-9 Price 405.00 only Printed at : KIDS INTERNATIONAL PVT. LTD. C-60, 61, 62, 63, EPIP, Shastripuram, Agra - 282007 Ph. : +91 9719004921 Preamble to the Constitution of India WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, Having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens : JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation; IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION. Chapter-1 Basic Concepts Relating Disaster Structure | 1.0 | Learning Objectives | |---|---| | 1.1 | Introduction | | 1.2 | Hazard | | 1.3 | Risk | | 1.4 | Vulnerability | | 1.5 | Disaster | | 1.6 | Conclusion | | 1.7 | Self-Check Exercises | | 1.8 | Glossary | | 1.9 | Answer to self check exercise | | 1.10 | Terminal questions | | 1.11 | Suggested Reading | | 1.0 | Learning Objectives | After studying this lesson, the learner will be able to Know the definition and concept of hazard Comprehend the meaning, definition and concept of risk Understand the concept of vulnereability Relate the above three terms to understand disaster 1.1    Introduction Disasters, both natural and man-made, have been a constant companion to human civilization since time immemorial. They can strike with little warning, wreaking havoc on communities, infrastructure, and livelihoods in their wake. From earthquakes shaking the very foundations of cities to pandemics disrupting global economies, the impact of disasters can be profound and far-reaching. In recent decades, the frequency and intensity of disasters have increased, fueled by factors such as climate change, rapid urbanization, and socio-economic inequalities. As a result, there is a pressing need for effective disaster management strategies to mitigate risks, enhance resilience, and minimize the loss of life and property. Disasters come in various forms, each presenting unique challenges and complexities. Natural disasters, including hurricanes, floods, wildfires, and earthquakes, are often triggered by geological or meteorological phenomena beyond human control. Conversely, man-made disasters, such as industrial accidents, terrorist attacks, and technological hazards, arise from human activities or negligence. While the causes of disasters may differ, their consequences are invariably disruptive, posing significant threats to public safety, health, and well-being. Moreover, the interconnected nature of modern society means that the impact of a disaster in one region can ripple across borders, highlighting the importance of international cooperation and coordination in disaster response and recovery efforts. Disaster management encompasses a range of activities aimed at reducing the risk of disasters, preparing for their occurrence, and responding effectively when they strike. This multidisciplinary field draws upon expertise from various sectors, including emergency services, public health, engineering, and social sciences, to develop comprehensive strategies for disaster resilience and mitigation. Key components of disaster management include risk assessment, disaster preparedness, emergency response, and recovery and reconstruction. By identifying vulnerabilities, strengthening infrastructure, and implementing early warning systems, communities can better withstand the impact of disasters and expedite the recovery process in their aftermath. Despite advances in technology and knowledge, addressing the complexities of disaster management remains a formidable task. Limited resources, political barriers, and competing priorities often hamper efforts to build resilient communities and enhance disaster preparedness. Additionally, the unpredictable nature of disasters necessitates adaptive strategies that can evolve in response to emerging threats and changing circumstances. Nevertheless, there are opportunities for innovation and collaboration in the field of disaster management. Advances in data analytics, remote sensing, and communication technologies offer new tools for risk assessment, early warning, and decision-making. Furthermore, community engagement and grassroots initiatives play a crucial role in building social cohesion and resilience at the local level. In an increasingly interconnected world, the need for effective disaster management has never been greater. By adopting a proactive and holistic approach to disaster resilience, communities can minimize 5 the impact of disasters and safeguard the well-being of their inhabitants. Through cooperation, innovation, and shared responsibility, we can work towards a future where disasters no longer exact such a heavy toll on human lives and livelihoods. 1.2    Hazard A hazard can be defined as any source, situation, or act with the potential to cause harm, damage, or adverse effects to people, property, or the environment. Hazards can arise from natural phenomena, such as geological processes (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions), meteorological events (hurricanes, floods), biological factors (disease outbreaks), or human activities, including industrial processes, transportation, and construction. A process, phenomenon or human activity that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. Annotations: Hazards may be natural, anthropogenic or socionatural in origin. Natural hazards are predominantly associated with natural processes and phenomena. Anthropogenic hazards, or human-induced hazards, are induced entirely or predominantly by human activities and choices. This term does not include the occurrence or risk of armed conflicts and other situations of social instability or tension which are subject to international humanitarian law and national legislation. Several hazards are socionatural, in that they are associated with a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors, including environmental degradation and climate change. Hazards may be single, sequential or combined in their origin and effects. Each hazard is characterized by its location, intensity or magnitude, frequency and probability. Biological hazards are also defined by their infectiousness or toxicity, or other characteristics of the pathogen such as dose-response, incubation period, case fatality rate and estimation of the pathogen for transmission. Multi-hazard means (1) the selection of multiple major hazards that the country faces, and (2) the specific contexts where hazardous events may occur simultaneously, cascadingly or cumulatively over time, and taking into account the potential interrelated effects. Hazards include (as mentioned in the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, and listed in alphabetical order) biological, environmental, geological, hydrometeorological and technological processes and phenomena. Biological hazards are of organic origin or conveyed by biological vectors, including pathogenic microorganisms, toxins and bioactive substances. Examples are bacteria, viruses or parasites, as well as venomous wildlife and insects, poisonous plants and mosquitoes carrying disease-causing agents. Environmental hazards may include chemical, natural and biological hazards. They can be created by environmental degradation or physical or chemical pollution in the air, water and soil. However, many of the processes and phenomena that fall into this category may be termed drivers of hazard and risk rather than hazards in themselves, such as soil degradation, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, salinization and sea-level rise. Geological or geophysical hazards originate from internal earth processes. Examples are earthquakes, volcanic activity and emissions, and related geophysical processes such as mass movements, landslides, rockslides, surface collapses and debris or mud flows. Hydrometeorological factors are important contributors to some of these processes. Tsunamis are difficult to categorize: although they are triggered by undersea earthquakes and other geological events, they essentially become an oceanic process that is manifested as a coastal water-related hazard. Hydrometeorological hazards are of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic origin. Examples are tropical cyclones (also known as typhoons and hurricanes); floods, including flash floods; drought; heatwaves and cold spells; and coastal storm surges. Hydrometeorological conditions may also be a factor in other hazards such as landslides, wildland fires, locust plagues, epidemics and in the transport and dispersal of toxic substances and volcanic eruption material. Technological hazards originate from technological or industrial conditions, dangerous procedures, infrastructure failures or specific human activities. Examples include industrial pollution, nuclear radiation, toxic wastes, dam failures, transport accidents, factory explosions, fires and chemical spills. Technological hazards also may arise directly as a result of the impacts of a natural hazard event. 1.3    Risk : The potential loss of life, injury, or destroyed or damaged assets which could occur to a system, society or a community in a specific period of time, determined probabilistically as a function of hazard, exposure, vulnerability and capacity. Annotation: The definition of disaster risk reflects the concept of hazardous events and disasters as the outcome of continuously present conditions of risk. Disaster risk comprises different types of potential losses which are often difficult to quantify. Nevertheless, with knowledge of the prevailing hazards and the patterns of population and socioeconomic development, disaster risks can be assessed and mapped, in broad terms at least. 7 It is important to consider the social and economic contexts in which disaster risks occur and that people do not necessarily share the same perceptions of risk and their underlying risk factors. Acceptable risk, or tolerable risk, is therefore an important subterm; the extent to which a disaster risk is deemed acceptable or tolerable depends on existing social, economic, political, cultural, technical and environmental conditions. In engineering terms, acceptable risk is also used to assess and define the structural and non-structural measures that are needed in order to reduce possible harm to people, property, services and systems to a chosen tolerated level, according to codes or “accepted practice” which are based on known probabilities of hazards and other factors. Residual risk is the disaster risk that remains even when effective disaster risk reduction measures are in place, and for which emergency response and recovery capacities must be maintained. The presence of residual risk implies a continuing need to develop and support effective capacities for emergency services, preparedness, response and recovery, together with socioeconomic policies such as safety nets and risk transfer mechanisms, as part of a holistic approach. Risk Drivers Risk is influenced by the decisions we make. From climate change to poor urban planning, it is critical to understand and address risk drivers to curb disaster risk. •    Climate change can increase disaster risk in a variety of ways - by altering the frequency and intensity of hazard events, affecting vulnerability to hazards, and changing exposure patterns. •    Environmental degradation Environmental degradation is both a driver and consequence of disasters, reducing the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological needs. •    Globalized economic development This has increased vulnerability to disasters in some cases, whilst increasing exposure to hazards in others as more (and often more valuable) assets are developed in hazard-prone areas. •    Poverty and inequality Poverty is both a driver and consequence of disasters, and the processes that further disaster risk related poverty are permeated with inequality. •    Poorly planned urban development Whether or not disaster risk is factored into investment decisions in urban development will have a decisive influence on the future of disaster risk reduction. •    Weak governance Investment environments in which public sector actors do not assume their roles and responsibilities. Disasters threaten development, just as development creates disaster risk The key to understanding disaster risk is by recognizing that disasters are an indicator of development failures, meaning that disaster risk is a measure of the sustainability of development. Hazard, vulnerability and exposure are influenced by a number of risk drivers, including poverty and inequality, badly planned and managed urban and regional development, climate change and environmental degradation. Understanding disaster risk requires us to not only consider the hazard, our exposure and vulnerability but also society's capacity to protect itself from disasters. The ability of communities, societies and systems to resist, absorb, accommodate, recover from disasters, whilst at the same time improve wellbeing, is known as resilience. Why does disaster risk matter? If current global patterns of increasing exposure, high levels of inequality, rapid urban development and environment degradation grow, then disaster risk may increase to dangerous levels. If current trends continue, the number of disasters per year may increase from around 400 in 2015 to 560 per year 2030. UNDRR, 2022 The average annual direct economic loss from disasters has more than doubled over the past three decades, showing an increase of approximately 145% from an average of around $70 billion in the 1990s to just over $170 billion in the 2010s. UNDRR, 2022 As the past several decades of research have demonstrated, disasters particularly affect the poorest and most marginalised people, whilst also exacerbating vulnerabilities and social inequalities and harming economic growth. Disaster mortality risk is closely correlated with income level and quality of risk governance. Although some countries have successfully reduced disaster deaths from flooding and tropical cyclones, evidence suggests that the numbers of deaths from extensive risks is increasing. Increases in extensive disaster loss and damage is evidence that disaster risk is an indicator of failed or skewed development, of unsustainable economic and social processes, and of ill-adapted societies. In most economies 70-85% of overall investment is made by the private sector, which generally does not consider disaster risk in its portfolio of risks. Across the globe, the concentration of high-value assets in hazard areas has grown. But, when disaster losses are understood relative to the income status of the country, low and middle-income countries appear to be suffering the greatest losses. Disaster risk is therefore a problem for people, businesses and governments alike. How do we measure disaster risk? We can measure disaster risk by analysing trends of, for instance, previous disaster losses. These trends can help us to gauge whether disaster risk reduction is being effective. We can also estimate future losses by conducting a risk assessment. A comprehensive risk assessment considers the full range of potential disaster events and their underlying drivers and uncertainties. It can start with the analysis of historical events as well as incorporating forward-looking perspectives, integrating the anticipated impacts of phenomena that are altering historical trends, such as climate change. In addition, risk assessment may consider rare events that lie outside projections of future hazards but that, based on scientific knowledge, could occur. Anticipating rare events requires a range of information and interdisciplinary findings, along with scenario building and simulations, which can be supplemented by expertise from a wide range of disciplines. Data on hazards, exposures, vulnerabilities and losses enhance the accuracy of risk assessment, contributing to more effective measures to prevent, prepare for and financially manage disaster risk. Modern approaches to risk assessment include risk modelling, which came into being when computational resources became more powerful and available. Risk models allow us to simulate the outcomes and likelihood of different events. Risk assessments are produced in order to estimate possible economic, infrastructure, and social impacts arising from a particular hazard or multiple hazards. The components of assessing risk (and the associated losses) include: •    Hazard is defined as the probability of experiencing a certain intensity of hazard (eg. Earthquake, cyclone etc) at a specific location and is usually determined by an historical or user-defined scenario, probabilistic hazard assessment, or other method. Some hazard modules can include secondary perils (such as soil liquefaction or fires caused by earthquakes, or storm surge associated with a cyclone). •  Exposure represents the stock of property and infrastructure exposed to a hazard, and it can include socioeconomic factors. •  Vulnerability accounts for the susceptibility to damage of the assets exposed to the forces generated by the hazard. Fragility and vulnerability functions estimate the damage ratio and consequent loss respectively, and/or the social cost (e.g., number of injured, homeless, and killed) generated by a hazard, according to a specified exposure. Climate and disaster risks arise due to compounding and cascading hazards and impacts, leading to complex and interconnected adverse consequences for various ecological and human systems. Recent guidance acknowledges that risk assessment and management in the context of climate change requires a comprehensive, systemic perspective on risk and its underlying drivers to the compect and partly systemic nature of climate-related risks. Ten key principles are proposed for a comprehensive approach for risk assessment and planning: 1.    Putting risk to human and ecological systems at the centre; 2.    Fully accounting for the context of climate change; 3.    Recognizing the complex and systemic nature of risks; 4.    Applying inclusive risk governance; 5.    Using multidisciplinary approaches to identify and select measures; 6.    Using the concept of risk tolerance; 7.    Addressing, minimising and averting risks through Nature-based Solutions; 8.    Integrating risk across sectors and levels; 9.    Strengthening risk communication, information and knowledge sources; 10.    Using iterative and flexible processes. Illustration showing phases of a risk assessment, retrieved from Technical guidance on comprehensive risk assessment and planning in the context of climate change, UNDRR (2022). The technical guidance further provides specific recommendations on how to comprehensively assess risks and reduce and/or address them through planning. It follows the general workflow for risk assessments from International Organization for Standardization standard 31000 with its main phases of scoping, risk identification, risk analysis and risk evaluation: 1.    A good scoping phase means to design a risk assessment in such a way that it supports decisionmaking and planning by taking into account existing objectives, goals, values, and the existing policy and planning framework. 2.    Risk identification aims to identify relevant risks starting from existing knowledge and expert input. 3.    In risk analysis, the risk components (hazards, exposure and vulnerabilities) and their interlinkages, resulting cascading impacts and the potential for adverse consequences for selected human or ecological systems are explored and analysed using quantitative and qualitative methods. 4.    Risk evaluation then identifies urgent actions and risk reduction measures based on the levels of risk tolerability defined by the communities and key stakeholders. Risk can be assessed both deterministically (single or few scenarios) and probabilistically (the likelihood of all possible events). Probabilistic models “complete” historical records by reproducing the physics of the phenomena and recreating the intensity of a large number of synthetic (computer-generated) events. As such, they provide a more comprehensive picture of the full spectrum of future risks than is possible with historical data. While the scientific data and knowledge used for modelling is still incomplete, provided that their inherent uncertainty is recognised, these models can provide guidance on the likely 'order of magnitude' of risks. Risk models are a representation of reality, but are only as good as the data used. The convergence of public and private sector risk modelling efforts promises to increase the availability of open access, open source risk information that can be used by business, government, insurance and citizens alike. However, while the experts developing these models clearly understand their limitations, especially at subnational levels, DRR practitioners using the information produced by these models may understand these limitations less well How do we reduce disaster risk? If a country ignores disaster risk and allows risk to accumulate, it is in effect undermining its own future potential for social and economic development. However, if a country invests in disaster risk reduction, over time it can reduce the potential losses it faces, thus freeing up critical resources for development. Hazards do not have to turn into disasters. A catastrophic disaster is not the inevitable consequence of a hazard event, and much can be done to reduce the exposure and vulnerability of populations living in areas where natural hazards occur, whether frequently or infrequently. We can prevent future risk, reduce existing risk and support the resilience and societies in the face of risk that cannot be effectively reduced (known as residual risk). Disaster risk reduction (the policy objective of disaster risk management) contribute to strengthening resilience and therefore to the achievement of sustainable development. Evidence from several countries, including Colombia, Mexico and Nepal indicates that investment in disaster risk reduction is effective -there are therefore both political and economic imperatives to reducing disaster risk. Disaster risk is a shared risk, and businesses, the public sector and civil society all participate in its construction; consequently, disaster risk reduction (DRR) must be considered a shared value. DRR, thus, requires a people-centred and multi-sector approach, building resilience to multiple hazards and creating a culture of prevention and safety. Disaster risk management (DRM) can be thought of the implementation of DRR and includes building the capacity of a community, organisation or society to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from disasters. Find out more on specific ways disaster risk can be reduced and managed on our dedicated page on Disaster risk reduction and disaster risk management. By understanding and managing risk, we can achieve major reductions in disaster losses. For instance, by strengthening their capacities to absorb and recover from disasters, several countries across the world have reduced mortality risk associated with flooding and tropical cyclones. Many high-income countries have also successfully reduced their extensive risks. However, losses associated with extensive risk are trending up in low and middle-income countries. 1.4    Vulnereability The characteristics determined by physical, social, economic and environmental factors or processes which increase the susceptibility of an individual, a community, assets or systems to the impacts of hazards. Vulnerability is the human dimension of disasters and is the result of the range of economic, social, cultural, institutional, political and psychological factors that shape people’s lives and the environment that they live in. Vulnerability can be a challenging concept to understand because it tends to mean different things to different people and because it is often described using a variety of terms including ‘predisposition’, ‘fragility’, ‘weakness’, ‘deficiency’ or ‘lack of capacity’. Some definitions of vulnerability have included exposure in addition to susceptibility to harm. However, it is now understood that exposure is separate to the ‘susceptibility’ element of vulnerability since it is possible to be exposed, whilst at the same time not susceptible to natural hazards. Despite some divergence over the meaning of vulnerability, most experts agree that understanding vulnerability requires more than analysing the direct impacts of a hazard. Vulnerability also concerns the wider environmental and social conditions that limit people and communities to cope with the impact of hazard. Vulnerability is complex. Vulnerability is not simply about poverty, but extensive research over the past 30 years has revealed that it is generally the poor who tend to suffer worst from disasters. Poverty is both a driver and consequence of disaster risk (particularly in countries with weak risk governance) because economic pressures force people to live in unsafe locations (see exposure) and conditions. Poverty and the other multi-dimensional factors and drivers that create vulnerability mean that susceptibility to the impacts of hazards is often, but not always, associated with certain groups, including women, children, the elderly, the disabled, migrants and displaced populations, amongst others. Vulnerability relates to a number of factors, including: Physical factors e.g. poor design and construction of buildings, unregulated land use planning, etc. An example on physical factors: UNECE study maps transport infrastructure at high risk due to climate change in PanEuropean region and Canada Social factors e.g. poverty and inequality, marginalisation, social exclusion and discrimination by gender, social status, disability and age (amongst other factors) psychological factors, etc. An example on social factors: Older adults' independence is most significant factor for vulnerability in hot weather Economic factors e.g. the uninsured informal sector, vulnerable rural livelihoods, dependence on single industries, globalisation of business and supply chains, etc. An example on economic factors: Secure food supply chain Environmental factors e.g. poor environmental management, overconsumption of natural resources, decline of risk regulating ecosystem services, climate change, etc. An example on environmental factors: Severe air pollution can heighten Covid-19 risk in South Asia In addition, vulnerability is determined by historical, political, cultural and institutional and natural resource processes that shape the social and environmental conditions people find themselves existing within. These processes produce a range of immediate unsafe conditions such as living in dangerous locations or in poor housing, ill-health, political tensions or a lack of local institutions or preparedness measures. Many of the underlying drivers of vulnerability, including poorly managed urban development, are increasing, resulting in vulnerability increasing in many countries and regions of the world. While evidence suggests that wealthier, well governed countries are able to reduce disaster risks, some countries have exhibited rapid economic growth in the last few decades without a commensurable rate of vulnerability reduction. How humanitarian assistance practices exacerbate vulnerability A paper finds that a simplistic understanding of vulnerability - that people with higher losses are more vulnerable and deserve more assistance in comparison to those who suffer lower losses - tends to favour well-off people, as they own (and lose) more physical assets. This understanding is shared between various actors and stakeholders, enabling the elite to privilege themselves, both in terms of material benefits and influential positions. Furthermore, The reliance of local humanitarian organisations on external actors, such as national governments and donors for funding and legitimacy further hindered contextual understandings of disaster vulnerability. These result in failing to address the socio-political drivers of vulnerability but also contributed to the exacerbation of vulnerability through reinforcing inequitable village-level and crossscalar authority relations. Why does vulnerability matter? By including vulnerability in our understanding of disaster risk, we acknowledge the fact that disaster risk not only depends on the severity of hazard or the number of people or assets exposed, but that it is also a reflection of the susceptibility of people and economic assets to suffer loss and damage. Levels of vulnerability (and exposure) help to explain why some non-extreme hazards can lead to extreme impacts and disasters, while some extreme events do not. In the context of extensive risk in particular, it is often people’s vulnerability that is the greatest factor in determining their risk. In the context of different hazards, some groups are more susceptible to damage, loss and suffering than others and likewise (within these groups) some people experience higher levels of vulnerability than others. Vulnerable groups find it hardest to reconstruct their livelihoods following a disaster, and this in turn makes them more vulnerable to the effects of subsequent hazard events. Consequently, we have to reduce vulnerability in order to reduce disaster risk. How do we measure vulnerability? Vulnerability is complex. It has many dimensions, it is driven by factors at different levels, from local to global, and it is dynamic as it alters under the pressure of these driving forces. Furthermore, the complex factors that make people vulnerable are not always immediately obvious. The chain of causes of vulnerability, from the underlying drivers of vulnerability (e.g. socio-economic processes) to the immediate conditions that present themselves (e.g. poor quality housing), can be both long and complex; but by tracking it we can identify the progression of vulnerability that builds pressures on communities. These pressures can be released by taking measures to reduce vulnerability at various points along the causal chain. Owing to its different facets, there is no one single method for assessing vulnerability. Ideally, any assessment should adopt a holistic approach to assessing vulnerability. In reality, methods are usually divided into those that consider physical (or built environment) vulnerability and those that consider socioeconomic vulnerability. Assessing the vulnerability of the built environment to hazards is extremely important in assessing potential consequences of an event and for mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into the local development planning process. Understanding the response of existing structures to potential hazards, such as ground shaking from earthquakes and wind from tropical cyclones, requires the knowledge of building materials and engineering practices. Local engineers are increasingly dedicating themselves to understanding the vulnerability of their local building stock (which varies significantly from country to country and within countries) to different natural hazards. Engineers in the Philippines and Indonesia, for instance, are developing vulnerability calculations relevant to their own national building stocks. However these examples represent the exception. Likewise, opportunities for damage and loss data collection (critical to understanding futures risks) following disaster events continue to be missed. Efforts to quantify socio-economic vulnerability and poverty remain limited, and information of this kind is rarely integrated into risk assessments. Quantifying social vulnerability remains a challenge, but indicators and indices to measure vulnerability have been created (quantified and descriptive), ranging from global indicators to those that are applied at the community level. These indicators are usually used to track changes in vulnerability over time. Qualitative approaches to vulnerability assessment have focused on the assessment of the capacity of communities to cope with natural events. See a related story: Launch of GEM Global Social Vulnerability map. Vulnerability analysis involves understanding the root causes or drivers of vulnerability, but also peoples capacities cope and recover from disasters. At the community level, a number of researchers and humanitarian and development non-governmental organisations, as well as some local governments, have implemented vulnerability and capacity assessments (VCA), primarily through participatory methods. A VCA considers a wide range of environmental, economic, social, cultural, institutional and political pressures that create vulnerability 17 and is approached through a number of different frameworks. According to Benson, VCA is typically applied as: •    A diagnostic tool to understand problems and their underlying causes. •    A planning tool to prioritise and sequence actions and inputs. •    A risk assessment tool to help assess specific risks. •    A tool for empowering and mobilising vulnerable communities. By identifying their vulnerabilities and capacities, local communities identify strategies for immediate and longer-term risk reduction, as well as identifying what they can do themselves to reduce risk and where they need additional resources and external assistance. How do we reduce vulnerability? Since we cannot reduce the occurrence and severity of natural hazards, reducing vulnerability is one of the main opportunities for reducing disaster risk. Vulnerability changes over time because many of the processes that influence vulnerability are dynamic, including rapid urbanisation, environmental degradation, market conditions and demographic change. Many of these factors are rooted in changing local conditions, but the picture is incomplete without acknowledging the national and global socioeconomic and political structures that constrain local development opportunities. This means that a coherent fight against vulnerability needs to take place at three scales: the local, national and international. See a related story: Retrofitting unused spaces can help South African cities adapt to climate change. Approaches to vulnerability reduction include: •  Implementing building codes •  Insurance and social protection (risk) •    Emphasising economic diversity and resilient livelihoods •    Knowledge and awareness raising •    Preparedness measures Rather than focusing only on what limits people's ability to reduce their risk, the policy objective of disaster risk reduction (DRR) instead emphasises understanding people's capacity to resist and recover from disasters, as well as enhancing the overall resilience of people, society and systems. The local and traditional knowledge vulnerable communities possess to respond to disasters should form the basis of outside interventions to reduce disaster risk. Developing sustainable DRR capacities at national and local level requires that capacity locally generated, owned and sustained whilst also being the concern of society, rather than any single agency. Capacity development requires not only building technical capacities (such as environmental management) but also the promotion of leadership and other managerial and functional capacities. Finally, capacity development requires an enabling environment i.e. strong political ownership and commitment at the highest level. 1.5    Disaster What is a Disaster? A disaster is defined as a disruption on a massive scale, either natural or man-made, occurring in short or long periods. Disasters can lead to human, material, economic or environmental hardships, which can be beyond the bearable capacity of the affected society. As per statistics, India as a whole is vulnerable to 30 different types of disasters that will affect the economic, social, and human development potential to such an extent that it will have long-term effects on productivity and macro-economic performance. The effect of the disaster can be immediate and localized, but is often widespread and could last for a long period of time. The effect may test or exceed the capacity of a community or society to cope using its own resources, and therefore may require assistance from external sources, which could include neighbouring jurisdictions, or those at the national or international levels. Emergency is sometimes used interchangeably with the term disaster, as, for example, in the context of biological and technological hazards or health emergencies, which, however, can also relate to hazardous events that do not result in the serious disruption of the functioning of a community or society. Disaster damage occurs during and immediately after the disaster. This is usually measured in physical units (e.g., square meters of housing, kilometres of roads, etc.), and describes the total or partial destruction of physical assets, the disruption of basic services and damages to sources of livelihood in the affected area. Disaster impact is the total effect, including negative effects (e.g., economic losses) and positive effects (e.g., economic gains), of a hazardous event or a disaster. The term includes economic, human and environmental impacts, and may include death, injuries, disease and other negative effects on human physical, mental and social well-being. For the purpose of the scope of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 (para. 15), the following terms are also considered: •    Small-scale disaster: a type of disaster only affecting local communities which require assistance beyond the affected community. •    Large-scale disaster: a type of disaster affecting a society which requires national or international assistance. •    Frequent and infrequent disasters: depend on the probability of occurrence and the return period of a given hazard and its impacts. The impact of frequent disasters could be cumulative, or become chronic for a community or a society. •    A slow-onset disaster is defined as one that emerges gradually over time. Slow-onset disasters could be associated with, e.g., drought, desertification, sea-level rise, epidemic disease. •    A sudden-onset disaster is one triggered by a hazardous event that emerges quickly or unexpectedly. Sudden-onset disasters could be associated with, e.g., earthquake, volcanic eruption, flash flood, chemical explosion, critical infrastructure failure, transport accident. 1.6    Conclusion In summation, understanding the interplay between hazard, vulnerability, risk, and disaster is paramount in effectively mitigating and managing the impacts of adverse events. Hazards represent the potential threats posed by natural or human-induced phenomena, while vulnerability encompasses the susceptibility of individuals, communities, and systems to these hazards. Risk emerges from the interaction between hazards and vulnerability, quantifying the likelihood and potential severity of adverse outcomes. Ultimately, disasters occur when hazards exploit vulnerabilities, resulting in significant societal, economic, and environmental consequences. Therefore, comprehensive risk reduction strategies must prioritize efforts to minimize vulnerability, enhance resilience, and implement proactive measures to mitigate the impacts of hazards, thereby reducing the likelihood and severity of disasters. By integrating multidisciplinary approaches, fostering community engagement, and promoting sustainable development practices, societies can build adaptive capacities to confront the dynamic challenges posed by hazards and reduce the toll of disasters on human lives and livelihoods. 1.7    Self Check Exercises a.    Hazard b.    Risk c.    Vulnerability 1.8    Glossary Anthropogenic - referring to environmental change caused or influenced by people, either directly or indirectly Hydrometeorological – a branch of meteorology that deals with water in the atmosphere especially as precipitation. hydrometeorological. Geological - the science that deals with the dynamics and physical history of the earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the physical, chemical, and biological changes that the earth has undergone or is undergoing. 1.9    Answers to self check exercises a. see 1.2                 b. see 1.3          c. see 1.4 1.10    Terminal questions Q1What factors increases risk? How do we reduce disaster risk? Q2 What is vulnerability? Why does it matter and how do we reduce risk? 1.11    Suggested Reading https://asdma.gov.in/ Chapter-2 Classification of Disasters 2 .0       Learning Objectives 2.1        Introduction 2.2        Classification of Disasters 2.3          Global Dimensions of Disasters 2.4       Overview of Natural Disasters in India 2.5          Overview of Manmade Disasters in India 2.6            Vulnerability Profile in India 2.7          Conclusion 2.8          Self-Check Exercises 2.9          Glossary 2.10        Answer to self check exercise 2.11         Terminal questions 2.12        Suggested Reading 2 .0     Learning Objectives After studying this lesson, the learner will be able to -             Acquaint themselves with the various classification of disasters -            Know the Global dimensions of disasters -            Understand the overview of natural and manmade disasters in India -              Know the vulnerability profile in India 2.1    Introduction The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) of the United Nations (U.N.) defines a hazard as “a potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or human activity that may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation.” Hazards could be, natural (geological, hydrometeorological and biological) or induced by human processes nr 1/2019                                                                            22 (environmental degradation and technological hazards). Hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origin and effects. Accordingly, Hazard Analysis entails the identification, study and monitoring of a hazard to determine its potential, origin and characteristics. A fine line separates environmental hazards and environmental resources, as between water out of control (flood hazard) and water under control (reservoir resources). The 18 Disaster Management atmosphere is considered ‘benign’ when it produces holiday sunshine but ‘hostile’ when it produces damaging ‘loo’ (Smith, 1996). A disaster is a result of natural or man-made causes that leads to sudden disruption of normal life, causing severe damage to life and property to an extent that available social and economic protection mechanisms are inadequate to cope. Even at the outset, the conceptual distinction between ‘hazards’ and ‘disasters’ needs to be brought out clearly. Floods, Cyclones, et al are events in nature until a configuration of factors, which could be man-made or natural or both, cause the hazard to turn to a disaster. Disaster is the actual occurrence of the apprehended catastrophe. Disasters proceed by cause-effect due to endogenous (inherent) and exogenous (external) factors, which combine to excite the phenomenon into a large-scale destructive event. Disasters are a result of vulnerabilities, which go on unabated/unchecked over time, which crystallises finally in a destructive event of great magnitude, which is a disaster. Disaster is disturbance of ‘equilibrium’ which can be restored/ remedied by proactive policy in this regard. Hence, traditional perception of disasters as natural phenomena outside the realm of human intervention is misconstruing the problem; it is giving way to a ‘systems perspective’, which encompasses, ecological and social perspective to disasters, whereby disasters are understood as totalising events in which all dimensions of a social -structural formation involving organised human action in the environmental context in which it takes place is studied” (Oliver Smith and Hoffman, 1999). As a society interacts with its environment with its values and perceptions and engages in a series of processes over which it has incomplete control and knowledge of, for example, development and planning processes involving production and distribution of goods over long periods of time; underlying hazards turn to disasters (Oliver Smith, 1999). By systemic understanding, hazard simply acts as a ‘catalyst’ in that it brings forth underlying tensions that are always present as potential pressures. Systems’ perspective is therefore rightly applied to understanding the phenomenon underlying disasters (Watts, 1983). With this understanding, Disaster Management is an attempt to inquire into the process of a hazard turning to disaster, to identify the causes and rectify the same through public policy. Administrative factors, such as poor building in an earthquake prone zone, poor land use planning in flood prone areas which lead to housing critical facilities in at- risk zones; allowing habitation in such zones, poor laws that fail to regulate facilities leading to disasters, such as the Bhopal gas leak, general low risk perception among people, more significantly policy-makers that hinders interest articulation for preventive policy for disaster management create conditions that lead to low lying /inherent hazards turning to disasters. This leads us to th e2 iss ue of sustainable development since study and research in the area of disaster management is increasingly revealing human causatives behind disaster phenomena. Hence, disaster management is a policy issue. Accordingly, the Tenth Plan included a full chapter on Disaster Management. Hitherto, it had been treated as a subject of ‘calamity relief’, hence, classified under non-plan expenditure. There has been a policy shift, post Yokohama Conference(1994), in that plan allocations would henceforth be made under respective sector plan heads for disaster mitigation. The reasoning is simple; if disasters are inherent in the socio-physical circumstances/environment, their manifestation could be controlled through better management of the environment by reducing the potency of socio- economic and physical variables that contribute to disaster losses over time. 2.2    Classification of Disasters Disasters are classified as per origin, into natural and man-made disasters. As per severity, disasters are classified as minor or major (in impact). However, such classifications are more academic than real as major disasters could simply be events that received relatively more media coverage (Parasuraman and Unnikrishnan, 2005). High Powered Committee (HPC) was constituted in August 1999 under the chairmanship of J.C.Pant. The mandate of the HPC was to prepare comprehensive model plans for disaster management at the national, state and district levels. This was the first attempt in India towards a systematic comprehensive and holistic look at all disasters. Thirty odd disasters have been identified by the HPC, which were grouped into the following five categories, based on generic considerations: 1)    Water and Climate z Floods z Cyclones z Tornadoes and hurricanes (cyclones) z Hailstorms z Cloudburst z Heat wave and cold wave z Snow avalanches z Droughts z Sea erosion z Thunder/ lightning 2)    Geological z Landslides and mudflows z Earthquakes z Large fires z Dam failures and dam bursts z Mine fires 3)    nB iolog ical                                                                24 z Epidemics z Pest attacks z Cattle epidemics z Food poisoning 4)    Chemical, industrial and nuclear z Chemical and Industrial disasters z Nuclear 5)    Accidental z Forest fires z Urban fires z Mine flooding z Oil spill z Major building collapse z Serial bomb blasts z Festival related disasters z Electrical disasters and fires z Air, road, and rail accidents z Boat capsizing z Village fire Depending on the type of disaster, a nodal ministry has been assigned the task of coordinating all activities of the state and district administration and the other support departments/ministry. It is not the classification but the understanding of the term ‘disaster’ itself that is important. As reported in the World Disasters Report, 2004, heat waves have been missing from disaster and public health policies, despite mounting death tolls, particularly in Europe. This is probably because sudden high profile disasters, such as earthquakes evoke greater dread than road accidents, despite evidence that more people die in road accidents than earthquakes. The higher the dread factor, the more people want action to reduce those risks. During August 2003, between 22,000 and 35,000 people died due to heat waves across Europe. Economic losses totaled over US$ 13 billion. The challenge Meaning and Classification of Disasters 21 for health professionals and disaster specialists is to raise public awareness of the potential harm caused by extreme temperatures and treat the problem as a disaster. The problem of migrants is another example. They are an important development resource for their home countries, remitting about US$ 80 billion per year to developing nations (compared to US$ 50 billion in world aid). But while many opt to migrate, tens of millions are forced to flee life-threatening conditions at home and become refugees. Larg ely1u nprotected by international laws and institutions, their plight is a forgotten disaster. As observed in the World Disasters Report, 2003, over 175 million people now live outside their countries of birth, double the figure in 1975. Many are economic migrants, who may be fleeing poverty or severe deprivation. There is also increasing understanding of man-made causes behind most natural disasters, which calls for, and has, in fact, effected renewed understanding/perception of disasters. For both natural and man-made disasters, there is increasing evidence to suggest that both are in fact ‘policy disasters’ rather than the results of nature’s vagaries or designs of fate. Increasing evidence suggests that human fallacies, such as inadequate legal framework to regulate hazardous units, have resulted in tragedies like the Bhopal tragedy and the inhouse Vizag steel accidents where minor fires and deaths of employees due to mishaps have been reported. Unrestricted felling of forests, serious damage to mountain ecology, overuse of groundwater, changing patterns of cultivation, etc., has precipitated recurring floods and droughts. The spate of landslides in the Himalayas in recent years can be directly related to unchecked exploitation of forests and mountain vegetation and networks of roads that have been indiscriminately laid in the name of development. As articulated in the India Disasters Report (2005), lack of policy restricting tobacco and liquor sale has led to disasters by way of increasing mortality, globally, almost on epidemic proportions. Tobacco related diseases are increasingly incident, such as oral cancer and heart disease in young people under 40. It is apprehended that each year, tobacco causes 3.5 million deaths worldwide, or about 10,000 deaths per day. One million of these deaths occur in developing countries. By 2020, it is predicted that tobacco will become the leading cause of death and disability, killing more than 10 million people annually; thus, causing more deaths worldwide than HIV, tuberculosis, maternal mortality, motor vehicle accidents, suicide, and homicide combined. India has one of the highest rates of oral cancer in the world. Similarly, experience of floods in Rajasthan (1996) and Mumbai (2005) suggests that more deaths are caused due to epidemic outbreaks following vector proliferation in accumulated waters rather than the natural disaster of the flood itself. This is clearly system failure, rather than nature’s ‘retribution.’ Experience of droughts in some pockets of Orissa suggests that unimaginative policy shifts, such as precocious exposure of farmers to market competition, falling overall standards of health and nutrition owing to reduced investments in education and health and other system weaknesses were the real causes of mortality rather than the natural feature of lack of enough rainfall. Policy-makers in third world countries allegedly seem to respond more to exogenous policy influences by way of international pressure to liberalise or ‘open up’ (markets) more than endogenous requirements, which is the real cause behind increasing vulnerability of people to death and disease in relatively impoverished parts of India, such as Orissa and Madhya Pradesh (Alternative Economic Survey, 2004-05). Disasters, therefore, compel a re-look on developmental planning. It is obvious that the previous developmental policy has given us vulnerabilities in the form of slum creation/ 22 Disaster Management proliferation, insufficient jobs , /ecological degradation; though, ostensible growth in sectors, such as, industry, energy et al could not be denied. It remains a fact and has to be conceded that the basic needs of a large proportion of India’s population have remained unmet despite schemes to provision the same. Though the Government of India, Economic Survey, 2004-05 indicates decline in the number of people below the poverty line (BPL), from 51.3 per cent in 1977-78 to 26.1 per cent in 1999-2000, it conceded that there are wide variations across states. Poverty is spatially concentrated in pockets in backward states such as Orissa though there may have been an overall decline in terms of averages. Figures never tell the complete picture. These are gross estimations, at best averages that give only a broad outlook, not the real details. There is endemic malnutrition and numerous reported incidences of starvation deaths. As per the results of the 55th round of National Sample Survey Organisation, rate of growth of employment on current daily status (CDS) basis declined from 2.7 per cent per annum in 1983-94 to 1.07 per cent in 1994-2000. The decline is largely attributed to stagnation in the agriculture sector. Share of agriculture in total employment dropped from 60 per cent in 1993-94 to 57 per cent in 1999-2000. Most growth has been recorded in the services sector. Balanced regional development has also remained an unmet goal. Several states and regions in the country, such as Bihar, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, are relatively backward and suffer higher incidence of poverty compared to the national average. Noticeably, poverty is also widespread in areas more prone to natural disasters, like flood-prone areas, such as in north Bihar, east Uttar Pradesh, and north Bengal, and drought-prone areas, such as Rajasthan, Marathwada, and north Karnataka. Poverty is also exacerbated due to excessive resource use/exploitation, which has caused depletion of ecological resources. As per the India Disasters Report, 2005, almost 40 per cent of India’s population currently is forced to survive on depleted resources. Driven to desperation, they migrate, which has created the problem of unsustainable cities and a conflict ridden city culture, typically pronounced in slums. Increased pressure has encountered a crumbling local government structure, inept to manage change. Consequently, vulnerabilities have got complicated and harder to understand over time. They are increasingly manifest as conflicts along caste, religious, and ethnic lines and have assumed an endemic nature. 2.3    Global Dimensions of Disasters : Disaster losses have shown an increasing trend, globally, due to urbanisation and increasing population. According to the United Nations, in 2001 alone, natural disasters of medium to high intensity caused at least 25,000 deaths around the world, more than double the previous year and caused economic losses world- wide of over $36 billion. The data excludes the many small-scale events that have affected local economies adversely, and disturbed the life pattern for perhaps always. Some of the major events were, the Earthquakes that ravaged Gujarat, El Salvador and Peru, floods that ravaged countries in Asia, Africa and elsewhere, droughts that affected regions in Central Asia; Afghanistan, Asia and Central America, Cyclones in Madagascar and Orissa, and floods in Bolivia. 1G lobal disaster statistics for 1996-2000 revealed staggering economic costs estimated at US$ 235 billion and 425,000 lives lost (CRED International Disaster Database). Disasters caused by natural hazards alone reportedly affected an average of 211 million people per year in the past decade. Asia bears much of the brunt. Nearly half of the world’s major natural disasters, recorded over more than three decades, occurred in the region. As a result, Asia has become the world’s most disaster-prone region, involving 80 per cent of the total affected populations, 40 per cent of the total deaths, and 46 per cent of the total economic losses (CRED statistics for 1997-2001). Disasters have international ramifications in terms of direct and indirect impact (s). Hence is explained the need for concerted action on the part of the international community to tackle regional vulnerabilities. Developing countries have suffered more from disaster events since system capacity to cope with events of such large magnitude is considerably lower as compared to developed countries, and the vulnerability quotient on account of physical social and economic vulnerability of the multitudes, significantly higher. Since 1991, two- thirds of the victims have been from developing countries and just 2 per cent from the developed countries. Asia is particularly vulnerable to disaster strikes. Between 1991-2000, 5,54,439 people died in Asia compared to 1, 1159 casualties in rest of the world. Within Asia, 24 percent of the casualties occurred in India owing to its size, population and vulnerability. Floods and High Winds account for most deaths in India (Tenth Plan, 200207). Between 1994 and 2003, disasters, both ‘natural’ and ‘technological’, claimed 68,671 Indian lives, affected an average of 68 million people every year, and cost US$1.9 billion annually in direct economic damage. This toll is worse than for the previous decade, so the task of supporting the resilience of Indian communities to disasters has never been more urgent (World Disasters Report, 2004). 2.4    Overview of Natural Disasters in India: India’s Key Vulnerabilities as articulated in the Tenth Plan, (2002-07) are as follows: z Coastal States, particularly on the East Coast and Gujarat are vulnerable to cyclones. z 4 crore hectare landmass is vulnerable to floods z 68 per cent of net sown area is vulnerable to droughts z 55 per cent of total area is in seismic zones III- V, hence vulnerable to earthquakes z Sub- Himalayan sector and Western Ghats are vulnerable to landslides. The succeeding text analyses in brief vulnerabilities to specific natural hazards in India (Menon and Kalmadi). A)    Floods Seventy five per cent of rainfall is concentrated over four months of monsoon (June -September) as a result of which almost all the rivers carry heavy discharge during this period. The problems of sediment deposition, drainage congestion and synchronisation of river floods compound the flood hazard with sea tides in the coastal plains. Brahmaputra and the Gangetic Basin are the most floodprone areas. The other flood-prone areas are the northwest region of the west flowing rivers like nr 1/2019                                                                            28 Narmada and Tapti, Central India and the Deccan region with major east flowing rivers like Mahanadi, Krishna and Cauvery. While the area liable to floods is 40 million hectares, the average area affected by floods annually is about 8 million hectares. B)    Droughts India has a largely monsoon dependant irrigation network. An erratic pattern, both low (less than 750 mm) and medium (750 - 1125 mm) makes 68 per cent of the total area vulnerable to periodic droughts. A 100-year analysis reveals that the frequency of occurrence of below normal rainfall in arid, semi-arid, and sub-humid areas is 54-57 per cent. Severe and rare droughts occur in arid and semi-arid zones every 8-9 years. The semi-arid and arid climatic zones are subject to about 50 per cent of severe droughts that cover generally 76 percent of the area. In this region, rare droughts of most severe intensity occurred on an average once in 32 years and almost every third year was a drought year. C)    Cyclones India has a long coastline. There are two distinct cyclone seasons: pre-monsoon (May-June) and post-monsoon (October-November). The impact of these cyclones is confined to the coastal districts, the maximum destruction being within 100 Km. from the centre of the cyclones and on either side of the storm track. Most casualties are caused by coastal inundation by tidal waves, storm surges and torrential rains. D)    Earthquakes The Himalayan mountain ranges are considered to be the world’s youngest fold mountain ranges. The subterranean Himalayas are geologically very active. In a span of 53 years, four earthquakes exceeding magnitude 8 on the Richter scale have occurred in this region. The peninsular part of India comprises stable continental crust. Although these regions were considered seismically least active, an earthquake that occurred in Latur in Maharashtra on September 30, 1993 of magnitude 6.4 on the Richter scale caused substantial loss of life and damage to infrastructure. E)    Landslides and Avalanches The Himalayan, the northeast hill ranges and the Western Ghats experience considerable landslide activity of varying intensities. River erosions, seismic movements and heavy rainfalls cause considerable activity. Heavy monsoon rainfall often in association with cyclonic disturbances results in considerable landslide activity on the slopes of the Western Ghats. Avalanches constitute a major hazard in the higher reaches of the Himalayas. Parts of the Himalayas receive snowfall round the year and adventure sports are in abundance in such locations. Severe snow avalanches occur in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and the Hills of Western Uttar Pradesh. The population of about 20,000 in Nubra and Shyok valleys and mountaineers and trekkers face avalanche hazard on account of steep fall. The following map gives the multi- hazard vulnerability of the Indian landmass. 2.5    Overview of Manmade Disasters in India Man-made disasters refer to non-natural disastrous occurrences that can be sudden or longer term. Sudden man-made disasters include structural collapses, such as building and mine collapse, when this occu rs01independently without any outside force. In addition, air disasters, land disasters and sea disasters are all man-made (International Red Cross). The countries in Asia region are densely populated and are low-income economies. Recurrent disasters, specifically, road and rail accidents, fire outbreaks, deaths of pavement dwellers due to heat and cold wave conditions etc., cause serious setback to the developmental process; in fact disasters and development have a chicken and egg relationship in that one is in fact the primary cause of the other. For example, disasters exacerbate poverty conditions in affected regions; and the poor are the worst sufferers in disasters. The fast pace of growth and expansion without comprehensive understanding or preparedness in urban planning, for instance, has brought forth a range of issues that seek urgent attention at all levels. Local administrative weaknesses have allowed the situation to get out of hand. Institutional weaknesses have created system vulnerabilities over time. In the absence of mitigation measures, growing numbers in our population are at risk of prospective hazards, such as air accidents, boat capsizing, building collapse, electric fires, festival related disasters, forest fires, mine flooding, oil spills, rail accidents, road accidents, serial bomb blasts, and fires. The safeguards within existing systems are limited and the risks involved high. The situation with regard to road accidents is particularly acute. A comprehensive document prepared by the Transportation Research and Injury Prevention Programme (TRIPP) brings out the magnitude of the problem in India and abroad. It gave the first official data of accidents in 2002, recording 80,118 deaths and 342,200 injuries on Indian roads but conceded at the same time that many cases went unreported and that 1,200,000 required hospitalisation. Of the worldwide annual average of 700,000 road accidents, 10 per cent occur in India. The latest annual statistics indicate that over 80,000 people are killed on Indian roads. These figures do not reflect the human suffering and social problems caused by accidents. Nearly three lakhs per year sustain injuries. Financial losses are staggering. A decade’s worth of saving the Rs 50,000 million estimated loss in traffic accidents every year could finance building 7,000 km long, six lane national highway at today’s rates. The figures are always on the increase, which corresponds to the tremendous increase in the production and sale of motor vehicles (Moorthy and Karnick, 2005). Nuclear, Chemical and Biological threats are apparent in the present scenario. Deliberate international terrorism or accidental secondary fallouts can be fatal. There has been considerable agitation in India of late over advanced countries dumping hazardous waste in India. This falls within the realm of international relations. Rapid and effective response as also mitigation policy needs intensive research and laboratory support in this regard to frame convincing legislation, which can ensure internal security without jeopardising external relations with foreign countries. Globalisation would have to be effectively managed through legislation regulating Multi-national and Transnational corporation activity, especially with regard to safety precautions for hazardous facilities. EIAs or environment impact assessments are already underway in India. There is need for better implementation of the same. A good EIA needs good data supp ort1 to base arguments on, which is presently lacking. Acknowledging the need, Environmental Information Centre (EIC) has been set up to serve as a professionally managed clearing house of environmental information that can be used by MoEF, project proponents, consultants, NGOs and other stakeholders involved in the process of environmental impact assessment in India. EIC caters to the need of creating and disseminating organised environmental data for various developmental initiatives all over the country. Regarding oil spills, experts opine that satellite imagery should be used to mark out vulnerable areas and mitigation measures put in place, as for example, restricting habitation in the areas. In India, the man- made disaster category also includes communal riots, which affect parts of India periodically, as in the wake of the Babri Masjid demolition or unabated violence against Dalits, the subethnic North-East tangle, and others. Vulnerability studies in this regard would require empirical unearthing of facts with regard to the socio- economic profile of the regions with a view to pinpointing the exact cause (s) of recurrent violence in the area (s). In this regard, generation of awareness among communities, strengthening/ generating positive social capital proactively, through measures like mustering opinion in support of measures to ameliorate the situation, lending active state support to social Meaning and Classification of Disasters workers involved in movements towards the same would be some of the desirable activities. Health is a major factor in disaster management efforts. As reported in the World Disasters Report, 2004, across southern Africa, HIV/AIDS is combining with food insecurity, poverty, worsening health care, dirty water and sanitation, uncontrolled urbanisation and common disease to create an unprecedented disaster that conventional intervention can no longer contain. The problem is no less acute in India, where figures of actual and potential victims keep rising. The pace of improvement in health services does not compare favourably with countries in East Asia and Latin America where life expectancy is almost as good as developed countries. This is because inter-sector linkages between sanitation, nutrition, poverty alleviation, education, drinking water supply et al have not been duly explored. In states where such linkages obtain for historical reasons, or as a result of deliberate effort in this regard on the part of the government, results in health improvement are significantly better than other states. Hence, emphasis in the tenth plan was on improved logistics with regard to drug supply and diagnostics and exploring systems of health care financing so that essential health care is available to all at affordable cost (Tenth Plan). As per the Red Cross, long-term man-made disasters refer to civil strife, civil war and international war, which are equally pertinent policy concerns. On a national level, this involves war-like encounters between armed groups from the same country, which take place within the borders. Such outbreaks of war, besides threatening national security, may pose large-scale medical problems such as epidemics, lack of water, accumulation of rubbish, displaced persons, refugees, food shortage, hunger etc. Our country has been plagued by civil strife in Kashmir and North-East particularly, besides South India and West Bengal, occasionally. Tensions with neighbouring states have been persistent. As solution has evaded attempts in this regard, the emphasis in diplomacy has1curre ntly shifted to ‘management’ of the problem with a view to normalising relations on other counts such as commerce et al instead of insisting on solving persistent political issues, for instance, the Kashmir issue with Pakistan, first. Scenario with regard to preparedness, with respect to both internal and external problems, however, need not be too pessimistic, since, theoretically, transport accidents, terrorism et al have hitherto not been considered, ‘disasters’ per se; on account of increasing losses from such events however, the term ‘Disaster’ today is more inclusive in that the above enumerated are being counted disasters, leading to mitigation policy in this regard and urgency with which they need to be reviewed. This is significant from the point of view of Risk Perception in the sense of resource allocation and prioritisation in development planning. Considering the seriousness with which they are being studied/perceived, comprehensive mitigation plans expectedly, would now be built into wider development planning for the future. The World Health Organisation says India scores high on a number of criteria for disaster-readiness. The country also earned praise from a global study for its immediate response to the tsunami disaster. India is among the five countries in South Asia that meet many of the criteria for disaster-preparedness and have a legal framework in place for the purpose, says the World Health Organisation (WHO). The other four countries categorised by the WHO as having adequate levels of disasterreadiness are Bangladesh, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Thailand. India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand also have a legal framework in place. Disaster Management Disaster management is now part of plan commitments, which means it is already a frontline development issue/priority, which improves its position with respect to resource allocation. Also, awareness generation is already being attempted with regard to retrofitting and earthquake resistant structures et al, which is a positive development. It also means government strategy towards disaster mitigation envisages active cooperation of people, which has been advocated as an essential requirement by concerned world bodies, like the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the International Red Cross. Items high on agenda for administrative reforms, as articulated in the Tenth Plan, henceforth, for overall/comprehensive disaster management, would be, development of capacity at local levels through effective decentralisation, improvement in law and order administration, through modernisation and training, urban development with a perspective of disaster mitigation planning involving all stakeholders. 2.6    Vulnereability Profile in India Vulnerability is defined as “the extent to which a community, structure, service, or geographic area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of particular hazard, on account of their nature, construction and proximity to hazardous terrain or a disaster prone area”. The concept of vulnerability therefore implies a measure of risk combined with the level of social and economic ability to cope with the resulting event in order to resist major disruption or loss. This susceptibility and vulnerability to each type of nth reat will depend on their respective differing characteristics. The 1993 Marathwada earthquake in India left over 10,000 dead and destroyed houses and other properties of 200,000 households. However, the technically much more powerful Los Angeles earthquake of 1971 (taken as a benchmark in America in any debate on the much-apprehended seismic vulnerability of California) left over 55 dead. Physical Vulnerability Physical vulnerability relates to the physical location of people, their proximity to the hazard zone and standards of safety maintained to counter the effects. For example, people are only vulnerable to a flood because they live in a flood-prone area. Physical vulnerability also relates to the technical strength of buildings and structures to resist the forces acting upon them during a hazard event. The Indian subcontinent can be primarily divided into three geophysical regions with regard to vulnerability, broadly, as, the Himalayas, the Plains and the Coastal areas. The topographic and climatic characteristics of each region make them susceptible to different type of disasters (study along with map given in the text). Socio-economic Vulnerability The degree to which a population is affected by a calamity will not purely lie in the physical components of vulnerability but in contextual, relating to the prevailing social and economic conditions and its consequential effects on human activities within a given society. Disparate capacities of people are exposed during disasters, which explains differential vulnerability/losses, which are explained in disaster literature as socio-economic vulnerabilities. Disaster effects are seen to be directly proportionate to the poverty gap and poverty Meaning and Classification of Disasters 29 intensity in the society/location as it is the poor that normally live in high concentration in marginal areas (unstable slopes, flood plains) with little infrastructure and fewer resources to cope. Research in areas affected by earthquakes indicates that single parent families, women, handicapped people, children and the aged are the particularly vulnerable social groups. Bad land use planning in seismic and flood prone zones; unplanned and inadequate developmental activity in high- risk areas is a cause for increased losses during disasters. One million houses are damaged annually in India apart from high human, social and other losses. Urban growth and concentration of limited resources are realities of our times, while the rural sector faces lack of access. This compounds the problems of disaster vulnerability, especially during earthquakes. Informal settlements that house most of the urban and rural poor give way easily to physical stress, during earthquakes and floods, causing large scale fatalities during disasters such as earthquakes and floods. Single scale event fast turns into a compound phenomenon as the infrastructure gives way, leading to fire breaks, deaths due to electrocution, besides making response ever more difficult. Following steps are imperative for the vulnerability assessment and preparedness in high-risk zones: z Identification of various hazard prone areas. Preparation of detailed vulnerability profiles, mapping food insecurity, aviation hazard, landslide hazard etc. z Vulnerability and risk assessment of buildings nr 1/2019                                                                            33 z Developing disaster damage scenarios z Developing technical guidelines for hazard resistant constructions z Upgrading of hazard resistance of existing housing stock by Retrofitting, and z Crafting techno-legal regime to be adopted for infrastructure development. 2.7    Conclusion : Disaster is an unwelcome guest. It disrupts normal life and puts the developmental targets out of gear. Disasters can result from natural or man-made causes or a combined effect of both. The impact of disasters are felt more strongly when the affected community is more vulnerable, either in terms of physical exposure or vulnerable socio-economic conditions. Therefore, disaster management is a public administration issue, since disaster mitigation has to be achieved in time through public policy. In line with postmodernism, sustainability of progress/ development is being accorded primacy, currently. It could be termed as coming full circle in some ways. Thus development, as is the perception now, in itself may not be sustainable if it runs counter to environmental concerns. Environmental concerns are therefore gaining importance, since environmental factors are increasingly having the adverse impact of the frequency and intensity of disastrous events. Sustainable development is being considered largely in terms of sustainable city growth. More than rural development, it is urban development that has to be stabilised/regulated through well-meaning/planned policies. Rural development partakes by way of spinoff effects from public good externalities from nearby/surrounding urban areas, as rightly pointed out in the Tenth Plan. Areas of concern are urban risks, since the concentration of populations in urban areas is constantly increasing with inadequate corresponding investment in safety measures. Disaster management needs to be seen in a developmental context and pre-emptive action needs to be taken to reduce the impact of disasters. 2.8    Self Check Exercises a.    Classification of disasters b.    Overview of natural disasters in India c.    Vulnerability profile in India 2.9    Glossary Avalanche - a very large amount of snow that slides quickly down the side of a mountain Subterranean – under the ground Torrential rains - It is characterized by the rapid and excessive amount of rainfall that can lead to significant flooding and other adverse weather conditions. Unsustainable - that cannot be continued at the same level, rate, etc 2.10    Answers to self check exercises a.    see 2.2 b.    see 2.4 c. see 2.6 2.11    Terminal questions Q1 Classify the disasters and discuss each type in detail. Q2 Discuss the vulnerability profile of disasters in India. 2.12    Suggested Reading https://asdma.gov.in/ Chapter-3 Disaster Management Structure 3 .0       Learning Objectives 3.1    Meaning of Disaster Management 3.2    Concept of Disaster Management 3.3    Approaches of Disaster Management 3.4    Disaster Management Cycle 3.5    Phases of Disaster Management Cycle 3.6    Risk Reduction 3.7          Conclusion 3.8          Self-Check Exercises 3.9          Glossary 3.10        Answer to self check exercise 3.11         Terminal questions 3.12        Suggested Reading 3 .0     Learning Objectives After studying this lesson, the learner will be able to -        Understand the meaning and concept of disaster management -         Know the different phases of Disaster Management Cycle -         Know the risk reduction measures 3.1    Meaning of Disaster Management The organization, planning and application of measures preparing for, responding to and recovering from disasters.Disaster management may not completely avert or eliminate the threats; it focuses on creating and implementing preparedness and other plans to decrease the impact of disasters and “build back better”. 1Failure to create and apply a plan could lead to damage to life, assets and lost revenue. Emergency management is also used, sometimes interchangeably, with the term disaster management, particularly in the context of biological and technological hazards and for health emergencies. While there is a large degree of overlap, an emergency can also relate to hazardous events that do not result in the serious disruption of the functioning of a community or society. 3.2    Concept of Disaster Management Disaster management encompasses a multifaceted approach to mitigating, preparing for, responding to, and recovering from various natural or man-made calamities. At its core, disaster management seeks to minimize the adverse impacts of such events on human lives, property, and the environment. Mitigation stands as a foundational pillar, emphasizing proactive measures to reduce the severity and likelihood of disasters. This includes comprehensive strategies like land-use planning, enforcement of building codes, and the development of resilient infrastructure capable of withstanding potential hazards. By investing in mitigation efforts, communities can significantly decrease their vulnerability to disasters and lessen the subsequent fallout. Preparedness forms another critical aspect of disaster management, entailing the establishment of robust plans, procedures, and resources well in advance of any crisis. This proactive approach involves the creation of emergency response protocols, the training of personnel, and the stockpiling of essential supplies. Additionally, preparedness extends to fostering public awareness and education initiatives, ensuring that individuals and communities are equipped with the knowledge and tools needed to respond effectively in times of emergency. Through meticulous preparedness efforts, responders can mobilize swiftly and decisively when disaster strikes, thereby saving lives and minimizing damage. In the event of a disaster, the response phase becomes paramount, focusing on immediate actions to safeguard lives, stabilize the situation, and meet the basic needs of affected populations. Rapid deployment of emergency services, search and rescue operations, medical assistance, and the establishment of temporary shelters are among the primary activities undertaken during this phase. Effective coordination and communication among various stakeholders are crucial to ensure a cohesive and efficient response effort. Moreover, the response phase underscores the importance of international cooperation and support, particularly in the face of large-scale or cross-border disasters requiring coordinated assistance. Following the initial response, the recovery phase sets in, marking the beginning of efforts to rebuild and restore affected communities. Recovery encompasses a wide range of activities, including debris removal, infrastructure repair, economic revitalization, and psychosocial support for survivors. It is a com plex9 and often prolonged process that requires sustained commitment and resources. Moreover, recovery efforts should aim not only to restore communities to their pre-disaster state but also to enhance their resilience and preparedness for future events. By incorporating lessons learned from past disasters and embracing innovative approaches, communities can emerge stronger and more resilient in the aftermath. Central to the concept of disaster management is the notion of holistic and inclusive approaches that engage all sectors of society. Effective disaster management requires collaboration and coordination among government agencies, non-governmental organizations, the private sector, community groups, and individuals. By harnessing the collective expertise, resources, and capacities of these stakeholders, communities can better anticipate, prepare for, and respond to disasters. Furthermore, promoting a culture of resilience and sustainability can help foster long-term adaptive capacities, ensuring that communities are better equipped to withstand and recover from the ever-present threat of disasters. 3.3    Approaches of Disaster Management: Disaster management entails a range of detailed approaches aimed at effectively addressing the various stages of a disaster, from mitigation and preparedness to response and recovery. Here's a detailed exploration of these approaches: 1.        Mitigation: Mitigation involves measures taken to minimize the impact of disasters before they occur. This approach focuses on identifying and addressing vulnerabilities, reducing exposure to hazards, and enhancing resilience. Mitigation strategies can include: •        Land-use Planning: Zoning regulations and land-use planning can help prevent development in high-risk areas prone to floods, landslides, or earthquakes. •        Building Codes and Standards: Implementing and enforcing building codes ensures that structures are designed and constructed to withstand potential hazards, such as strong winds or seismic activity. •         Infrastructure Improvement: Strengthening critical infrastructure, such as bridges, dams, and power plants, can reduce the risk of infrastructure failure during disasters. •        Ecosystem Restoration: Protecting and restoring natural ecosystems, such as wetlands and mangroves, can provide natural buffers against hazards like storm surges and erosion. 2.        Preparedness: Preparedness involves establishing plans, systems, and capacities to respond effectively to disasters. Key components of preparedness include: •        Emergency Response Plans: Developing comprehensive plans that outline roles, responsibilities, and procedures for various stakeholders involved in disaster response. •        Training and Exercises: Providing training to emergency responders and conducting nr 1/2regular drills and exercises to test response capabilities and improve3 coordination. •         Stockpiling Supplies: Maintaining inventories of essential supplies, such as food, water, medical supplies, and emergency equipment, to support response efforts. •        Public Awareness and Education: Educating the public about disaster risks, preparedness measures, and evacuation procedures through outreach campaigns and community training sessions. 3.        Response: The response phase involves the immediate actions taken to save lives, protect property, and meet the basic needs of affected populations. Response activities include: •        Search and Rescue Operations: Deploying trained personnel and specialized teams to locate and rescue individuals trapped or injured in disaster-affected areas. •        Medical Care and Emergency Services: Providing medical treatment, triage, and emergency medical services to survivors of disasters. •         Shelter and Evacuation: Establishing emergency shelters and facilitating the evacuation of at-risk populations to safe locations. •        Logistics and Resource Management: Coordinating the mobilization and distribution of resources, including personnel, equipment, and supplies, to support response efforts. 4.       Recovery: The recovery phase focuses on restoring affected communities to a state of normalcy and promoting long-term recovery and resilience. Recovery activities include: •        Infrastructure Repair and Reconstruction: Rebuilding damaged infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, utilities, and buildings, to restore essential services and support economic recovery. •         Livelihood Support: Providing assistance to businesses and individuals affected by the disaster to recover their livelihoods and resume normal economic activities. •         Psychosocial Support: Offering counseling, mental health services, and support programs to address the emotional and psychological needs of survivors. •        Risk Reduction Measures: Implementing measures to reduce future disaster risks, such as retrofitting buildings, enhancing early warning systems, and strengthening community resilience. 5.       Cross-Cutting Approaches: •        Community Engagement: Engaging local communities in disaster management processes, decision-making, and response efforts to leverage local knowledge, resources, and capacities. nr 1/2019                                                                            39 •        Technology and Innovation: Harnessing technology and innovation to improve early warning systems, enhance communication and information sharing, and develop new tools and approaches for disaster preparedness and response. Partnerships and Collaboration: Building partnerships and collaboration among government agencies, non-governmental organizations, the private sector, academia, and communities to leverage expertise, resources, and networks for effective disaster management. By adopting these detailed approaches and integrating them into comprehensive disaster management frameworks, stakeholders can enhance their ability to mitigate, prepare for, respond to, and recover from disasters, ultimately reducing the impact on lives, livelihoods, and communities. 3.4 Disaster Management Cycle The concept of Disaster Management Cycle integrates isolated attempts on the part of different actors, government and nongovernment, towards vulnerability reduction or disaster mitigation, within the enveloping domain of disaster management, as phases occurring in different time periods in disaster management continuum. This has facilitated a planned approach to disaster management in that postdisaster recovery and pre -disaster mitigation planning are perceived as integrated/related activities. Stages in Disaster Management Disaster Management efforts are geared towards disaster risk management. Disaster Risk Management “implies the systematic process of using administrative decisions, organisation, operational skills, and capacities to implement policies, strategies and coping capacities of the society and communities to lessen the impact of natural hazards and related environmental and technological disasters. These comprise all forms all activities including structural and non- structural measures to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) adverse effects to hazards”. There are three key stages of activities in disaster management: 1.    Before a disaster: to reduce the potential for human, material, or environmental losses caused by hazards and to ensure that these losses are minimised when disaster strikes 2.    During a disaster: to ensure that the needs and provisions of victims are met to alleviate and minimise suffering. 3.    After a disaster: to achieve rapid and durable recovery. Common perception of disaster management is limited to emergency relief and post- disaster rehabilitation. This is so because these 2 elements are by far and not separate. Thus, prevention, mitigation and preparedness form pre-disaster activities in the Disaster management Cycle and response, comprising relief, recovery and rehabilitation are post-disaster activities. Whilst emergency relief and rehabilitation are vital activities, successful disaster management planning must encompass the complete realm of activities and situations that occur before, during and after disasters. These phases can best be represented as a cycle, which if followed through public policy can obstruct future development of disasters by impeding the vicious cycle of cause and effect. One of the key issues in disaster management planning is the allocation of resources at all stages of the disaster cycle, which optimises the total effectiveness of risk reduction activity and maximises the overall impact of disaster management. This approach has imparted a more holistic perception to disaster management and has served to integrate disaster management with development planning in that most predisaster activities, involve activities for vulnerability reduction like poverty reduction, employment provision etc. which are also mainstream development concerns. Thus, disaster management cycle implies development is essentially/conceptually related to disaster management. Disaster and Development Another significant consequence/effect of this concept relates to understanding the inherent correlation between disasters and development. Development had proceeded with relative unconcern for environmental issues. The result has been newer vulnerabilities/risks arising as a result of indirect/direct consequences of development strategies. For example, air pollution has been caused due to uncontrolled emission of green house gases, water pollution due to unregulated working of industrial enterprises as also agriculture, leading to adverse impacts on the environment. The concept of disaster management cycle is expected to impart the much needed long-term perspective / viability to developmental policy since vulnerability reduction would be factored in mainstream planning to reduce costs on response efforts when disasters strike. Also, the process preceding policy formulation, that is deliberation with involved stakeholders and citizen groups, is likely to get more participatory and inclusive of disaster related concerns. There is increasing realisation, as also explained earlier, of a cause-effect relation between disasters and development in that development has not factored environmental concerns sufficiently in mainstream policy and has been predominantly productivity centred. The World Disasters Report, 2002 categorically states that; International development targets set for the year 2015, such as reducing world poverty and hunger by one half, will not be reached unless the heavy toll of disasters on the poor is reduced through effective measures. In its 10th year, the report published by the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, calls for disaster risk reduction targets to be added to the international development goals for 2015 and beyond. These targets include reducing by one half, the number of people killed and affected by disasters and increasing the number of governments with dedicated plans and resources for risk reduction programmes. 3.51Pha ses of Disaster Management Cycle: The different phases of disaster management of the disaster cycle are as under: 1.    The Disaster Event: This refers to the real-time event of a hazard occurring and affecting the ‘elements at risk’. The duration of the event will depend on the type of threat, for example, ground shaking may only occur for a few seconds during an earthquake while flooding may take place over a longer period of time. Disasters have tremendous modifying impact on the physical landscape. Within a few minutes, an entire region is reduced to rubble in the event of an earthquake. The impact leads to loss of life and property in affected areas; losses being directly correlated to the vulnerability of the region, physical and socio-economic. Vulnerability is also socio-economic. Weaker sections of society, viz. women, children, aged and handicapped, mentally infirm, etc., suffer a lot more than their stronger counterparts. Studies have also unearthed positive correlation between poverty and vulnerability. The poor inhabit the most hazardous physical areas because they are easier to procure and offer added advantages, like proximity to sea for fishermen or fertile soil for farmers near flood prone areas etc., that makes them prone to losses, both of assets and life. The poor also lack the resilience to recover from shock in the aftermath of a disaster. This brings to light the need for multi-faceted response to disasters, which takes account of all social political and economic ramifications. Issues to be addressed range from physical to social and economic vulnerability of weaker sections that suffer more relative to other, better placed. 2.    Disaster Response: A Disaster is a cataclysmic event that has severe modifying impact. Consequences are both physical and social/ human. Disaster Response has to tackle all aforesaid challenges. Disaster response entails restoring physical facilities, rehabilitation of affected populations, restoration of lost livelihoods and reconstruction efforts to restore the infrastructure lost or damaged. There are inherent important lessons to be learnt from disaster response. Retrospectively, it brings to light flaws in efforts pertaining to policy and planning with respect to location and type of infrastructure and social schemes to improve the social positioning of the under privileged, particularly with respect to access to resources of the underprivileged. Disaster aftermath is evaluation time for the administrative set up in that disaster response exposes system weaknesses. Disaster is the ultimate test of administrative efficiency, in the sense of positive impact on the environment, preparedness, procedural simplicity, logistics, speed and expertise. There are inherent important lessons to be learnt with regard to administrative reforms by way of policy interventions to ensure: •    Better institutional preparedness •    Countering contrary pulls such as lack of social cohesion owing to irrational differentiations that effectively impede response, in the sense of self- help and ‘communitarianism’ •    Long- term mitigation policy to counter vulnerabilities, structural and non- structural by enabling legal prov isions and honest implementation of the same. 42 3.    Recovery: The recovery phase involves implementation of actions to promote sustainable redevelopment (reconstruction, rehabilitation) following a disaster. It covers long-term measures like, rebuilding of houses, assets, infrastructure, school building, hospital buildings, and other public buildings. It is a process undertaken by a disaster-affected community to fully restore itself to pre-disaster level. Recovery is the activity that returns infrastructure systems to minimum operating standards and guides long-term efforts designed to return life to normal or improved levels after a disaster. Recovery is also sometimes used to describe the activities that encompass the three overlapping phases of emergency relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction. www.iasscore.in Notes Disaster Management. 4.    Emergency Relief : Emergency relief refers to the period immediately following the disaster when steps are taken to meet the needs of survivors with regard to shelter, water, food and medical care. Activities undertaken during and immediately following a disaster, include, immediate relief, rescue, damage and needs assessment and debris clearance. Rescue and relief are critical elements of response. This would necessitate institutional/organisational improvements by way of better delegation to field agencies, improvements in decision-making and communication processes, incorporation of indigenous traditional knowledge on warning signs, a cartographic knowledge of safe and unsafe areas, survival methods, and traditional forms of insurance built around kinship and families. The most crucial aspect in relief and rescue is communication across involved agencies. Disaster zone is often equated with a war zone, where communication is the critical factor, often, crucial, in fact, the deciding factor between success and failure. 5.    Rehabilitation: Rehabilitation implies activities that are undertaken to support the victims’ return to of temporary housing and public utilities as interim measures to assist longer-term recovery through permanent housing and infrastructure. Besides physical elements, rehabilitation programmes also include economic rehabilitation through livelihood recovery and support actions and finding alternate employment options for those who cannot get back to their original occupations due to irreparable damage. Rehabilitation also includes psycho-social rehabilitation for those who are badly traumatised and need support in terms of psychosocial counseling or even medication in some cases. 6.    Reconstruction: Reconstruction attempts to return communities to improved pre-disaster functioning. It includes the replacement of buildings, infrastructure and lifeline facilities such as roads, bridges and communication links, so that longterm development prospects are enhanced rather than reproducing the same conditions which made an area or a population vulnerable in the first place. 7.    Development: The inclusion of development as a phase in the disaster cycle is intended to ensure the natural disaster, societies factor hazard and vulnerability considerations into their development policies and plans in the interest of overall progress. The rationale behind the use of the expression ‘disaster management cycle’ is that disaster and its management is a continuum of inter-linked activities. It is som etimes also referred to as the ‘disaster development cycle’, implying that disasters are periodic phenomena and occur regularly in such a way that there is development, followed by a disaster, then back to development till the next disaster. Sustainable development is another term that is useful in this context, implying development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it 2 key concepts of ‘needs’ in particular, to the essential needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding priority should be given and the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organisation on the environment’s ability to meet the present and the future needs. 3.6    Risk Reduction: Mitigation and Preparedness The Risk Reduction is chronologically the latest paradigm for mitigating the impact of disasters. The disaster risk management process is a process for good decision-making and for ensuring the best use of limited resources. It applies standard principles, process and techniques of risk management to disaster management. Risk reduction can take place in 2 ways i.e. Long-term Mitigation and Short-term Preparedness. This protective process embraces measures, which enable governments, communities and individuals to respond rapidly to disaster situations to cope with them effectively. Thus disaster risk reduction strategy includes: 1.    Legal and institutional framework - Creating appropriate legal and organizational framework is the first step towards Disaster Risk Reduction 2.    Vulnerability Analysis and Risk Awareness - Appraisal of likelihood and intensity of hazards and analysis of vulnerabilities thereto of the community with making government organizations, local bodies, communities/groups and individuals at all levels aware of the risk of potential natural and man-made hazards. 3.    Planning - Building of institutional capabilities and meticulous long and short term planning with effective implementation of plans and enforcement measures. 4.    Implementation of Plan and Community Resilience - Community preparedness is the next step. Building resilience of the communities to face crises and ensuring their full participation through inputs like education, training and urban planning, infrastructure building and logistics. Crucial to all these efforts, however, is the existence of a ‘safety culture’ in societies. 5.    Knowledge Creation and Dissemination - Knowledge plays an important role in disaster reduction. The traditional knowledge available with the community has to be used along with knowledge acquired through research and past experiences. Research in the field of disaster management has contributed in predictions with a fair degree of accuracy (earthquakes are an exception), and this has led to establishment of efficient Early Warning Systems. The information is growing at a rapid rate, which, calls for its processing and sharing. The challenge is to ensure that the community and the decision makers are empowered with this knowledge. Therefore, disseminating it to the larger population is the final elem ent9in effective Disaster Risk Reduction efforts. World Conference on4 Natural Disaster Reduction, Yokohama, 1994 Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World includes: •    Risk assessment •    Disaster prevention and preparedness •    Prevention and preparedness should be considered integral aspects of development •    Early warnings and their effective dissemination •    Preventive measures •    Application of proper design and patterns of development focused on target groups •    Share the necessary technology to prevent, reduce and mitigate disaster. •    Strong political determination required to make efficient use of existing resources. 3.7    Conclusion: In conclusion, the concept of disaster management is a comprehensive approach aimed at minimizing the impact of disasters on human lives, infrastructure, and the environment. It involves a range of activities, including preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation, all of which are crucial for effective disaster management. By implementing robust disaster management strategies, communities and governments can enhance their resilience and ability to cope with emergencies. The disaster management cycle provides a structured framework for organizing and coordinating these efforts. Beginning with risk assessment and preparedness measures, moving through response actions during a disaster, and concluding with recovery and mitigation activities, the cycle emphasizes the importance of proactive planning and continuous improvement. This cyclical approach enables stakeholders to learn from past experiences, adapt to changing circumstances, and strengthen their capacity to address future disasters. However, it is essential to recognize that disaster management is not a one-size-fits-all solution and must be tailored to specific hazards, vulnerabilities, and contexts. Moreover, effective disaster management requires collaboration and coordination among various stakeholders, including government agencies, non-governmental organizations, communities, and individuals. By working together and prioritizing resilience-building measures, we can better protect lives, livelihoods, and ecosystems in the face of natural and man-made disasters. In conclusion, while challenges persist, the concept of disaster management and the disaster management cycle provide valuable frameworks for enhancing our collective ability to prepare for, respond to, and recover from emergencies. By investing in proactive measures, promoting risk awareness, and fostering collaboration, we can build safer, more resilient communities capable of weathering the storms of tomorrow. 3.8    Self Check Exercises a.    Classification of disasters b.    Approaches of disaster management c.    Disaster Management Cycle 3.9    Glossary Protocol - a rule or set of rules for a scientific or medical process Mitigation – reducing risk of loss from the occurrence of any undesirable event Ecosystem - An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals, and other organisms, as well as weather and landscape, work together to form a bubble of life 3.10    Answers to self check exercises a. see 3.2                        b. see 3.3                        c. see 3.4 3.11    Terminal questions Q1 Discuss in detail different approaches of disaster management. Q2 What is Disaster Management Cycle? Discuss its different phases. 3.12    Suggested Reading https://asdma.gov.in/pdf/publication/undp/disaster_management_in_india.pdf Chapter-4 Principles, Objectives, Scope & Essentials of Disaster Management Structure 4.0       Learning Objectives 4.1    Principles of Disaster Management 4.2          Objectives of Disaster Management 4.3         Scope of Disaster Management 4.4          Essentials of Disaster Management 4.5          Conclusion 4.6          Self-Check Exercises 4.7          Glossary 4.8          Answer to self check exercise 4.9          Terminal questions 4.10        Suggested Reading 4.0     Learning Objectives After studying this lesson, the learner will be able to -            Know the Genesis and Evolution of the United Nations -            Know the Objectives, functions and role of the United Nations 4.1    Principles of Disaster Management Disaster management is guided by several key principles that inform and shape the approach to mitigating, preparing for, responding to, and recovering from disasters. These principles serve as foundational concepts that underpin effective disaster management strategies. Here are the principles of disaster management in detail: Com prehensive Approach: Disaster management takes a comprehensive approach that addresses all phases of the disaster management cycle: mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. This holistic perspective ensures that efforts are not only focused on immediate response but also on proactive measures to reduce risks, enhance preparedness, and promote long-term resilience. Risk Reduction and Prevention: Emphasizing risk reduction and prevention is fundamental to disaster management. By identifying, assessing, and mitigating risks before disasters occur, stakeholders can minimize their impact on lives, livelihoods, and infrastructure. Prevention measures include land-use planning, building codes enforcement, ecosystem conservation, and public education on disaster preparedness. Inclusivity and Equity: Disaster management efforts must be inclusive and equitable, ensuring that vulnerable populations and marginalized groups are not disproportionately affected by disasters. This principle emphasizes the importance of engaging all segments of society, including women, children, the elderly, persons with disabilities, and indigenous communities, in decision-making processes and ensuring their needs are addressed in disaster planning and response. Partnership and Collaboration: Effective disaster management relies on partnerships and collaboration among government agencies, non-governmental organizations, the private sector, academia, civil society, and affected communities. By leveraging the expertise, resources, and networks of diverse stakeholders, disaster management efforts can be more coordinated, efficient, and responsive to the needs of affected populations. Community Empowerment: Empowering communities to take an active role in disaster management is essential for building resilience. This principle emphasizes the importance of involving local communities in decision-making, planning, and implementation of disaster risk reduction measures. Community-based approaches empower communities to identify their own risks, strengths, and priorities and develop tailored solutions that reflect their unique context and needs. Preparedness and Capacity Building: Preparedness and capacity building are critical components of effective disaster management. Investing in training, education, and skill development for emergency responders, government officials, community volunteers, and the public enhances readiness to respond to disasters. Building capacity at all levels enables stakeholders to anticipate, prepare for, and effectively manage the impacts of disasters. Flexibility and Adaptability: Disaster management requires flexibility and adaptability to respond to evolving threats, changing circumstances, and unexpected challenges. This principle underscores the importance of continuously learning from past experiences, incorporating new information and technologies, and adjusting strategies and plans accordingly. Flexibility enables stakeholders to tailor their resp onse to the specific needs and dynamics of each disaster situation. Accountability and Transparency: Accountability and transparency are essential principles that promote effective governance and ensure the responsible use of resources in disaster management. Stakeholders must be accountable to affected populations, donors, and other stakeholders for their actions, decisions, and use of funds. Transparency in decision-making, information sharing, and reporting fosters trust, enhances coordination, and facilitates effective collaboration among stakeholders. 4.2    Objectives of Disaster Management : The objectives of disaster management are multifaceted, encompassing a range of goals aimed at reducing the risk of disasters, preparing for effective response, minimizing the impact on lives and livelihoods, and facilitating recovery and reconstruction. Here are the primary objectives of disaster management: Risk Reduction and Prevention: The primary objective of disaster management is to reduce the risk of disasters by identifying, assessing, and mitigating potential hazards and vulnerabilities. This involves implementing measures such as land-use planning, building codes enforcement, ecosystem conservation, and infrastructure improvements to minimize exposure to hazards and enhance resilience. Preparedness: Another key objective is to enhance preparedness at all levels to respond effectively to disasters. This includes developing and implementing emergency response plans, conducting training and drills for emergency responders and communities, stockpiling essential supplies and equipment, and establishing early warning systems to alert populations of impending threats. Effective Response: Disaster management aims to ensure a prompt, coordinated, and effective response to disasters to save lives, protect property, and meet the basic needs of affected populations. This involves mobilizing emergency services, conducting search and rescue operations, providing medical care and shelter, and restoring essential services such as water, sanitation, and electricity. Sustainable Recovery and Reconstruction: Disaster management seeks to facilitate sustainable recovery and reconstruction efforts following a disaster. This includes rebuilding damaged infrastructure, restoring livelihoods, promoting economic recovery, and addressing the psychosocial needs of survivors. Sustainable recovery emphasizes the importance of incorporating disaster risk reduction measures into reconstruction efforts to enhance resilience and prevent future disasters. Community Empowerment and Participation: Disaster management aims to empower communities to take an active role in disaster preparedness, response, and recovery efforts. This involves engaging communities in decision-making processes, building local capacities, and promoting community-based app roach es to disaster risk reduction. Empowered communities are better equipped to identify risks, prioritize needs, and implement effective solutions tailored to their unique circumstances. Inclusiveness and Equity: Disaster management aims to ensure that vulnerable populations and marginalized groups are not disproportionately affected by disasters. This involves addressing social, economic, and cultural factors that contribute to vulnerability and promoting inclusive approaches that prioritize the needs of the most at-risk communities. Equity considerations are integrated into all aspects of disaster management, from risk assessment to resource allocation and decision-making. Knowledge Management and Learning: Disaster management seeks to promote knowledge sharing, learning, and innovation to improve resilience and response capabilities. This includes documenting and disseminating lessons learned from past disasters, conducting research and analysis to understand emerging risks and trends, and fostering a culture of continuous improvement and adaptation in disaster management practices. 4.3    Scope of Disaster Management The scope of disaster management is broad and encompasses a wide range of activities and measures aimed at reducing the risk of disasters, preparing for effective response, minimizing the impact on lives and livelihoods, and facilitating recovery and reconstruction. Here's a detailed exploration of the scope of disaster management: Risk Assessment and Mitigation: One key aspect of disaster management is conducting risk assessments to identify potential hazards and vulnerabilities in a given area. This involves analyzing factors such as geological, hydrological, meteorological, and socio-economic conditions to determine the likelihood and potential impact of disasters. Based on these assessments, mitigation measures are developed and implemented to reduce risks and vulnerabilities. This can include land-use planning, building codes enforcement, ecosystem conservation, infrastructure improvements, and public awareness campaigns. Preparedness Planning and Capacity Building: Disaster management involves preparing for effective response to disasters by developing and implementing preparedness plans and building response capacities at all levels. This includes establishing emergency response protocols, conducting training and exercises for emergency responders and communities, stockpiling essential supplies and equipment, and establishing early warning systems to alert populations of impending threats. Preparedness efforts aim to enhance readiness and ensure a prompt and coordinated response when disasters occur. Emergency Response and Relief Operations: When disasters strike, disaster management entails mob ilizing emergency response and relief operations to save lives, protect property, and meet the basic needs of affected populations. This involves deploying emergency services, conducting search and rescue operations, providing medical care and shelter, distributing food, water, and other essential supplies, and restoring essential services such as water, sanitation, and electricity. Emergency response efforts aim to address immediate needs and stabilize the situation in the aftermath of a disaster. Recovery and Rehabilitation: Disaster management extends beyond the immediate response phase to include long-term recovery and rehabilitation efforts. This involves rebuilding damaged infrastructure, restoring livelihoods, promoting economic recovery, and addressing the psychosocial needs of survivors. Recovery efforts aim to facilitate the transition from emergency relief to sustainable reconstruction, promote resilience, and restore affected communities to a state of normalcy. Risk Reduction and Resilience Building: In addition to responding to disasters, disaster management also focuses on reducing risks and building resilience to future hazards. This involves implementing measures to address underlying risk factors, strengthen community capacities, and enhance preparedness for future disasters. Risk reduction and resilience-building efforts aim to minimize the impact of disasters on lives, livelihoods, and infrastructure and promote sustainable development in hazard-prone areas. Policy Development and Advocacy: Disaster management encompasses policy development and advocacy efforts to promote effective disaster risk management practices and policies at the local, national, and international levels. This includes advocating for legislation and regulations that prioritize disaster risk reduction, mainstreaming disaster risk considerations into development planning processes, and promoting investments in disaster resilience and preparedness. Coordination and Collaboration: Effective disaster management requires coordination and collaboration among various stakeholders, including government agencies, non-governmental organizations, the private sector, academia, civil society, and affected communities. This involves establishing coordination mechanisms, sharing information and resources, and fostering partnerships to leverage expertise, resources, and networks for effective disaster management. Overall, the scope of disaster management encompasses a comprehensive approach to reducing disaster risks, enhancing preparedness, responding effectively to disasters, facilitating recovery and reconstruction, and building resilience to future hazards. By addressing these various aspects, disaster management aims to protect lives, livelihoods, and infrastructure and promote sustainable development in hazard-prone areas. 4.4    Essentials of Disaster Management 1.    nr 1/2Risk Assessment and Mitigation:                               51 •         Identification of Hazards: Conducting comprehensive assessments to identify potential hazards and vulnerabilities in a given area, including natural hazards (e.g., earthquakes, floods, hurricanes) and man-made hazards (e.g., industrial accidents, terrorist attacks). •         Vulnerability Analysis: Analyzing the vulnerability of communities, infrastructure, and ecosystems to different hazards, considering factors such as population density, socio-economic conditions, land use, and environmental degradation. •        Mitigation Measures: Developing and implementing measures to reduce risks and vulnerabilities, including structural measures (e.g., building codes enforcement, infrastructure improvements) and non-structural measures (e.g., land-use planning, ecosystem restoration). 2.       Preparedness Planning and Capacity Building: •        Emergency Response Plans: Developing and regularly updating emergency response plans that outline roles, responsibilities, and procedures for various stakeholders involved in disaster response. •         Training and Exercises: Conducting training sessions and drills for emergency responders, government officials, community volunteers, and the public to enhance readiness and test response capabilities. •         Stockpiling of Supplies: Maintaining inventories of essential supplies and equipment, including food, water, medical supplies, communication devices, and emergency shelters. •        Early Warning Systems: Establishing and maintaining early warning systems to detect and alert populations of impending disasters, enabling timely evacuation and preparedness actions. 3.       Emergency Response and Relief Operations: •         Mobilization of Resources: Quickly mobilizing resources, including personnel, equipment, and supplies, to support emergency response and relief efforts. •        Search and Rescue Operations: Conducting search and rescue operations to locate and evacuate individuals trapped or injured in disaster-affected areas. •         Medical Care and Shelter: Providing medical care, triage, and emergency shelter to survivors of disasters, addressing immediate health and safety needs. •         Logistics and Coordination: Coordinating the logistics of response efforts, including the distribution of supplies, transportation of personnel and equipment, and communication with stakeholders. 4.       Recovery and Rehabilitation: •         Infrastructure Repair and Reconstruction: Initiating and overseeing the repair and nr 1/2019                                                                            52 reconstruction of damaged infrastructure, including roads, bridges, utilities, and buildings, to restore essential services and support economic recovery. •         Livelihood Support: Providing assistance to businesses and individuals affected by the disaster to recover their livelihoods, including financial assistance, vocational training, and job placement programs. Psychosocial Support: Offering counseling, mental health services, and support programs to address the emotional and psychological needs of survivors, including trauma counseling and community-based psychosocial support. •        Risk Reduction Measures: Implementing measures to reduce future disaster risks, including retrofitting buildings, enhancing early warning systems, and strengthening community resilience through education and awareness programs. 5.       Monitoring, Evaluation, and Learning: •        Assessment of Response: Conducting post-disaster assessments to evaluate the effectiveness of response efforts and identify lessons learned and areas for improvement. •        Knowledge Sharing: Sharing best practices, lessons learned, and innovative approaches to disaster management through networks, conferences, and publications. •        Continuous Improvement: Incorporating feedback from stakeholders, monitoring emerging risks and trends, and adapting strategies and plans to enhance effectiveness and resilience over time. 6.       Policy Development and Advocacy: •         Policy Advocacy: Advocating for policies and regulations that prioritize disaster risk reduction, mainstream disaster risk considerations into development planning processes, and allocate resources for disaster management and resilience-building initiatives. •         Policy Implementation: Ensuring the effective implementation of disaster risk management policies and programs at the local, national, and international levels through coordination, capacity building, and resource mobilization. 7.       Coordination and Collaboration: •         Multi-Stakeholder Collaboration: Facilitating coordination and collaboration among government agencies, non-governmental organizations, the private sector, academia, civil society, and affected communities to leverage expertise, resources, and networks for effective disaster management. •         Partnerships: Building partnerships and alliances with relevant stakeholders to strengthen disaster preparedness, response, and recovery capacities and promote sustainable development and resilience in hazard-prone areas. nr 1/2019                                                                                53 nr 4.5    Conclusion: Overall, the essentials of disaster management involve a comprehensive and integrated approach that addresses all phases of the disaster management cycle and engages multiple stakeholders to build resilience, protect lives and livelihoods, and promote sustainable development in the face of natural and man-made hazards. 4.6    Self Check Exercises a.    Principles of Disaster Management b.    Objectives of Disaster Management c.    Essentials of Disaster Management 4.7    Glossary Early Warning Systems - An integrated system of hazard monitoring, forecasting and prediction, disaster risk assessment, communication and preparedness activities systems and processes that enables individuals, communities, governments, businesses and others to take timely action to reduce disaster risks in advance of hazardous events. Capacity Building – Capacity-building is defined as the process of developing and strengthening the skills, instincts, abilities, processes and resources that organizations and communities need to survive, adapt, and thrive in a fast-changing world Enforcement- the process of making people obey a law or rule, or making a particular situation happen or be accepted 4.8    Answers to self check exercises a. see 4.1                        b. see 4.2                        c. see 4.4 4.9    Terminal questions Q1 Discuss the scope of disaster management. Q2 What are the objectives and principles of disaster management? 4.10    Suggested Readinghttps://asdma.gov.in/pdf/publication/undp/ Chapter-5 Disaster Management Framework in India before DM Act 2005. Structure 5.0       Learning Objectives 5.1        Introduction 5.2          Evolution of Disaster Management in India 5.3          Disaster Management during British Administration and Post Independence 5.4          Organisation and Structure of Disaster Management 5.5          Conclusion 5.6          Self-Check Exercises 5.7          Glossary 5.8          Answer to self check exercise 5.9          Terminal questions 5.10        Suggested Reading 5.0      Learning Objectives After studying this lesson, the learner will be able to -  Familiarize yourself with the primary organs of the United Nations and their respective roles. -  Gain a comprehensive understanding of how each UN body functions and contributes to global peace and development. -    Recognize the significance of cooperation and coordination among member states for effective UN operations. 5.1    Introduction Disaster management in India prior to the enactment of the Disaster Management Act in 2005 was characterized by a fragmented and reactive approach. The country faced numerous natural and man-made disasters, ranging from earthquakes and floods to industrial accidents and terrorist attacks. However, there was no comprehensive legal framework or institutional mechanism dedicated to disaster management at the national level. Before the Disaster Management Act of 2005, disaster response and management were primarily the responsibility of various government departments and agencies at the central, state, and local levels. These entities often worked in isolation, leading to duplication of efforts, inefficient resource allocation, and gaps in coordination. Moreover, the lack of a unified strategy hindered the effectiveness of disaster preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation efforts. In the absence of a dedicated legal framework, disaster management in India relied on a patchwork of laws, regulations, and policies governing specific aspects of disaster response and recovery. For example, the National Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF) and the State Calamity Relief Fund (SCRF) provided financial assistance for relief and rehabilitation measures following natural disasters. However, these funds were reactive in nature and focused primarily on post-disaster relief rather than proactive risk reduction and preparedness. Furthermore, several government bodies and agencies were involved in disaster management activities, including the Ministry of Home Affairs, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Environment and Forests, and various state-level disaster management authorities. This fragmented approach often led to coordination challenges and hindered the efficient mobilization of resources during emergencies. Despite these limitations, India made significant strides in disaster management before the enactment of the Disaster Management Act in 2005. The country established specialized institutions such as the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) and State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) to coordinate disaster response and mitigation efforts. Additionally, initiatives such as the National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP) and the National Earthquake Risk Mitigation Project (NERMP) were launched to enhance preparedness and resilience in high-risk areas. However, the lack of a comprehensive legal framework and institutional mechanism hampered the effectiveness of these efforts. Recognizing the need for a more coordinated and proactive approach to disaster management, the Government of India passed the Disaster Management Act in 2005. This landmark legislation provided the legal basis for a holistic approach to disaster management, encompassing prevention, preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation. 5.2    Evolution of Disaster Management in India Disaster management in India has evolved from an activity-based reactive setup to a proactive institutionalized structure; from single faculty domain to a multi-stakeholder setup; and from a relief-based approach to a ‘multi-dimensional pro-active holistic approach for reducing risk’. The beginnings of an institutional structure for disaster management can be traced to the British period following the series of disasters such as famines of 1900, 1905, 1907 & 1943, and the Bihar-Nepal earthquake of 1937. Over the past century, the disaster management in India has undergone substantive changes in its composition, nature and policy. 5.3    Disaster Management during British Administration and Post Independence During the British administration, relief departments were set up for emergencies during disasters. Such an activity-based setup with a reactive approach was functional only in the postdisaster scenarios. The policy was relief-oriented and activities included designing the relief codes and initialising food for work programmes. Post-Independence, the task for managing disasters continued to rest with the Relief Commissioners in each state, who functioned under the Central Relief Commissioner, with their role limited to delegation of relief material and money in the affected areas. Every five-year plan addressed flood disasters under “Irrigation, Command Area Development and Flood Control”. Until this stage, the disaster management structure was activity-based, functioning under the Relief Departments. Emergence of Institutional Arrangement in India A permanent and institutionalised setup began in the decade of 1990s with set up of a disaster management cell under the Ministry of Agriculture, following the declaration of the decade of 1990 as the ‘International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction’ (IDNDR) by the UN General Assembly. Following series of disasters such as Latur Earthquake (1993), Malpa Landslide (1994), Orissa Super Cyclone (1999) and Bhuj Earthquake (2001), a high powered Committee under the Chairmanship of Mr. J.C. Pant, Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture was constituted for drawing up a systematic, comprehensive and holistic approach towards disasters. There was a shift in policy from an approach of relief through financial aid to a holistic one for addressing disaster management. Consequently, the disaster management division was shifted under the Ministry of Home Affairs in 2002 vide Cabinet Secretariat’s Notification No. DOC.CD-108/2002 dated 27/02/2002 and a hierarchical structure for disaster management evolved in India. 5.4    Organisation and Structure of Disaster Management The Disaster Management Division is headed by Joint Secretary (DM) in MHA, who is assisted by three Directors, Under Secretaries, Section Officers, Technical Officer, Senior Economic Investigator consultants and other supporting staff. The upper echelon of the structure consists of Secretary (Border Management), Home Secretary, Minister of State in charge and the Home Minister. Disaster Management Framework Shifting from relief and response mode, disaster management in India started to address the issu es of early warning systems, forecasting and monitoring setup for various weather related hazards. A structure for flow of information, in the form of warnings, alerts and updates about the oncoming hazard, also emerged within this framework. A multi-stakeholder High powered group was setup by involving representatives from different ministries and departments. Some of these ministries were also designated as the nodal authorities for specific disasters. 5.5    Conclusion: In conclusion, before the enactment of the Disaster Management Act in 2005, disaster management in India was characterized by fragmentation, reactive response, and a lack of coordination. While significant progress was made in establishing specialized institutions and implementing targeted initiatives, the absence of a comprehensive legal framework hindered the country's ability to effectively manage disasters. The enactment of the Disaster Management Act marked a crucial milestone in India's disaster management journey, laying the foundation for a more integrated and proactive approach to disaster risk reduction and resilience-building efforts. 5.6    Self Check Exercises a.    Evolution of Disaster Management in India b.    Disaster Management during British Administration and Post Independence c.    Organisation and structure of Disaster Management 5.7    Glossary Holistic - relating to or concerned with wholes or with complete systems rather than with the individual parts Hierarchical – pyramid structure of officials with increasing authority and responsibility. Fragmented Approach - existing or functioning as though broken into separate parts; disorganized 5.8    Answers to self check exercises a. see 5.2                 b. see 5.3                 c. see 5.4 5.9    Terminal questions Q1 Discuss the disaster management during british administration and post independence. Q2 Discuss the organization and structure of disaster management. 5.10    Suggested Readinghttp s: //asdma.gov.in/                                                  58 Chapter-6 Disaster Management Act 2005 Structure 6.0       Learning Objectives 6.1    Introduction 6.2           Legal-Institutional Framework 6.3         National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) 6.4          National Executive Committee (NEC) 6.5         National Disaster Management Plan 2016 6.6          Conclusion 6.7          Self-Check Exercises 6.8          Glossary 6.9          Answer to self check exercise 6.10         Terminal questions 6.11        Suggested Reading 6.0     Learning Objectives After studying this lesson, the learner will be able to -    Familiarize themselves with the Legal-Institutional framework for disaster management -    Gain a comprehensive understanding of NDMA and NEC -     Know the National Disaster Management Plan 2016 6.1    Introduction: In this chapter, we will try to analyze the Disaster Management Act 2005 and its framework. This Act provides for the effective management of disaster and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. It provides institutional mechanisms for drawing up and monitoring the implementation of the disaster management. The Act also ensures measures by the various wings of the Government for prevention and mitigation of disasters and prompt response to any disaster situation. nr 1/2019 - The Act 59 provides for setting up of a National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) under the Chairmanship of the Prime Minister, State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) under the Chairmanship of the Chief Ministers, District Disaster Management Authorities (DDMAs) under the Chairmanship of Collectors/District Magistrates/Deputy Commissioners. The Act further provides for the constitution of different Executive Committee at national and state levels. Under its aegis, the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) for capacity building and National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) for response purpose have been set up. It also mandates the concerned Ministries and Departments to draw up their own plans in accordance with the National Plan. The Act further contains the provisions for financial mechanisms such as creation of funds for response, National Disaster Mitigation Fund and similar funds at the state and district levels for the purpose of disaster management. The Act also provides specific roles to local bodies in disaster management. - Further the enactment of 73rd and 74th Amendments to the constitution and emergence of local self- government, both rural and urban, as important tiers of governance, the role of local authorities becomes very important. The DM Act, 2005 also envisages specific roles to be played by the local bodies in disaster management. 6.2    Legal - Institutional Framework: A legal institutional framework developed based on the provision of the Act across the country, in vertical and horizontal hierarchical and in the federal setup of country may be seen in the following Figure for appreciation of response mechanism which has been put in place. 6.3    National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) was initially constituted on May 30, 2005 under the Chairmanship of Prime Minister vide an executive order. Following enactment of the Disaster Management Act, 2005, the NDMA was formally constituted in accordance with Section-3(1) of the Act on 27th September, 2006 with Prime Minister as its Chairperson and nine other members, and one such member to be designated as Vice-Chairperson. Mandate of NDMA: The NDMA has been mandated with laying down policies on disaster management and guidelines which would be followed by different Ministries, Departments of the Government of India and State Government in taking measures for disaster risk reduction. It has also to laid down guidelines to be followed by the State Authorities in drawing up the State Plans and to take such measures for the management of disasters, Details of these responsibilities are given as under :- (a)    Lay down policies on disaster management; (b)    Approve the National Plan; (c)    Approve plans prepared by the Ministries or Departments of the Government of India in accordance with the National Plan; (d)    Lay down guidelines to be followed by the State Authorities in drawing up the State Plan; (e)    Lay down guidelines to be followed by the different Ministries or Departments of the Government of India for the purpose of integrating the measures for prevention of disaster or the mitigation of its effects in their development plans and projects; (f ) Coordinate the enforcement and implementation of the policy and plan for disaster management; (g)    Recommend provision of funds for the purpose of mitigation; (h)    Provide such support to other countries affected by major disasters as may be determined by the Central Government; (i)    Take such other measures for the prevention of disaster, or the mitigation, or nr 1/2019                                                                                61 preparedness and capacity building for dealing with the threatening disaster situation or disaster as it may consider necessary; (j)    Lay down broad policies and guidelines for the functioning of the National Institute of Disaster Management. Composition of NDMA: Besides the nine members nominated by the Prime Minister, Chairperson of the Authority, the Organisational structure consists of a Secretary and five Joint Secretaries including one Financial Advisor. There are 10 posts of Joint Advisors and Directors Assistant Advisors, Under Secretaries and Assistant Financial Advisor and Duty Officer along with supporting staff. Further, Recruitment Rules have been notified as (a)    National Disaster Management Authority, Group-‘C’ posts Recruitment Rules, 2009. (b)    National Disaster Management Authority (Group ‘A’) Recruitment Rules, 2009. Under Section 7 (1) of DM Act an Advisory Committee with 12 Members has been constituted during 2007. jure 2.1: National Disaster Management Structure GOVERNMENT OF INDIA Ministry of Home Affairs Planning Commission High Level Committee Ministries and Departments of Government of India Cabinet Committee on Natural Calamities STATES ♦-Central Para Military Forces Fire Services Civil Defence ♦—► NYKS and NSS Professional Bodies Corporate Sectors National Institute for Disaster Management National Disaster Response Force National Disaster Mitigation Resource (central) State Police State Disaster Response Force Academic Institutions Scientific Organizations Technical Institutions Armed Forces Ministries and Departments of States "♦—►Home Guards NGOs O M M U N T 6.4    National Executive Committee (NEC) A National Executive Committee is constituted under Section 8 of DM Act, 2005 to assist the National Authority in the performance of its functions. NEC consists of Home Secretary as its Chairperson, ex-officio, with other Secretaries to the Government of India in the Ministries or Departments having administrative control of the agriculture, atomic energy, defence, drinking water supply, environment and forest, finance (expenditure), health, power, rural development science and technology, space, telecommunication, urban development, water resources. The Chief of Integrated Defence Staff of the Chiefs of Staff Committee, ex-officio, is also its Members. NEC may as and when it considers necessary constitute one or more sub-committees for the efficient discharge of its functions. For the conduct of NEC, Disaster Management National Executive Committee (Procedure and Allowances) Rules, 2006 has been issued which may be visited at www.mha.nic.in. NEC has been given the responsibility to act as the coordinating and monitoring body for disaster management, to prepare a National Plan, monitor the implementation of National Policy etc. vide section 10 of the DM Act. 6.5    National Disaster Management Plan 2016 The National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) was first released in 2016. The primary aim of the plan is to make India disaster resilient and drastically lessen the damage caused during and in the aftermath of disasters, natural and man-made. The plan was updated in 2018. NDMP Vision “Make India disaster resilient, achieve substantial disaster risk reduction, and significantly decrease the losses of life, livelihoods, and assets – economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental – by maximizing the ability to cope with disasters at all levels of administration as well as among communities.” The NDMP serves as a document or guideline for the government agencies to act in all phases of disasters. It is based on the Sendai Framework, which is a United Nations framework, for substantially reducing disaster risk, and losses to lives and livelihoods. The NDMP is also as per the Disaster Management Act, 2005 and the National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009. Strengthening Disaster Risk Governance As per the NDMP, there are six thematic areas for action in which the central and the state governments should function. They are listed below: 1.    Mainstream and integrate DRR and Institutional Strengthening 2.    Capacity Development 3.    Promote Participatory Approaches 4.    Work with Elected Representatives 5.    Grievance Redress Mechanism 6.    Promote Quality Standards, Certifications, and Awards for Disaster Risk Management Salient Features of NDMP NDMP covers all the following phases of disaster management: •    Prevention •    Mitigation •    Response •    Recovery As per the Sendai Framework, the Six thematic areas of action are as follows: 1.    Understanding Risk 2.    Inter-Agency Coordination 3.    Investing in DRR – Structural Measures 4.    Investing in DRR – Non-Structural Measures 5.    Capacity Development 6.    Climate Change Risk Management NDMP Objectives The objectives of the NDMP are listed below: 1.    To improve understanding of disaster risk, vulnerabilities and hazards. 2.    To strengthen the governance of disaster risk at every level, i.e., from national to local. 3.    To invest in the reduction of disaster risk for resilience by means of structural, non-structural and financial measures, and also by a comprehensive capacity development. 4.    To improve disaster preparedness for effective response. n 5.    To encourage ‘Build Back Better in recovery, reconstruction and rehabilitation. 6.    To prevent disasters and ensure a significant decrease in the disaster risk and loss of life, livelihood, health and assets including physical, economic, cultural, social and environmental assets. 7.    Enhance resilience and check new disasters from emerging and reduce existing ones. 8.    To promote the execution of inclusive and integrated structural, economic, social, legal, health, cultural, environmental, educational, political, technological and institutional measures to reduce and prevent hazard exposure and vulnerabilities to disasters. 9.    To empower communities as well as local authorities to manage and decrease disaster risks. 10.    To bolster technical and scientific capabilities in all areas of disaster management. 11.    To develop capacity at every level to effectively respond to multiple hazards and for communitybased management of disaster. 12.    To offer clarity on the responsibilities and roles of the various departments and ministries involved. 13.    To foster a culture of disaster risk mitigation and prevention at all levels. 14.    To enable the mainstreaming of disaster management concerns into planning. 6.6    Conclusion: The Disaster Management Act of 2005 (DM Act 2005) provides a legal framework for disaster management in India, aiming to mitigate the impact of disasters and facilitate effective response and recovery efforts. The Act establishes institutional mechanisms at the national, state, and district levels to coordinate disaster management activities. One of the key strengths of the DM Act 2005 lies in its comprehensive approach to disaster management, encompassing all aspects from prevention and preparedness to response and recovery. It emphasizes the importance of a proactive approach, focusing on risk reduction measures and capacity building to enhance resilience at all levels. The Act establishes the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) at the national level, headed by the Prime Minister, to coordinate and implement disaster management policies and plans. Additionally, State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) are set up at the state level, and District Disaster Management Authorities (DDMAs) at the district level, to ensure decentralized decision-making and effective coordination at various administrative levels. Furthermore, the DM Act 2005 provides for the establishment of specialized agencies such as the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) and State Institutes of Disaster Management (SIDMs) to undertake training, research, and capacity building activities in the field of disaster management. However, despite its strengths, there are also some challenges associated with the implementation of the DM Act 2005. These include issues related to inadequate funding, limited public awareness and participation, bureaucratic hurdles, and coordination gaps among various stakeholders. Moreover, there may be instances where the Act's provisions are not effectively enforced, leading to gaps in disaster management preparedness and response. In conclusion, while the DM Act 2005 provides a robust legal framework for disaster management in India and establishes institutional mechanisms for effective coordination and response, there is a need for continuous efforts to address implementation challenges and enhance the resilience of communities to disasters. This requires sustained investment in capacity building, public awareness campaigns, and strengthening of institutional mechanisms at all levels to ensure timely and effective response to disasters. 6.7    Self Check Exercises a.    Legal-Institutional Framework for disaster management b.    National Disaster Management Plan 2016 6.8    Glossary Governance - Governance has been defined as the rules of the political system to solve conflicts between actors and adopt decision (legality). It has also been used to describe the "proper functioning of institutions and their acceptance by the public" (legitimacy). Structural Measures – Structural measures are any physical construction to reduce or avoid possible impacts of hazards, or the application of engineering techniques or technology to achieve hazard resistance and resilience in structures or systems. Legal - using or connected with the law 6.9    Answers to self check exercises a. see 6.2 b. see 6.5 6.10    Terminal questions Q1 Discuss the structure and organization of NDMA. nr 1/2019 Q2 What are the guidelines under National Disaster Management Plan 2016? Suggested Readings : https://asdma.gov.in/ Chapter-7 State and Local Level Disaster Management Structure | 7.0 | Learning Objectives | |---|---| | 7.1 | Introduction | | 7.2 | State Level Institutions | | 7.3 | District Level Institutions | | 7.4 | Institutional Framework for Metropolitan Cities | | 7.5 | NIDM | | 7.6 | NDRF | | 7.7 | Fire Services | | 7.8 | National Civil Defence College Nagpur | | 7.9 | National Fire Services College Nagpur | | 7.10 | Home Guard | | 7.11 | Conclusion | | 7.12 | Self-Check Exercises | | 7.13 | Glossary | | 7.14 | Answer to self check exercise | | 7.15 | Terminal questions | | 7.16 | Suggested Reading | | 7.0 | Learning Objectives | After studying this lesson, the learner will be able to -    Familiarize yourself with the state and district level institutions for disaster management. -    Gain a comprehensive understanding of NIDM & NDRF -     Recognize the organization, functions, and working of the Home Guard 1/2019                                                                        67 7.1    Introduction: State and local-level disaster management plays a pivotal role in enhancing the resilience of communities and minimizing the impact of disasters. Unlike national or international responses, which may take time to mobilize, state and local authorities are often the first responders to emergencies, making their preparedness and coordination efforts critical. This introduction explores the significance of disaster management at the state and local levels, emphasizing the unique challenges and opportunities faced by these entities in safeguarding lives, property, and the environment. At the state level, disaster management involves the formulation and implementation of policies, plans, and strategies to address the specific risks and vulnerabilities within a given geographical area. States serve as the bridge between national and local authorities, coordinating resources, providing support, and ensuring a cohesive response to disasters. State disaster management agencies are tasked with risk assessment, planning, capacity building, and coordination of emergency response and recovery efforts. Local-level disaster management, often at the district or municipal level, is crucial due to its proximity to communities. Local authorities are the first line of defense during disasters, responding swiftly to address immediate needs and ensure public safety. Local disaster management agencies focus on community engagement, awareness, and building resilience through measures such as land-use planning, infrastructure development, and education. They play a vital role in understanding and addressing the unique challenges posed by specific geographical and demographic factors. Both state and local disaster management efforts are integral components of the broader disaster management cycle, encompassing preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation. Preparedness involves developing early warning systems, conducting drills, and training first responders. Response activities include immediate actions to save lives and minimize damage during a disaster. Recovery focuses on rebuilding and restoring affected areas, while mitigation involves measures to reduce the impact of future disasters. Challenges at the state and local levels include limited resources, varying levels of expertise, and the need for effective communication and coordination among different agencies. However, these levels of government also offer the advantage of proximity to the communities they serve, allowing for tailored, context-specific interventions. In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the importance of community involvement in disaster management at the state and local levels. Engaging local communities in risk reduction strategies, early warning systems, and response planning enhances the overall effectiveness of disaster management efforts. 7.2    State level Institutions State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) The DM Act, 2005 provides for constitution of SDMAs and DDMAs in all the states and UTs. As per the information received from the states and UTs, except Gujarat and Daman & Diu, all the rest have constituted SDMAs under the DM Act, 2005. Gujarat has constituted its SDMA under its Gujarat State Disaster Management Act, 2003. Daman & Diu have also established SDMAs prior to enactment of DM Act 2005. State Executive Committee (SEC) The Act envisages establishment of State Executive Committee under Section 20 of the Act, to be headed by Chief Secretary of the state Government with four other Secretaries of such departments as the state Government may think fit. It has the responsibility for coordinating and monitoring the implementation of the National Policy, the National Plan and the State Plan as provided under section 22 of the Act. 7.3    District level Institutions District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) 2.1 2.1 Section 25 of the DM Act provides for constitution of DDMA for every district of a state. The District Magistrate/ District Collector/Deputy Commissioner heads the Authority as Chairperson besides an elected representative of the local authority as Co-Chairperson except in the tribal areas where the Chief Executive Member of the District Council of Autonomous District is Local Authorities Advisory Committees Advisory Committee Advisory Committee National Institute of Disaster Management National Disaster Response Force State Executive Committee District Disaster Management Authority (7-member body chaired by the District Magistrate and comprising of representatives from the civil administration State Disaster Management Authority (9-member body chaired by the CM of the state) National Executive Committee Comprising of representatives from the ministries and departments controlling agriculture, atomic energy, defence, drinking water supply, environment & forests, finance, expenditure, health, power, rural development, S&T, space, telecommunication, water resources etc. National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), Chair- Prime 69 Minister with other 9 members designated as Co-Chairperson. Disaster Management Structure in India Further in district, where Zila Parishad exist, its Chairperson shall be the Co-Chairperson of DDMA. Other members of this authority include the CEO of the District Authority, Superintendant of Police, Chief Medical Officer of the District and other two district level officers are designated by the state Government. The District Authority is responsible for planning, coordination and implementation of disaster management and to take such measures for disaster management as provided in the guidelines. The District Authority also has the power to examine the construction in any area in the district to enforce the safety standards and also to arrange for relief measures and respond to the disaster at the district level. 7.4    Institutional Framework for Metropolitan Cities In the larger cities (say, with population exceeding 2.5 million), the recommendation of the second Administrative Reforms Commission has suggested that the Mayor, assisted by the Commissioner of the Municipal Corporation and the Police Commissioner to be directly responsible for Crisis Management. It has now been accepted by the Government. Hierarchical Structure of Authority and Committee In this structure, National Disaster Management Authority is the authority for formulation of policy and guidelines for all disaster management work in the country. The state authorities further lay down the guidelines for departments of the state and the districts falling in their respective jurisdictions. Similarly, district authorities direct the civil administration, departments and local authorities such as the municipalities, police department and civil administration. The State Executive Committees are responsible for execution of the tasks envisaged by the authorities. 7.5    National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) In the backdrop of the International decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR), a National Centre for Disaster Management was established at the Indian Institute for Public Administration (IIPA) in 1995. The Centre was upgraded and designated as the National Institute of Disaster management (NIDM) on 16th October 2003. It has now achieved the status of a statutory organisation under the Disaster Management Act, 2005. Section 42 of Chapter VII of the Disaster Management Act, 2005 entrusts the institute with numerous responsibilities, namely to develop training modules, undertake research and documentation in disaster management, orga nise9 training programmes, undertake and organise study courses, conferences, lectures and seminars to promote and institutionalize disaster management, undertake and provide for publication of journals, research papers and books. Management Structure: The Union Home Minister is the President of the Institute, It was constituted on 23rd February, 2007 and has a general body of forty two members comprising of secretaries of various ministries,departments of the Union Government and heads of national level scientific, research and technical organizations. In terms of Section 42(4) of the Disaster Management Act, 2005 vide order dated 3rd May, 2007, the Government also constituted a 14 member Governing Body which may be seen in following Figure of the Institute. Organizational Structure – NIDM is headed by an Executive Director along with the faculty and staff. The organizational structure may be seen from the Figure 2.5. The Institute has four academic divisions •    Geo-Hazard Division •    Hydro-met Hazard Division •    Policy Planning and Cross Cutting Issues Division •    Response Division Loc ation and Facilities: Located centrally at the Indraprastha Estate on the3 Mahatma Gandhi Road, within the campus of the IIPA, the institute is equipped with state-of-the-art facilities of training and research on disaster management. It has fully air conditioned training and conference halls, a well stocked library, GIS laboratory, computer centre, and a video conference hall. The institute also provides Boarding and lodging facilities for participants of its programmes. 7.6    National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) Constitution and role of NDRF: The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) has been constituted under Section 44 of the DM Act, 2005 by up-gradation/conversion of eight battalions. Governing Body Chairman: VC, NDMA Vice Chairman: Union Home Secretary Member Secretary: ED, NIDM Executive Director Geo-Hazard Division Hydro-met Hazard Division Policy Planning and Cross Cutting Issues Division Response Division Administration & Finance Division Inter-Divisional Cells •    Seismic Microzonation •    Retrofitting Clinic •    Climate Change & Disasters •    HRV Mapping •    Urban Risk Mitigation •    Public Private Partnership IT Cell •    Computer Centre •    GIS Lab •    Video-Conferencing Training Cell •    Face-to-Face training •    On Line Training •    Blended Training Emergency Operation Centre Library1 & Publication                                                  74 Figure: Organisational Structure of NIDM Institutional Framework standard battalions of Central Para Military Forces i.e. two battalions each from Border Security Force (BSF), Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP), Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) and Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) to build them up as a specialist force to respond to disaster or disaster like situations. - The eight battalions (1 battalion comprised of nearly 1000 person) of NDRF consist of 144 specialised teams trained in various types of natural, man made and non-natural disasters. 72 of such teams are designed to cater to the Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) calamities besides natural calamities. Each NDRF battalion consists of 1149 personnel organised in 18 teams comprising of 45 personnel, who are being equipped and trained for rendering effective response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster, both natural and man made. All these eight battalions are being trained in natural disasters while four of them are being additionally trained for handling CBRN disasters. The composition of such battalions may be visited at www.ndmindia.nic.in -Based on vulnerability profile of different regions of the country, these specialist battalions have been presently stationed at the following eight places as may be seen from the map in Figure. Figure Battalions Location of NDRF NDRF BNS - LOCATIONS PATNA BHATINDA GR. NOIDA BHUBANESHWAR (Mundali) /-i .J rxxxxx x n.< a rlir r i i i i 11 í rxxxxxxxxxxx'x rxr. XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX. rxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx. (rxxxxxxxxxxxxj r& nrxxxxxxxxxxxxxr? vxxxxxxxxxrrrJX GUWAHATI KOLKATA VADODARA VIJAYAWADA PUNE (Talegaon) o • S’ CHENNAI (Arakkonam) LEGEND BNs • Two more Battalions Approved (to be raised by Seema Suraksha Bal (SSB)) CBRN BNs New Raisings The disaster specialization, location and the details of the parent force may be seen from the Figure The Government of India has approved the raising of two additional battalions of National Disaster Response Force by upgradation and conversion of one battalion each of Border Security Force and Central Reserve Police Force to be located in the states of Bihar (Bihata, Patna) and Andhra Pradesh (Vijaywada) respectively. The administrative approval for raising the two battalions was issued on 13-10- 2010. There are different training institutes where such forces are given the basic and specialised training. State Disaster Response Force (SDRF) The states/UTs have also been advised to set up their own Specialist Response Force for responding to disasters on the lines of National Disaster Response Force vide Ministry of Home Affairs letter dated 26th July 2007 and 8th March, 2011. The Central Government is providing assistance for training of trainers. The state governments have been also advised to utilise 10 percent of their State Disaster Response Fund and Capacity Building Grant for the procurement of search and rescue equipment and for training purposes of the Response Force. Civil Defence Aims and Objectives of Civil Defence Act: The Civil Defence Policy of the GoI until 1962 was confined to making the states and UTs conscious of the need of civil protection nr 1/2019                                                                            77 measures and to keep in readiness civil protection plans for major cities and towns under the Emergency Relief Organisation (ERO) scheme. The legislation on Civil Defence (CD) known as Civil Defence Act was enacted in 1968 which is in force throughout the country. The Act defines CD and provides for the powers of Central Government to make rules for CD, spelling out various actions to be taken for CD measures. It further stipulates for constitution of CD corps, appointment of members and officers, functions of members etc. The Act has since been amended in 2010 to cater to the needs of disaster management so as to utilise the services of Civil Defence volunteers effectively for enhancement of public participation in disaster management related activities in the country. The CD Organisation is raised only in such areas and zones which are considered vulnerable to enemy attacks. The revision and renewal of categorised CD towns is done at regular intervals, with the level of perceived threat or external aggression or hostile attacks by anti- national elements or terrorists to vital installations. Compendium of instructions – CD deals very briefly with all different aspects of CD in India and includes references to important policy letters including legal aspects. It was first published in February 1969. Subsequently, its scope was enlarged by including the Master Plan of Civil Defence, Civil Defence Act 1968, training courses conducted at NCDC, Nagpur, training syllabus of states. Role of Civil Defence: During times of war and emergencies, the CD organisation has the vital role of guarding the hinterland, supporting the armed forces, mobilising the citizens and helping civil administration for saving life and property, minimising damage, maintaining continuity in production centers and raising public morale. The concept of CD over the years has shifted from management of damage against conventional weapons to also include threat perceptions against nuclear weapons, biological and chemical warfare and environmental disasters. Three tier structure as given below has been created to formulate CD policy and for coordinating and supervising measures to implement it. •    Civil Defence Advisory Committee under the Chairmanship of Union Home Minister, •    Civil Defence Committee under the Chairmanship of Home Secretary and •    Civil Defence Joint Planning Staff Committee under the Chairmanship of Director General Civil Defence. Eligibility to become volunteers:                                    78 (a)    A person who intends to apply for appointment to a Civil Defence Corps must fulfill the following conditions:- •    to be a citizen of India or Bhutan or of Nepal; •    to have completed the age of 18 years provided that this age limit may be relaxed at the discretion of the competent authority up to a maximum of three years for any branch or category of the Corps, •    to have passed at least the primary standard, that is to say, the fourth class; and this condition may be relaxed by the Controller at his discretion. (b)    A person shall not be entitled to be appointed to the Corps unless he is found to be physically fit and mentally alert. (c)    Any service in the National Volunteer Force and in the armed forces of the Union shall be a special qualification (d)    Such persons shall ordinarily serve in a voluntary and honorary capacity and they are required to perform the duties assigned to them by order under the Civil Defence Regulations, 1968 or under any other law for the time being in force, for the protection of persons and property against hostile attack (e)    A candidate who has been accepted for appointment to the Corps shall be formally enrolled in such manner as the Controller may, by order, determine and at the time of enrollment shall make an oath or affirmation before such officer as the Controller may, by order, appoint. Directorate General of Civil Defence (DGCD): DGCD was established in 1962 with its headquarters at New Delhi in the Ministry of Home Affairs to handle all policy and planning matters related to Civil Defence, Home Guards and Fire Services including the functioning of National Civil Defence College, and National Fire Service College, Nagpur. An IPS officer in the rank of Director General of Police heads the organisation. He has dual charge of D.G. National Disaster Response Force and Civil Defence (DG, NDRF & CD). Civil Defence Setup in the States: The state government for the purpose of coordinating the activities of the Controllers of Civil Defence within the state appoints a Director of Civil Defence and also may constitute, for any area within the state a body of a person to be called the Civil Defence Corps. Out of 225 towns from 35 states notified as CD towns, currently the CD organisations at only 130 towns have been activated. Each town has nucleus of four Permanent Staff along with 400 CD Volunteers for a two lakh population. It is expected that each state will have one CD Training Institute with permanent strength of 36 personnel, five vehicles and other equipments. The District Magistrate is designated as a Controller for CD Towns. The pres ent1 s trength of CD volunteers is 5.72 lakhs, out of which 5.11 lakhs are7already trained. The target strength of CD volunteers has been fixed at 13 lakhs based on the population of CD towns as per 2001 census. In accordance with the directions issued by Hon’ble Home Minister, one member high powered committee was constituted on 7th February, 2006 under the chairmanship of one of the member of NDMA to analyse the existing functions of Civil Defence Organisations and suggest changes required to enlarge its role to include Disaster Management. Civil Defence at district level: The state government may appoint a person, not being in its opinion, below the rank of a District Magistrate to be known as the “Controller”. Under certain conditions, the state government may also appoint a Deputy Controller of Civil Defence in appropriate rank up to that of Deputy Collector, but not inferior to that of a SubDivisional Magistrate. 7.7 Fire Services Fire services are mandate of the Municipal Bodies as estimated in item 7 of Schedule 12    under Article 243W of the constitution. The structure across is not uniform. Presently Fire prevention and Fire Fighting Services are organized by the concerned States and UTs. Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt. of India, renders technical advice to the States and UTs and Central Ministries on Fire Protection, Fire Prevention and Fire Legislation. The Government of India in 1956, formed a “Standing Fire Advisory Committee” under the Ministry of Home Affairs. The mandate of the committee was to examine the technical problems relating to Fire Services and to advise the Government of India for speedy development and upgradation of Fire Services all over the country. This committee had representation from each State Fire Services, as well as the representation from Ministry of Home, Defence, Transport, Communication and Bureau of Indian Standards. This Committee was renamed as “Standing Fire Advisory Council” (SFAC) during the year 1980. Fire Services in Gujarat, Chhatisgarh, Punjab, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh, Haryanand Madhya Pradesh excluding Indore are under the respective concerned MunicipalCorporations. In other remaining States it is under the Home Department. While some Stateshave enacted their own Fire Act, some others have not. As on today, there is no standardization with regard to the scaling of equipment, the type of equipment, or the training of their manpower. In each state it has grown according to the initiatives taken by the States and the funds provided for the Fire Services. Presently the only Basic Life Line of Fire & Emergency Services which is fully committed to th e2common public, is the Municipal in some states and State Fire Services. The Airport Authority, Big Industrial Establishments, CISF and Armed Forces, however also have their own Fire Services and many a times in case of need rush in aid to the local Fire Services. Apart from the lack of being a proper government department with a complete developmental plan, State Fire Services have their own organizational structure, administrative setup, funding mechanism, training facilities and equipments. 7.8    National Civil Defence College (NCDC), Nagpur The first Disaster Management Training Institution of the country was founded on 29th April 1957 at Nagpur as the Central Emergency Relief Training Institute (CERTI) to support the Emergency Relief Organisation of the Government of India. This Institute organised advanced and specialist training for revenue officials responsible for Disaster Relief Operations against any natural or manmade disaster. CERTI was renamed as National Civil Defence College on 1st April 1968. NCDC is mandated for conducting training courses for various groups of stakeholders. Details of training on capacity development are given in Chapter on Capacity Development 7.9    National Fire Service College (NFSC), Nagpur The National Fire Service College was established in 1956 as a sub- ordinate establishment of Ministry of Home Affairs with the aim of providing training to the Fire Officers of the country in advanced techniques of fire fighting and rescue, and creating uniformity in the Fire Service organisations and their management across the country. NFSC began its activities with only one course; later, considering the needs of the country, industrialisation and growth of Indian industry, had added many more courses to its curriculum to give the fire training a professional outlook. The college has so far trained 15197 fire officers in the country. Being a residential college, National Fire Service College (NFSC), has its own hostel facilities with well furnished accommodation for about 200 trainees at a time. The college awards certificates, diplomas, and advanced diplomas on successful completion of courses. These are recognized by the state, central government, the public and private sectors and the business community as well. In addition, the diploma and advanced diploma of NFSC are also recognised by the Union Public Service Commission for appointment in the middle management cadre. 7.10    Home Guard Role: The role of Home Guards is to serve as an auxiliary to the police in the maintenance of la w2 and order, internal security and help the community in any kind of emergency such as air-raid, fire, cyclone, earthquake, epidemic etc. They are also expected to help the police in maintenance of communal harmony, assist the administration in protecting weaker sections, participate in socio-economic and welfare activities and perform Civil Defence duties. Types: Home Guards are of two types – rural and urban besides in Border States, Border Wing Home Guards Battalions at national level. Border Wing, Home Guard serve as an auxiliary to the Border Security Force. The total strength of Home Guards is 5, 73,793 against which the raised strength is 5,00,410. The organisation is spread over all states and UTs except in Kerala. Eighteen Border Wing Home Guards (BWHG) Battalions have been raised in the border states viz. Punjab (6 Bns.), Rajasthan (4 Bns.), Gujarat (4Bns.) and one of Bn each. for Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and West Bengal to serve as an auxiliary to Border Security Force for preventing infiltration on the international border and coastal areas, guarding of vital Installations and lines of communication in vulnerable areas at the time of external aggression. Statutory Mechanisms and Service Condition: Home Guards are raised under the Home Guards Act and Rules of the states and UTs. They are recruited from a cross section of the population such as doctors, engineers, lawyers, private sector organisations, college and university students, agricultural and industrial workers, etc. who give their spare time to the organisation for betterment of the community. Home Guards are provided free uniform, duty allowances and awards for gallantry, distinguished and meritorious services. Members of Home Guards with three year service in the organisation are trained to assist police in maintenance of law and order, prevention of crime, anti-decoity measures, border patrolling, prohibition, flood relief, fire-fighting, election duties and social welfare activities. The Ministry of Home Affairs formulates the policy regarding role, target, raising, training, equipping, establishment and other important matters of Home Guards Organisation. 7.11    Interface between the Ministries for disaster Management The interface between stakeholders and the disaster management framework is permanent, backed by legislative measures, decisions, such as those taken for establishment of the bodies and committees for managing disasters and the government orders to execute these decisions. These decisions or measures direct the composition of the structure by identifying the stakeholders to be involved in the disaster management framework. The role to be performed by each stakeholder is in the evolving stage and needs to be defined within different SOPs. Thus, while the involvement of stakeholders in the interface is mandated and permanent, the nature of interface is guided by the expertise or relevance of the stakeholder to the disaster management framework. The expertise based interfaces emerge when the stakeholders serve as ‘service providers’ to th e2disaster management framework. For instance, the institutions under8Ministry of Earth Sciences and Ministry of Water Resources, that is, Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) and Central Water Commission (CWC) respectively, provide information on the weather and climatic parameters and the potential hazards and threats to the nodal management authority. Further, these organizations are involved with disaster planning activities – flood zonation and flood plain management in case of CWC, and hazard mapping and database generation in case of IMD. The organizations and institutions under the Department of Space provide research and technical support by monitoring the weather elements and facilitating satellite based communication, and also undertaking activities such as land use mapping and hazard zoning. The framework which emerges from above discussion may be summarised in a flow chart form as given in Figure Figure : Interface among the stakeholders, leading to the development of society Framework - at A Glance P O L I C Y S U P P O R T N & I The Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) should be seen as on integral part of environment (climate change also) and development. The impending risk analysis should be done in the light of disasters and possible threat of high intensity disasters due to climate change. Accordingly, mitigation and adaptation programmes should be developed. The mitigation plan should address the issues of structural and non-structural interventions along with the fiscal and monetary tools (for DRR & adaptation) for pre and post disaster planning. If this is main streamed, sustainable development can be attained and miseries of the people could be minimised. The top down and bottom up institutional linkages for policy formulation and programme execution would be interdependent with each other. 7.12    Conclusion: In conclusion, state and local-level disaster management plays a crucial role in building resilience, ensuring effective response, and fostering community engagement. By recognizing the unique challenges and opportunities at these levels, authorities can implement targeted strategies that empower communities and contribute to a more robust and coordinated approach to disaster management. 7.13    Self Check Exercises a.    District Level Institutions b.    NDRF c.    Interface between the ministers for disaster management 7.14    Glossary Demographic - Demographics are statistics that describe populations and their characteristics Training Module – A training module is a self-contained unit of instructional content that focuses on a specific topic or skill within a broader training program Retrofitting - provide (something) with a component or accessory not fitted during manufacture 7.15    Answers to self check exercises a. see 7.3                 b. see 7.6          c. see 7.12 7.16    Terminal questions Q1 Analyse the framework of state level institutions for disaster management in DM Act. Q2 Discuss the role and working of NIDM? 7.17    Suggested Readinghttps://asdma.gov.in/pdf/publication/undp/disaster_management_in_india.pdf Chapter-8 Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 . . Structure 8.0         Learning Objectives 8.1           Introduction 8.2          Brief of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) 8.3          The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) in detail 8.4          Conclusion 8.5          Self-Check Exercises 8.6          Glossary 8.7          Answer to self check exercise 8.8          Terminal questions 8.9         Suggested Reading 8.0     Learning Objectives After studying this lesson, the learner will be able to - Familiarize themselves with the details of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR). 8.1    Introduction The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) is a landmark international agreement adopted in 2015 at the Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Sendai, Japan. It sets out a comprehensive, global strategy to guide countries and stakeholders in reducing disaster risk and building resilience to disasters. With a focus on managing disaster risk effectively, the framework emphasizes the importance of understanding and addressing underlying risk factors, enhancing preparedness, and strengthening disaster response and recovery mechanisms. It promotes collaboration across sectors and levels of government, as well as with civil society and the private sector, to create a more resilient world in the face of natural and human-induced hazards. 8.2    Brief of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) 1.    The Member States of the United Nations Organisation approved the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) at the Third World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in March 2015, held in Sendai, Japan. 2.    This treaty is voluntary and not binding upon the member states. 3.    Under the framework, the primary role of the Member States is to reduce the identified disaster risks. 4.    The framework has a time frame of 15 years, i.e., 2015-2030. 5.    United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) is tasked with the implementation, follow-up, support and review of the Sendai Framework. 6.    The predecessor to Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction was the Hyogo Framework for Action (2005-2015), an all-inclusive international accord on disaster risk reduction. The Hyogo framework was successful in galvanizing many stakeholders including the commercial sector, NGOs, scientists and governments in making progress towards disaster risk reduction. SFDRR – Objectives 1.    SFDRR aims at achieving a substantial reduction of disaster risk and disaster losses in lives, livelihoods and health; in the environmental, cultural, social, physical-economic assets of people, communities, businesses over the next 15 years. 2.    The framework comprises of a set of standards, an all-encompassing framework containing achievable targets and an instrument with a legal basis for disaster risk reduction. 3.    The framework calls for the sharing of responsibility among the stakeholders including the private sector, the government and the other stakeholders. 4.    It highlights the concerns on human health and well-being that are common to disaster risk reduction, climate change and sustainable development. Sendai Framework – High Priorities 1.    Understanding the disaster risk. 2.    Strengthening the governance of disaster risks for managing disaster risks. 3.    Investments in disaster risk reduction for resilience 4.    Improving the disaster preparedness to ensure effective response, recovery, reconstruction and n rehabilitation. Major Departures regarding the Sendai Framework In the domain of disaster management, the Sendai Framework provides the way forward for the period ending in 2030. There are some major departures in the Sendai Framework: •    For the first time the goals are defined in terms of outcome-based targets instead of focusing on sets of activities and actions. •    It places governments at the center of disaster risk reduction with the framework emphasizing the need to strengthen the disaster risk governance. •    There is significant shift from earlier emphasis on disaster management to addressing disaster risk management itself by focusing on the underlying drivers of risk. •    It places almost equal importance on all kinds of disasters and not only on those arising from natural hazards. •    In addition to social vulnerability, it pays considerable attention to environmental aspects through a strong recognition that the implementation of integrated environmental and natural resource management approaches is needed for disaster reduction •    Disaster risk reduction, more than before, is seen as a policy concern that cuts across many sectors, including health and education. India’s Initiatives for DRR after signing Sendai Framework •    India released the first-ever National Disaster Management Plan, a document based on the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction. •  The plan is based on the four priority themes of the Sendai Framework, namely: understanding disaster risk, improving disaster risk governance, investing in disaster risk reduction and disaster preparedness, early warning, and building back better in the aftermath of a disaster. •    The plan has a regional approach, which will be beneficial not only for disaster management but also for development planning. •    It is designed in such a way that it can be implemented in a scalable manner in all phases of disaster management. •    It also identifies major activities such as early warning, information dissemination, search and rescue, medical care, transportation, evacuation, etc., to serve as a checklist for agencies responding to a disaster. As per the Sendai Framework, in order to reduce disaster risk, there is a need to address existing challenges and prepare for future ones by focusing on monitoring, assessing, and understanding disaster risk and sharing such information. The Sendai Framework notes that it is “urgent and critical to anticipate, plan for and reduce disaster risk” to cope with disaster. 8.3 Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) in detail 1.    The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 was adopted at the Third United Nations World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction, held from 14 to 18 March 2015 in Sendai, Miyagi, Japan, which represented a unique opportunity for countries: (a)    To adopt a concise, focused, forward-looking and action-oriented post 2015 framework for disaster risk reduction; (b)    To complete the assessment and review of the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005–2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters;1 (c)    To consider the experience gained through the regional and national strategies/ institutions and plans for disaster risk reduction and their recommendations, as well as relevant regional agreements for the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action; (d)    To identify modalities of cooperation based on commitments to implement a post 2015 framework for disaster risk reduction; (e)    To determine modalities for the periodic review of the implementation of a post 2015 framework for disaster risk reduction. During the World Conference, States also reiterated their commitment to address disaster risk reduction and the building of resilience2 to disasters with a renewed sense of urgency within the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication, and to integrate, as appropriate, both disaster risk reduction and the building of resilience into policies, plans, programmes and budgets at all levels and to consider both within relevant frameworks. Hyogo Framework for Action: lessons learned, gaps identified and future challenges Since the adoption of the Hyogo Framework for Action in 2005, as documented in national and regional progress reports on its implementation as well as in other global reports, progress has been achieved in reducing disaster risk at local, national, regional and global levels by countries and other relevant stakeholders, leading to a decrease in mortality in the case of some hazards. nr 1/2019                                                                            88 Reducing disaster risk is a cost-effective investment in preventing future losses. Effective disaster risk management contributes to sustainable development. Countries have enhanced their capacities in disaster risk management. International mechanisms for strategic advice, coordination and partnership development for disaster risk reduction, such as the Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction and the regional platforms for disaster risk reduction, as well as other relevant international and regional forums for cooperation, have been instrumental in the development of policies and strategies and the advancement of knowledge and mutual learning. Overall, the Hyogo Framework for Action has been an important instrument for raising public and institutional awareness, generating political commitment and focusing and catalysing actions by a wide range of stakeholders at all levels. 4.    Over the same 10 year time frame, however, disasters have continued to exact a heavy toll and, as a result, the well-being and safety of persons, communities and countries as a whole have been affected. Over 700 thousand people have lost their lives, over 1.4 million have been injured and approximately 23 million have been made homeless as a result of disasters. Overall, more than 1.5 billion people have been affected by disasters in various ways, with women, children and people in vulnerable situations disproportionately affected. The total economic loss was more than $1.3 trillion. In addition, between 2008 and 2012, 144 million people were displaced by disasters. Disasters, many of which are exacerbated by climate change and which are increasing in frequency and intensity, significantly impede progress towards sustainable development. Evidence indicates that exposure of persons and assets in all countries has increased faster than vulnerability has decreased, thus generating new risks and a steady rise in disasterrelated losses, with a significant economic, social, health, cultural and environmental impact in the short, medium and long term, especially at the local and community levels. Recurring smallscale disasters and slow-onset disasters particularly affect communities, households and small and medium-sized enterprises, constituting a high percentage of all losses. All countries – especially developing countries, where the mortality and economic losses from disasters are disproportionately higher – are faced with increasing levels of possible hidden costs and challenges in order to meet financial and other obligations. 5.    It is urgent and critical to anticipate, plan for and reduce disaster risk in order to more effectively protect persons, communities and countries, their livelihoods, health, cultural heritage, socioeconomic assets and ecosystems, and thus strengthen their resilience. 6.    Enhanced work to reduce exposure and vulnerability, thus preventing the creation of new disaster risks, and accountability for disaster risk creation are needed at all levels. More dedicated action needs to be focused on tackling underlying disaster risk drivers, such as the consequences of poverty and inequality, climate change and variability, unplanned and rapid urbanization, poor land management and compounding factors such as demographic change, weak institutional arrangements, non-risk-informed policies, lack of regulation and incentives for private disaster risk reduction investment, complex supply chains, limited availability of technology, unsustainable uses of natural resources, declining ecosystems, pandemics and epidemics. Moreover, it is necessary to continue strengthening good governance in disaster risk reduction strategies at the national, regional and global levels and improving preparedness and national coordination for disaster response, rehabilitation and reconstruction, and to use postdisaster recovery and reconstruction to “Build Back Better”, supported by strengthened modalities of international cooperation. 7.    There has to be a broader and a more people-centred preventive approach to disaster risk. Disaster risk reduction practices need to be multi-hazard and multi-sectoral, inclusive and accessible in order to be efficient and effective. While recognizing their leading, regulatory and coordination role, Governments should engage with relevant stakeholders, including women, children and youth, persons with disabilities, poor people, migrants, indigenous peoples, volunteers, the community of practitioners and older persons in the design and implementation of policies, plans and standards. There is a need for the public and private sectors and civil society organizations, as well as academia and scientific and research institutions, to work more closely together and to create opportunities for collaboration, and for businesses to integrate disaster risk into their management practices. 8.    International, regional, sub-regional and trans-boundary cooperation remains pivotal in supporting the efforts of States, their national and local authorities, as well as communities and businesses, to reduce disaster risk. Existing mechanisms may require strengthening in order to provide effective support and achieve better implementation. Developing countries, in particular the least developed countries, small island developing States, landlocked developing countries and African countries, as well as middleincome countries facing specific challenges, need special attention and support to augment domestic resources and capabilities through bilateral and multilateral channels in order to ensure adequate, sustainable, and timely means of implementation in capacity-building, financial and technical assistance and technology transfer, in accordance with international commitments. 9.    Overall, the Hyogo Framework for Action has provided critical guidance in efforts to reduce disaster risk and has contributed to the progress towards the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. Its implementation has, however, highlighted a number of gaps in addressing the underlying disaster risk factors, in the formulation of goals and priorities for action, in the need to foster disaster resilience at all levels and in ensuring adequate means of implementation. The gaps indicate a need to develop an actio n-oriented framework that Governments and relevant stakeholders can implement in a supportive and complementary manner, and which helps to identify disaster risks to be managed and guides investment to improve resilience. 10.    Ten years after the adoption of the Hyogo Framework for Action, disasters continue to undermine efforts to achieve sustainable development. 11.    The intergovernmental negotiations on the post 2015 development agenda, financing for development, climate change and disaster risk reduction provide the international community with a unique opportunity to enhance coherence across policies, institutions, goals, indicators and measurement systems for implementation, while respecting the respective mandates. Ensuring credible links, as appropriate, between these processes will contribute to building resilience and achieving the global goal of eradicating poverty. 12.    It is recalled that the outcome document of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, held in 2012, entitled “The future we want”, called for disaster risk reduction and the building of resilience to disasters to be addressed with a renewed sense of urgency in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication and, as appropriate, to be integrated at all levels. The Conference also reaffirmed all the principles of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. 13.    Addressing climate change as one of the drivers of disaster risk, while respecting the mandate of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, represents an opportunity to reduce disaster risk in a meaningful and coherent manner throughout the interrelated intergovernmental processes. 14.    Against this background, and in order to reduce disaster risk, there is a need to address existing challenges and prepare for future ones by focusing on monitoring, assessing and understanding disaster risk and sharing such information and on how it is created; strengthening disaster risk governance and coordination across relevant institutions and sectors and the full and meaningful participation of relevant stakeholders at appropriate levels; investing in the economic, social, health, cultural and educational resilience of persons, communities and countries and the environment, as well as through technology and research; and enhancing multi-hazard early warning systems, preparedness, response, recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction. To complement national action and capacity, there is a need to enhance international cooperation between developed and developing countries and between States and international organizations. 15.    The present Framework will apply to the risk of small-scale and large-scale, frequent and infrequent, sudden and slow-onset disasters caused by natural or man-made hazards, as well as related environmental, technological and biological hazards and risks. It aims to guide the multihazard management of disaster risk in development at all levels as well as within and across all sectors. II. Expected outcome and goal 16.    While some progress in building resilience and reducing losses and damages has been achieved, a substantial reduction of disaster risk requires perseverance and persistence, with a more explicit focus on people and their health and livelihoods, and regular follow-up. Building on the Hyogo Framework for Action, the present Framework aims to achieve the following outcome over the next 15 years: The substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities and countries. The realization of this outcome requires the strong commitment and involvement of political leadership in every country at all levels in the implementation and follow-up of the present Framework and in the creation of the necessary conducive and enabling environment. 17.    To attain the expected outcome, the following goal must be pursued: Prevent new and reduce existing disaster risk through the implementation of integrated and inclusive economic, structural, legal, social, health, cultural, educational, environmental, technological, political and institutional measures that prevent and reduce hazard exposure and vulnerability to disaster, increase preparedness for response and recovery, and thus strengthen resilience. The pursuance of this goal requires the enhancement of the implementation capacity and capability of developing countries, in particular the least developed countries, small island developing States, landlocked developing countries and African countries, as well as middleincome countries facing specific challenges, including the mobilization of support through international cooperation for the provision of means of implementation in accordance with their national priorities. 18.    To support the assessment of global progress in achieving the outcome and goal of the present Framework, seven global targets have been agreed. These targets will be measured at the global level and will be complemented by work to develop appropriate indicators. National targets and indicators will contribute to the achievement of the outcome and goal of the present Framework. The seven global targets are: (a)    Substantially reduce global disaster mortality by 2030, aiming to lower the average per 100,000 global mortality rate in the decade 2020–2030 compared to the period 2005– 2015; (b)    Substantially reduce the number of affected people globally by 2030, aiming to lower the average global figure per 100,000 in the decade 2020–2030 compared to the period 2005–2015; (c)    Reduce direct disaster economic loss in relation to global gross domestic product (GDP) by 2030; (d)    Substantially reduce disaster damage to critical infrastructure and disruption of basic services, among them health and educational facilities, including through developing their resilience by 2030; (e)    Substantially increase the number of countries with national and local disaster risk reduction strategies by 2020; (f)    Substantially enhance international cooperation to developing countries through adequate and sustainable support to complement their national actions for implementation of the present Framework by 2030; (g)    Substantially increase the availability of and access to multi-hazard early warning systems and disaster risk information and assessments to people by 2030. 19.    Guiding principles: Drawing from the principles contained in the Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World: Guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and Mitigation and its Plan of Action and the Hyogo Framework for Action, the implementation of the present Framework will be guided by the following principles, while taking into account national circumstances, and consistent with domestic laws as well as international obligations and commitments: (a)    Each State has the primary responsibility to prevent and reduce disaster risk, including through international, regional, subregional, transboundary and bilateral cooperation. The reduction of disaster risk is a common concern for all States and the extent to which developing countries are able to effectively enhance and implement national disaster risk reduction policies and measures in the context of their respective circumstances and capabilities can be further enhanced through the provision of sustainable international cooperation; (b)    Disaster risk reduction requires that responsibilities be shared by central Governments and relevant national authorities, sectors and stakeholders, as appropriate to their national circumstances and systems of governance; (c)    Managing the risk of disasters is aimed at protecting persons and their property, health, livelihoods and1productive assets, as well as cultural and environmental assets, while3 promoting and protecting all human rights, including the right to development; (d)    Disaster risk reduction requires an all-of-society engagement and partnership. It also requires empowerment and inclusive, accessible and non discriminatory participation, paying special attention to people disproportionately affected by disasters, especially the poorest. A gender, age, disability and cultural perspective should be integrated in all policies and practices, and women and youth leadership should be promoted. In this context, special attention should be paid to the improvement of organized voluntary work of citizens; (e)    Disaster risk reduction and management depends on coordination mechanisms within and across sectors and with relevant stakeholders at all levels, and it requires the full engagement of all State institutions of an executive and legislative nature at national and local levels and a clear articulation of responsibilities across public and private stakeholders, including business and academia, to ensure mutual outreach, partnership, complementarity in roles and accountability and follow-up; (f)    While the enabling, guiding and coordinating role of national and federal State Governments remain essential, it is necessary to empower local authorities and local communities to reduce disaster risk, including through resources, incentives and decision-making responsibilities, as appropriate; (g)    Disaster risk reduction requires a multi-hazard approach and inclusive risk-informed decision-making based on the open exchange and dissemination of disaggregated data, including by sex, age and disability, as well as on easily accessible, up-to-date, comprehensible, science-based, non-sensitive risk information, complemented by traditional knowledge; (h)    The development, strengthening and implementation of relevant policies, plans, practices and mechanisms need to aim at coherence, as appropriate, across sustainable development and growth, food security, health and safety, climate change and variability, environmental management and disaster risk reduction agendas. Disaster risk reduction is essential to achieve sustainable development; (i)    While the drivers of disaster risk may be local, national, regional or global in scope, disaster risks have local and specific characteristics that must be understood for the determination of measures to reduce disaster risk; (j)    Addressing underlying disaster risk factors through disaster risk-informed public and private inve stments is more cost-effective than primary reliance on post-disaster response and recovery, and contributes to sustainable development; (k)    In the post-disaster recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction phase, it is critical to prevent the creation of and to reduce disaster risk by “Building Back Better” and increasing public education and awareness of disaster risk; (l)    An effective and meaningful global partnership and the further strengthening of international cooperation, including the fulfilment of respective commitments of official development assistance by developed countries, are essential for effective disaster risk management; (m)    Developing countries, in particular the least developed countries, small island developing States, landlocked developing countries and African countries, as well as middle-income and other countries facing specific disaster risk challenges, need adequate, sustainable and timely provision of support, including through finance, technology transfer and capacity building from developed countries and partners tailored to their needs and priorities, as identified by them. IV. Priorities for action 20. Taking into account the experience gained through the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action, and in pursuance of the expected outcome and goal, there is a need for focused action within and across sectors by States at local, national, regional and global levels in the following four priority areas: Priority 1: Understanding disaster risk. Priority 2: Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk. Priority 3: Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience. Priority 4: Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to “Build Back Better” in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction. 21.    In their approach to disaster risk reduction, States, regional and international organizations and other relevant stakeholders should take into consideration the key activities listed under each of these four priorities and should implement them, as appropriate, taking into consideration respective capacities and capabilities, in line with national laws and regulations. 22.    In the context of increasing global interdependence, concerted international cooperation, an enabling international environment and means of implementation are needed to stimulate and contribute to developing the knowledge, capacities and motivation for disaster risk reduction at all levels, in particular for developing countries. Priority 1: Understanding disaster risk 23.    Policies and practices for disaster risk management should be based on an understanding of disaster risk in all its dimensions of vulnerability, capacity, exposure of persons and assets, hazard characteristics and the environment. Such knowledge can be leveraged for the purpose of pre-disaster risk assessment, for prevention and mitigation and for the development and implementation of appropriate preparedness and effective response to disasters. National and local levels 24.    To achieve this, it is important: (a)    To promote the collection, analysis, management and use of relevant data and practical information and ensure its dissemination, taking into account the needs of different categories of users, as appropriate; (b)    To encourage the use of and strengthening of baselines and periodically assess disaster risks, vulnerability, capacity, exposure, hazard characteristics and their possible sequential effects at the relevant social and spatial scale on ecosystems, in line with national circumstances; (c)    To develop, periodically update and disseminate, as appropriate, location-based disaster risk information, including risk maps, to decision makers, the general public and communities at risk of exposure to disaster in an appropriate format by using, as applicable, geospatial information technology; (d)    To systematically evaluate, record, share and publicly account for disaster losses and understand the economic, social, health, education, environmental and cultural heritage impacts, as appropriate, in the context of event-specific hazard-exposure and vulnerability information; (e)    To make non-sensitive hazard-exposure, vulnerability, risk, disaster and loss-disaggregated information freely available and accessible, as appropriate; (f)    To promote real time access to reliable data, make use of space and in situ information, including geographic information systems (GIS), and use information and communications technology innovations to enhance measurement tools and the collection, analysis and dissemination of data; (g)    To build the knowledge of government officials at all levels, civil society, communities and volunteers, as well as the private sector, through sharing experiences, lessons learned, good practices and training and education on disaster risk reduction, including the use of existing training and education mechanisms and peer learning; nr 1/2019 96 (h)    To promote and improve dialogue and cooperation among scientific and technological communities, other relevant stakeholders and policymakers in order to facilitate a sciencepolicy interface for effective decision-making in disaster risk management; (i)    To ensure the use of traditional, indigenous and local knowledge and practices, as appropriate, to complement scientific knowledge in disaster risk assessment and the development and implementation of policies, strategies, plans and programmes of specific sectors, with a cross-sectoral approach, which should be tailored to localities and to the context; (j)    To strengthen technical and scientific capacity to capitalize on and consolidate existing knowledge and to develop and apply methodologies and models to assess disaster risks, vulnerabilities and exposure to all hazards; (k)    To promote investments in innovation and technology development in long-term, multihazard and solution-driven research in disaster risk management to address gaps, obstacles, interdependencies and social, economic, educational and environmental challenges and disaster risks; (l)    To promote the incorporation of disaster risk knowledge, including disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery and rehabilitation, in formal and non-formal education, as well as in civic education at all levels, as well as in professional education and training; (m)    To promote national strategies to strengthen public education and awareness in disaster risk reduction, including disaster risk information and knowledge, through campaigns, social media and community mobilization, taking into account specific audiences and their needs; (n)    To apply risk information in all its dimensions of vulnerability, capacity and exposure of persons, communities, countries and assets, as well as hazard characteristics, to develop and implement disaster risk reduction policies; (o)    To enhance collaboration among people at the local level to disseminate disaster risk information through the involvement of community-based organizations and nongovernmental organizations. Global and regional levels. To achieve this, it is important: (a)    To enhance the development and dissemination of science-based methodologies and tools to record and share disaster losses and relevant disaggregated data and statistics, as well as to strengthen disaster risk modelling, assessment, mapping, monitoring and multihazard early warning systems; (b)    To promote the conduct of comprehensive surveys on multi-hazard disaster risks and the development of regional disaster risk assessments and maps, including climate change scenarios; (c)    To promote and enhance, through international cooperation, including technology transfer, access to and the sharing and use of non-sensitive data and information, as appropriate, communications and geospatial and space-based technologies and related services; maintain and strengthen in situ and remotely-sensed earth and climate observations; and strengthen the utilization of media, including social media, traditional media, big data and mobile phone networks, to support national measures for successful disaster risk communication, as appropriate and in accordance with national laws; (d)    To promote common efforts in partnership with the scientific and technological community, academia and the private sector to establish, disseminate and share good practices internationally; (e)    To support the development of local, national, regional and global user-friendly systems and services for the exchange of information on good practices, cost-effective and easy-to-use disaster risk reduction technologies and lessons learned on policies, plans and measures for disaster risk reduction; (f)    To develop effective global and regional campaigns as instruments for public awareness and education, building on the existing ones (for example, the “One million safe schools and hospitals” initiative; the “Making Cities Resilient: My city is getting ready” campaign; the United Nations Sasakawa Award for Disaster Risk Reduction; and the annual United Nations International Day for Disaster Reduction), to promote a culture of disaster prevention, resilience and responsible citizenship, generate understanding of disaster risk, support mutual learning and share experiences; and encourage public and private stakeholders to actively engage in such initiatives and to develop new ones at the local, national, regional and global levels; (g)    To enhance the scientific and technical work on disaster risk reduction and its mobilization through the coordination of existing networks and scientific research institutions at all levels and in all regions, with the support of the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction Scientific and Technical Advisory Group, in order to strengthen the evidencebase in support of the implementation of the present Framework; promote scientific research on disaster risk patterns, causes and effects; disseminate risk information with the best use of geospatial information technology; provide guidance on methodologies and standards for risk assessments, disaster risk modelling and the use of data; identify research and technology gaps and set recommendations for research priority areas in disaster risk reduction; promote and support the availability and application of science and technology to decision-making; contribute to the update of the publication entitled “2009 UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction”; use postdisaster reviews as opportunities to enhance learning and public policy; and disseminate studies; (h)    To encourage the availability of copyrighted and patented materials, including through negotiated concessions, as appropriate; (i)    To enhance access to and support for innovation and technology, as well as in long-term, multi-hazard and solution-driven research and development in the field of disaster risk management. Priority 2: Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk . Disaster risk governance at the national, regional and global levels is of great importance for an effective and efficient management of disaster risk. Clear vision, plans, competence, guidance and coordination within and across sectors, as well as participation of relevant stakeholders, are needed. Strengthening disaster risk governance for prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery and rehabilitation is therefore necessary and fosters collaboration and partnership across mechanisms and institutions for the implementation of instruments relevant to disaster risk reduction and sustainable development. National and local levels . To achieve this, it is important: (a) To mainstream and integrate disaster risk reduction within and across all sectors and review and promote the coherence and further development, as appropriate, of national and local frameworks of laws, regulations and public policies, which, by defining roles and responsibilities, guide the public and private sectors in: (i) addressing disaster risk in publically owned, managed or regulated services and infrastructures; (ii) promoting and providing incentives, as relevant, for actions by persons, households, communities and businesses; (iii) enhancing relevant mechanisms and initiatives for disaster risk transparency, which may include financial incentives, public awarenessraising and training initiatives, reporting requirements and legal and administrative measures; and (iv) putting in place coordination and organizational structures; (b) To adopt and implement national and local disaster risk reduction strategies and plans, across different timescales, with targets, indicators and time frames, aimed at preventing the creation of risk, the reduction of existing risk and the strengthening of economic, social, health and environmental resilience; (c) To carry out an assessment of the technical, financial and administrative disaster risk management capacity to deal with the identified risks at the local and national levels; (d) To encourage the establishment of necessary mechanisms and incentives to ensure high levels of compliance with the existing safety-enhancing provisions of sectoral laws and regulations, including those addressing land use and urban planning, building codes, environmental and resource management and health and safety standards, and update them, where needed, to ensure an ade quate focus on disaster risk management; (e) To develop and 99strengthen, as appropriate, mechanisms to follow up, periodically assess and publicly report on progress on national and local plans; and promote public scrutiny and encourage institutional debates, including by parliamentarians and other relevant officials, on progress reports of local and national plans for disaster risk reduction; (f) To assign, as appropriate, clear roles and tasks to community representatives within disaster risk management institutions and processes and decision-making through relevant legal frameworks, and undertake comprehensive public and community consultations during the development of such laws and regulations to support their implementation; (g) To establish and strengthen government coordination forums composed of relevant stakeholders at the national and local levels, such as national and local platforms for disaster risk reduction, and a designated national focal point for implementing the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030. It is necessary for such mechanisms to have a strong foundation in national institutional frameworks with clearly assigned responsibilities and authority to, inter alia, identify sectoral and multisectoral disaster risk, build awareness and knowledge of disaster risk through sharing and dissemination of non-sensitive disaster risk information and data, contribute to and coordinate reports on local and national disaster risk, coordinate public awareness campaigns on disaster risk, facilitate and support local multisectoral cooperation (e.g. among local governments) and contribute to the determination of and reporting on national and local disaster risk management plans and all policies relevant for disaster risk management. These responsibilities should be established through laws, regulations, standards and procedures; (h) To empower local authorities, as appropriate, through regulatory and financial means to work and coordinate with civil society, communities and indigenous peoples and migrants in disaster risk management at the local level; (i) To encourage parliamentarians to support the implementation of disaster risk reduction by developing new or amending relevant legislation and setting budget allocations; (j) To promote the development of quality standards, such as certifications and awards for disaster risk management, with the participation of the private sector, civil society, professional associations, scientific organizations and the United Nations; (k) To formulate public policies, where applicable, aimed at addressing the issues of prevention or relocation, where possible, of human settlements in disaster risk-prone zones, subject to national law and legal systems. Global and regional levels. To achieve this, it is important: (a) To guide action at the regional level through agreed regional and subregional strategies and mechanisms for cooperation for disaster risk reduction, as appropriate, in the light of the present Framework, in order to foster more efficient planning, create common information systems and exchange good practices and programmes for cooperation and capacity development, in particular to address common and transboundary disaster risks; (b) To foster collaboration across global and regional mechanisms and institutions for the implementation and coherence of instruments and tools relevant to nr 1/2019                                                                            10 disaster risk reduction, such as for climate change, biodiversity, sustainable development, poverty eradication, environment, agriculture, health, food and nutrition and others, as appropriate; (c) To actively engage in the Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction, the regional and subregional platforms for disaster risk reduction and the thematic platforms in order to forge partnerships, periodically assess progress on implementation and share practice and knowledge on disaster risk-informed policies, programmes and investments, including on development and climate issues, as appropriate, as well as to promote the integration of disaster risk management in other relevant sectors. Regional intergovernmental organizations should play an important role in the regional platforms for disaster risk reduction; (d) To promote transboundary cooperation to enable policy and planning for the implementation of ecosystem-based approaches with regard to shared resources, such as within river basins and along coastlines, to build resilience and reduce disaster risk, including epidemic and displacement risk; (e) To promote mutual learning and exchange of good practices and information through, inter alia, voluntary and self-initiated peer reviews among interested States; (f) To promote the strengthening of, as appropriate, international voluntary mechanisms for monitoring and assessment of disaster risks, including relevant data and information, benefiting from the experience of the Hyogo Framework for Action Monitor. Such mechanisms may promote the exchange of non-sensitive information on disaster risks to the relevant national Government bodies and stakeholders in the interest of sustainable social and economic development. Priority 3: Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience . Public and private investment in disaster risk prevention and reduction through structural and non-structural measures are essential to enhance the economic, social, health and cultural resilience of persons, communities, countries and their assets, as well as the environment. These can be drivers of innovation, growth and job creation. Such measures are cost-effective and instrumental to save lives, prevent and reduce losses and ensure effective recovery and rehabilitation. National and local levels. To achieve this, it is important: (a) To allocate the necessary resources, including finance and logistics, as appropriate, at all levels of administration for the development and the implementation of disaster risk reduction strategies, policies, plans, laws and regulations in all relevant sectors; (b) To promote mechanisms for disaster risk transfer and insurance, risk-sharing and retention and financial protection, as appropriate, for both public and private investment in order to reduce the financial impact of disasters on Governments and societies, in urban and rural areas; (c) To strengthen, as appropriate, disaster-resilient public and private investments, particularly through structural, non-structural and functional disaster risk prevention and reduction measures in critical facilities, in particular schools and hospitals and physical infrastructures; building better from the start to withstand hazards thro ugh1 proper design and construction, including the use of the principles of universal design and the standardization of building materials; retrofitting and rebuilding; nurturing a culture of maintenance; and taking into account economic, social, structural, technological and environmental impact assessments; (d) To protect or support the protection of cultural and collecting institutions and other sites of historical, cultural heritage and religious interest; (e) To promote the disaster risk resilience of workplaces through structural and non-structural measures; (f) To promote the mainstreaming of disaster risk assessments into land-use policy development and implementation, including urban planning, land degradation assessments and informal and non-permanent housing, and the use of guidelines and follow-up tools informed by anticipated demographic and environmental changes; (g) To promote the mainstreaming of disaster risk assessment, mapping and management into rural development planning and management of, inter alia, mountains, rivers, coastal flood plain areas, drylands, wetlands and all other areas prone to droughts and flooding, including through the identification of areas that are safe for human settlement, and at the same time preserving ecosystem functions that help to reduce risks; (h) To encourage the revision of existing or the development of new building codes and standards and rehabilitation and reconstruction practices at the national or local levels, as appropriate, with the aim of making them more applicable within the local context, particularly in informal and marginal human settlements, and reinforce the capacity to implement, survey and enforce such codes through an appropriate approach, with a view to fostering disaster-resistant structures; (i) To enhance the resilience of national health systems, including by integrating disaster risk management into primary, secondary and tertiary health care, especially at the local level; developing the capacity of health workers in understanding disaster risk and applying and implementing disaster risk reduction approaches in health work; promoting and enhancing the training capacities in the field of disaster medicine; and supporting and training community health groups in disaster risk reduction approaches in health programmes, in collaboration with other sectors, as well as in the implementation of the International Health Regulations (2005) of the World Health Organization; (j) To strengthen the design and implementation of inclusive policies and social safety-net mechanisms, including through community involvement, integrated with livelihood enhancement programmes, and access to basic health-care services, including maternal, newborn and child health, sexual and reproductive health, food security and nutrition, housing and education, towards the eradication of poverty, to find durable solutions in the post-disaster phase and to empower and assist people disproportionately affected by disasters; (k) People with life-threatening and chronic disease, due to their particular needs, should be included in the design of policies and plans to manage their risks before, during and after disasters, including having access to life-saving services; (l) To encourage the adoption of policies and programmes addressing disaster-induced human mobility to strengthen the resilience of affected people and that of host nr 1/2019                                                                            10 communities, in accordance with national laws and circumstances; (m) To promote, as appropriate, the integration of disaster risk reduction considerations and measures in financial and fiscal instruments; (n) To strengthen the sustainable use and management of ecosystems and implement integrated environmental and natural resource management approaches that incorporate disaster risk reduction; (o) To increase business resilience and protection of livelihoods and productive assets throughout the supply chains, ensure continuity of services and integrate disaster risk management into business models and practices; (p) To strengthen the protection of livelihoods and productive assets, including livestock, working animals, tools and seeds; (q) To promote and integrate disaster risk management approaches throughout the tourism industry, given the often heavy reliance on tourism as a key economic driver. Global and regional levels 31. To achieve this, it is important: (a) To promote coherence across systems, sectors and organizations related to sustainable development and to disaster risk reduction in their policies, plans, programmes and processes; (b) To promote the development and strengthening of disaster risk transfer and sharing mechanisms and instruments in close cooperation with partners in the international community, business, international financial institutions and other relevant stakeholders; (c) To promote cooperation between academic, scientific and research entities and networks and the private sector to develop new products and services to help to reduce disaster risk, in particular those that would assist developing countries and their specific challenges; (d) To encourage the coordination between global and regional financial institutions with a view to assessing and anticipating the potential economic and social impacts of disasters; (e) To enhance cooperation between health authorities and other relevant stakeholders to strengthen country capacity for disaster risk management for health, the implementation of the International Health Regulations (2005) and the building of resilient health systems; (f) To strengthen and promote collaboration and capacity-building for the protection of productive assets, including livestock, working animals, tools and seeds; (g) To promote and support the development of social safety nets as disaster risk reduction measures linked to and integrated with livelihood enhancement programmes in order to ensure resilience to shocks at the household and community levels; (h) To strengthen and broaden international efforts aimed at eradicating hunger and poverty through disaster risk reduction; (i) To promote and support collaboration among relevant public and private stakeholders to enhance the resilience of business to disasters. Priority 4: Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to “Build Back Better” in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction. The steady growth of disaster risk, including the increase of people and assets exposure, combined with the lessons learned from past disasters, indicates the need to further strengthen disaster preparedness for response, take action in anticipation of events, integrate disaster risk reduction in response preparedness and ensure that capacities are in place for effective response and recovery at all levels. Empowering women and persons with disabilities to publicly lead and promote nr 1/2019                                                                            10 gender equitable and universally accessible response, recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction approaches is key. Disasters have demonstrated that the recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction phase, which needs to be prepared ahead of a disaster, is a critical opportunity to “Build Back Better”, including through integrating disaster risk reduction into development measures, making nations and communities resilient to disasters. National and local levels. To achieve this, it is important: (a) To prepare or review and periodically update disaster preparedness and contingency policies, plans and programmes with the involvement of the relevant institutions, considering climate change scenarios and their impact on disaster risk, and facilitating, as appropriate, the participation of all sectors and relevant stakeholders; (b) To invest in, develop, maintain and strengthen people-centred multi-hazard, multisectoral forecasting and early warning systems, disaster risk and emergency communications mechanisms, social technologies and hazard-monitoring telecommunications systems; develop such systems through a participatory process; tailor them to the needs of users, including social and cultural requirements, in particular gender; promote the application of simple and low-cost early warning equipment and facilities; and broaden release channels for natural disaster early warning information; (c) To promote the resilience of new and existing critical infrastructure, including water, transportation and telecommunications infrastructure, educational facilities, hospitals and other health facilities, to ensure that they remain safe, effective and operational during and after disasters in order to provide live-saving and essential services; (d) To establish community centres for the promotion of public awareness and the stockpiling of necessary materials to implement rescue and relief activities; (e) To adopt public policies and actions that support the role of public service workers to establish or strengthen coordination and funding mechanisms and procedures for relief assistance and plan and prepare for post-disaster recovery and reconstruction; (f) To train the existing workforce and voluntary workers in disaster response and strengthen technical and logistical capacities to ensure better response in emergencies; (g) To ensure the continuity of operations and planning, including social and economic recovery, and the provision of basic services in the post-disaster phase; (h) To promote regular disaster preparedness, response and recovery exercises, including evacuation drills, training and the establishment of area-based support systems, with a view to ensuring rapid and effective response to disasters and related displacement, including access to safe shelter, essential food and non-food relief supplies, as appropriate to local needs; (i) To promote the cooperation of diverse institutions, multiple authorities and related stakeholders at all levels, including affected communities and business, in view of the complex and costly nature of post-disaster reconstruction, under the coordination of national authorities; (j) To promote the incorporation of disaster risk management into post-disaster recovery and rehabilitation processes, facilitate the link between relief, rehabilitation and development, use opportunities during the recovery phase to develop capacities that redu ce0disaster risk in the short, medium and long term, including through the development of measures such as land-use planning, structural standards improvement and the sharing of expertise, knowledge, post-disaster reviews and lessons learned and integrate post-disaster reconstruction into the economic and social sustainable development of affected areas. This should also apply to temporary settlements for persons displaced by disasters; (k) To develop guidance for preparedness for disaster reconstruction, such as on land-use planning and structural standards improvement, including by learning from the recovery and reconstruction programmes over the decade since the adoption of the Hyogo Framework for Action, and exchanging experiences, knowledge and lessons learned; (l) To consider the relocation of public facilities and infrastructures to areas outside the risk range, wherever possible, in the post-disaster reconstruction process, in consultation with the people concerned, as appropriate; (m) To strengthen the capacity of local authorities to evacuate persons living in disaster-prone areas; (n) To establish a mechanism of case registry and a database of mortality caused by disaster in order to improve the prevention of morbidity and mortality; (o) To enhance recovery schemes to provide psychosocial support and mental health services for all people in need; (p) To review and strengthen, as appropriate, national laws and procedures on international cooperation, based on the Guidelines for the Domestic Facilitation and Regulation of International Disaster Relief and Initial Recovery Assistance. Global and regional levels. To achieve this, it is important: (a) To develop and strengthen, as appropriate, coordinated regional approaches and operational mechanisms to prepare for and ensure rapid and effective disaster response in situations that exceed national coping capacities; (b) To promote the further development and dissemination of instruments, such as standards, codes, operational guides and other guidance instruments, to support coordinated action in disaster preparedness and response and facilitate information sharing on lessons learned and best practices for policy practice and post-disaster reconstruction programmes; (c) To promote the further development of and investment in effective, nationally compatible, regional multi-hazard early warning mechanisms, where relevant, in line with the Global Framework for Climate Services, and facilitate the sharing and exchange of information across all countries; (d) To enhance international mechanisms, such as the International Recovery Platform, for the sharing of experience and learning among countries and all relevant stakeholders; (e) To support, as appropriate, the efforts of relevant United Nations entities to strengthen and implement global mechanisms on hydrometeorological issues in order to raise awareness and improve understanding of water-related disaster risks and their impact on society, and advance strategies for disaster risk reduction upon the request of States; (f) To support regional cooperation to deal with disaster preparedness, including through common exercises and drills; (g) To promote regional protocols to facilitate the sharing of response capacities and resources during and after disasters; (h) To train the existing workforce and volunteers in disaster response. nr 1/2019 10 V. Role of stakeholders. While States have the overall responsibility for reducing disaster risk, it is a shared responsibility between Governments and relevant stakeholders. In particular, non-State stakeholders play an important role as enablers in providing support to States, in accordance with national policies, laws and regulations, in the implementation of the present Framework at local, national, regional and global levels. Their commitment, goodwill, knowledge, experience and resources will be required. 36. When determining specific roles and responsibilities for stakeholders, and at the same time building on existing relevant international instruments, States should encourage the following actions on the part of all public and private stakeholders: (a) Civil society, volunteers, organized voluntary work organizations and community-based organizations to participate, in collaboration with public institutions, to, inter alia, provide specific knowledge and pragmatic guidance in the context of the development and implementation of normative frameworks, standards and plans for disaster risk reduction; engage in the implementation of local, national, regional and global plans and strategies; contribute to and support public awareness, a culture of prevention and education on disaster risk; and advocate for resilient communities and an inclusive and all-of-society disaster risk management that strengthen synergies across groups, as appropriate. On this point, it should be noted that: (i) Women and their participation are critical to effectively managing disaster risk and designing, resourcing and implementing gender-sensitive disaster risk reduction policies, plans and programmes; and adequate capacity building measures need to be taken to empower women for preparedness as well as to build their capacity to secure alternate means of livelihood in post-disaster situations; (ii) Children and youth are agents of change and should be given the space and modalities to contribute to disaster risk reduction, in accordance with legislation, national practice and educational curricula; (iii) Persons with disabilities and their organizations are critical in the assessment of disaster risk and in designing and implementing plans tailored to specific requirements, taking into consideration, inter alia, the principles of universal design; (iv) Older persons have years of knowledge, skills and wisdom, which are invaluable assets to reduce disaster risk, and they should be included in the design of policies, plans and mechanisms, including for early warning; (v) Indigenous peoples, through their experience and traditional knowledge, provide an important contribution to the development and implementation of plans and mechanisms, including for early warning; (vi) Migrants contribute to the resilience of communities and societies, and their knowledge, skills and capacities can be useful in the design and implementation of disaster risk reduction; (b) Academia, scientific and research entities and networks to focus on the disaster risk factors and scenarios, including emerging disaster risks, in the medium and long term; increase research for regional, national and local application; support action by local communities and authorities; and support the interface between policy and science for decision-making; (c) Business, professional associations and private sector financial institutions, including financial regulators and accounting bodies, as well as phila nthropic foundations, to integrate disaster risk management, including business continuity, into business models and practices through disaster-risk-informed investments, especially in micro, small and medium-sized enterprises; engage in awareness-raising and training for their employees and customers; engage in and support research and innovation, as well as technological development for disaster risk management; share and disseminate knowledge, practices and non sensitive data; and actively participate, as appropriate and under the guidance of the public sector, in the development of normative frameworks and technical standards that incorporate disaster risk management; (d) Media to take an active and inclusive role at the local, national, regional and global levels in contributing to the raising of public awareness and understanding and disseminate accurate and nonsensitive disaster risk, hazard and disaster information, including on small-scale disasters, in a simple, transparent, easy-to-understand and accessible manner, in close cooperation with national authorities; adopt specific disaster risk reduction communications policies; support, as appropriate, early warning systems and life-saving protective measures; and stimulate a culture of prevention and strong community involvement in sustained public education campaigns and public consultations at all levels of society, in accordance with national practices. 37.    With reference to General Assembly resolution 68/211 of 20 December 2013, commitments by relevant stakeholders are important in order to identify modalities of cooperation and to implement the present Framework. Those commitments should be specific and time-bound in order to support the development of partnerships at local, national, regional and global levels and the implementation of local and national disaster risk reduction strategies and plans. All stakeholders are encouraged to publicize their commitments and their fulfilment in support of the implementation of the present Framework, or of the national and local disaster risk management plans, through the website of the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. VI. International cooperation and global partnership General considerations 38.    Given their different capacities, as well as the linkage between the level of support provided to them and the extent to which they will be able to implement the present Framework, developing countries require an enhanced provision of means of implementation, including adequate, sustainable and timely resources, through international cooperation and global partnerships for development, and continued international support, so as to strengthen their efforts to reduce disaster risk. 39.    International cooperation for disaster risk reduction includes a variety of sources and is a critical element in supporting the efforts of developing countries to reduce disaster risk. 40.    In addressing economic disparity and disparity in technological innovation and research capacity nr 1/2019 10 among countries, it is crucial to enhance technology transfer, involving a process of enabling and facilitating flows of skill, knowledge, ideas, know-how and technology from developed to developing countries in the implementation of the present Framework. 41.    Disaster-prone developing countries, in particular the least developed countries, small island developing States, landlocked developing countries and African countries, as well as middle-income countries facing specific challenges, warrant particular attention in view of their higher vulnerability and risk levels, which often greatly exceed their capacity to respond to and recover from disasters. Such vulnerability requires the urgent strengthening of international cooperation and ensuring genuine and durable partnerships at the regional and international levels in order to support developing countries to implement the present Framework, in accordance with their national priorities and needs. Similar attention and appropriate assistance should also be extended to other disaster-prone countries with specific characteristics, such as archipelagic countries, as well as countries with extensive coastlines. 42.    Disasters can disproportionately affect small island developing States, owing to their unique and particular vulnerabilities. The effects of disasters, some of which have increased in intensity and have been exacerbated by climate change, impede their progress towards sustainable development. Given the special case of small island developing States, there is a critical need to build resilience and to provide particular support through the implementation of the SIDS Accelerated Modalities of Action (SAMOA) Pathway11 in the area of disaster risk reduction. 43.    African countries continue to face challenges related to disasters and increasing risks, including those related to enhancing resilience of infrastructure, health and livelihoods. These challenges require increased international cooperation and the provision of adequate support to African countries to allow for the implementation of the present Framework. 44.    North-South cooperation, complemented by South-South and triangular cooperation, has proven to be key to reducing disaster risk and there is a need to further strengthen cooperation in both areas. Partnerships play an additional important role by harnessing the full potential of countries and supporting their national capacities in disaster risk management and in improving the social, health and economic well-being of individuals, communities and countries. 45.    Efforts by developing countries offering South-South and triangular cooperation should not reduce North-South cooperation from developed countries as they complement North-South cooperation. nr 1/2019 10 46.    Financing from a variety of international sources, public and private transfer of reliable, affordable, appropriate and modern environmentally sound technology, on concessional and preferential terms, as mutually agreed, capacity-building assistance for developing countries and enabling institutional and policy environments at all levels are critically important means of reducing disaster risk. Means of implementation 47.    To achieve this, it is necessary: (a) To reaffirm that developing countries need enhanced provision of coordinated, sustained and adequate international support for disaster risk reduction, in particular for the least developed countries, small island developing States, landlocked developing countries and African countries, as well as middle-income countries facing specific challenges, through bilateral and multilateral channels, including through enhanced technical and financial support and technology transfer on concessional and preferential terms, as mutually agreed, for the development and strengthening of their capacities; (b) To enhance access of States, in particular developing countries, to finance, environmentally sound technology, science and inclusive innovation, as well as knowledge and informationsharing through existing mechanisms, namely bilateral, regional and multilateral collaborative arrangements, including the United Nations and other relevant bodies; (c) To promote the use and expansion of thematic platforms of cooperation, such as global technology pools and global systems to share know-how, innovation and research and ensure access to technology and information on disaster risk reduction; (d) To incorporate disaster risk reduction measures into multilateral and bilateral development assistance programmes within and across all sectors, as appropriate, related to poverty reduction, sustainable development, natural resource management, the environment, urban development and adaptation to climate change. Support from international organizations 48.    To support the implementation of the present Framework, the following is necessary: (a) The United Nations and other international and regional organizations, international and regional financial institutions and donor agencies engaged in disaster risk reduction are requested, as appropriate, to enhance the coordination of their strategies in this regard; (b) The entities of the United Nations system, including the funds and programmes and the specialized agencies, through the United Nations Plan of Action on Disaster Risk Reduction for Resilience, United Nations Development Assistance Frameworks and country programmes, to promote the optimum use of resources and to support developing countries, at their request, in the implementation of the present Framework, in coordination with other relevant frameworks, such as the International Health Regulations (2005), including through the development and the strengthening of capacities and clear and focused programmes that support the priorities of States in a balanced, well-coordinated and sustainable manner, within their respective mandates; (c) The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, in particular, to support the implementation, follow-up and review of the present Framework by: preparing periodic reviews on progress, in particular for the Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction, and, as appropriate, in a timely manner, along with the follow-up process at the United Nations, supporting the development of coherent global and regional follow-up and indicators, and in coordination, as appropriate, with other relevant mechanisms for sustainable development and climate change, and updating the existing web-based Hyogo Framework for Action Monitor accordingly; participating actively in the work of the Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Sustainable Development Goal Indicators; generating evidence-based and practical guidance for implementation in close collaboration with States and through the mobilization of experts; reinforcing a culture of prevention among relevant stakeholders through supporting development of standards by experts and technical organizations, advocacy initiatives and dissemination of disaster risk information, policies and practices, as well as by providing education and training on disaster risk reduction through affiliated organizations; supporting countries, including through national platforms or their equivalent, in their development of national plans and monitoring trends and patterns in disaster risk, loss and impacts; convening the Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction and supporting the organization of regional platforms for disaster risk reduction in cooperation with regional organizations; leading the revision of the United Nations Plan of Action on Disaster Risk Reduction for Resilience; facilitating the enhancement of, and continuing to service, the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction Scientific and Technical Advisory Group in mobilizing science and technical work on disaster risk reduction; leading, in close coordination with States, the update of the publication entitled “2009 UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction”, in line with the terminology agreed upon by States; and maintaining the stakeholders’ commitment registry; (d) International financial institutions, such as the World Bank and regional development banks, to consider the priorities of the present Framework for providing financial support and loans for integrated disaster risk reduction to developing countries; (e) Other international organizations and treaty bodies, including the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, international financial institutions at the global and regional levels and the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement to support developing countries, at their request, in the implementation of the present Framework, in coordination with other relevant frameworks; (f) The United Nations Global Compact, as the main United Nations initiative for engagement with the private sector and business, to further engage with and promote the critical importance of disaster risk reduction for sustainable development and resilience; (g) The overall capacity of the United Nations system to assist developing countries in disaster risk reduction should be strengthened by providing adequate resources through various funding mechanisms, including increased, timely, stable and predictable contributions to the United Nations Trust Fund for Disaster Reduction and by enhancing the role of the Trust Fund in relation to the implementation of nth e20present Framework; (h) The Inter-Parliamentary Union and other1relevant regional bodies and mechanisms for parliamentarians, as appropriate, to continue supporting and advocating disaster risk reduction and the strengthening of national legal frameworks; (i) The United Cities and Local Government organization and other relevant bodies of local governments to continue supporting cooperation and mutual learning among local governments for disaster risk reduction and the implementation of the present Framework. Follow-up actions 49. The Conference invites the General Assembly, at its seventieth session, to consider the possibility of including the review of the global progress in the implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 as part of its integrated and coordinated follow-up processes to United Nations conferences and summits, aligned with the Economic and Social Council, the High-level Political Forum for Sustainable Development and the quadrennial comprehensive policy review cycles, as appropriate, taking into account the contributions of the Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction and regional platforms for disaster risk reduction and the Hyogo Framework for Action Monitor system. 50.    The Conference recommends to the General Assembly the establishment, at its sixty-ninth session, of an open-ended intergovernmental working group, comprising experts nominated by Member States, and supported by the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, with involvement of relevant stakeholders, for the development of a set of possible indicators to measure global progress in the implementation of the present Framework in conjunction with the work of the Inter-Agency and Expert Group On Sustainable Development Goal Indicators. The Conference also recommends that the working group consider the recommendations of the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction Scientific and Technical Advisory Group on the update of the publication entitled “2009 UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction” by December 2016, and that the outcome of its work be submitted to the Assembly for its consideration and adoption. Chart of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 Scope and purpose The present framework will apply to the risk of small-scale and large-scale, frequent and infrequent, sudden and slow-onset disasters, caused by natural or manmade hazards as well as related environmental, technological and biological hazards and risks. It aims to guide the multi-hazard management of disaster risk in development at all levels as well as within and across all sectors Expected outcome The substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities and countries Goal Prevent new and reduce existing disaster risk through the implementation of integrated and inclusive economic, structural, legal, social, health, cultural, educational, environmental, technological, political and institutional measures that prevent and reduce hazard exposure and vulnerability to disaster, increase preparedness for response and recovery, and thus strengthen resilience Targets Substantially reduce global disaster mortality by 2030, aiming to lower average per 100,000 global mortality between 2020-2030 compared to 2005-2015 Substantially reduce the number of affected people globally by 2030, aiming to lower the average global figure per 100,000 between 2020-2030 compared to 2005-2015 Reduce direct disaster economic loss in relation to global gross domestic product (GDP) by 2030 Substantially reduce disaster damage to critical infrastructure and disruption of basic services, among them health and educational facilities, including through developing their resilience by 2030 Substantially increase the number of countries with national and local disaster risk reduction strategies by 2020 Substantially enhance international cooperation to developing countries through adequate and sustainable support to complement their national actions for implementation of this framework by 2030 Substantially increase the availability of and access to multihazard early warning systems and disaster risk information and assessments to people by 2030 Priorities for Action There is a need for focused action within and across sectors by States at local, national, regional and global levels in the following four priority areas. Priority 1 Understanding disaster risk Priority 2 Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk Disaster risk management needs to be based on an understanding of disaster risk in all its dimensions of vulnerability, capacity, exposure of persons and assets, hazard characteristics and the environment Disaster risk governance at the national, regional and global levels is vital to the management of disaster risk reduction in all sectors and ensuring the coherence of national and local frameworks of laws, regulations and public policies that, by defining roles and responsibilities, guide, encourage and incentivize the public and private sectors to take action and address disaster risk Priority 3 Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience Public and private investment in disaster risk prevention and reduction through structural and non-structural measures are essential to enhance the economic, social, health and cultural resilience of persons, communities, countries and their assets, as well as the environment. These can be drivers of innovation, growth and job creation. Such measures are cost-effective and instrumental to save lives, prevent and reduce losses and ensure effective recovery and rehabilitation Priority 4 Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response, and to «Build Back Better* in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction Experience indicates that disaster preparedness needs to be strengthened for more effective response and ensure capacities are in place for effective recovery. Disasters have also demonstrated that the recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction phase, which needs to be prepared ahead of the disaster, is an opportunity to «Build Back Better» through integrating disaster risk reduction measures. Women and persons with disabilities should publicly lead and promote gender-equitable and universally accessible approaches during the response and reconstruction phases | I                                       Guiding Principles                                      1 | |---| | Primary responsibility of States to prevent and reduce disaster risk, including through cooperation | Shared responsibility between central Government and national authorities, sectors and stakeholders as appropriate to national circumstances | Protection of persons and their assets while promoting and protecting all human rights including the right to development | Engagement from all of society | Full engagement of all State institutions of an executive and legislative nature at national and local levels | Empowerment of local authorities and communities through resources, incentives and decision-making responsibilities as appropriate | Decision-making to be inclusive and risk-informed while using a multi-hazard approach | | Coherence of disaster       Accounting of local and   Addressing underlying risk   «Build Back Better» for   The quality of global risk reduction and           specific characteristics    factors cost-effectively       preventing the creation    partnership and sustainable development    of disaster risks when    through investment versus  of, and reducing existing,  international cooperation policies, plans, practices     determining measures to relying primarly on post-     disaster risk               to be effective, meaningful and mechanisms, across reduce risk              disaster response and                                 and strong different sectors                                         recovery | Support from developed countries and partners to developing countries to be tailored according to needs and priorities as identified by them | |---|---| 8.4    Conclusion: In conclusion, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030) represents a significant milestone in global efforts to reduce the impact of disasters and build resilient communities. With its emphasis on prevention, preparedness, and risk reduction, the framework provides a comprehensive and holistic approach to addressing the complex challenges posed by natural and manmade hazards. Over the past decade, the Sendai Framework has guided governments, international organizations, civil society, and communities in implementing strategies to mitigate disaster risks and enhance resilience. By promoting a shift from reactive disaster response to proactive risk reduction, the framework has helped prioritize investment in disaster preparedness, early warning systems, infrastructure resilience, and community empowerment. The Sendai Framework's focus on inclusivity and participation has been instrumental in fostering collaboration and partnership among stakeholders at all levels. By engaging diverse voices, including women, youth, indigenous peoples, and persons with disabilities, the framework ensures that disaster risk reduction efforts are contextually relevant, culturally sensitive, and socially inclusive. Moreover, the Sendai Framework recognizes the interconnected nature of disaster risk with other global challenges, such as climate change, urbanization, and poverty. By integrating disaster risk reduction into broader sustainable development agendas, the framework facilitates synergies and coherence across policy domains, maximizing the impact of interventions and investments. As we move forward, it is essential to accelerate progress towards the targets and priorities outlined in the Sendai Framework. This requires sustained political commitment, adequate financial resources, and robust institutional mechanisms for implementation, monitoring, and evaluation. Additionally, innovative approaches, technology, and knowledge sharing will be crucial in addressing emerging risks and evolving threats. In conclusion, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction provides a roadmap for building resilient societies that can withstand and recover from disasters. By working together and prioritizing risk reduction, we can create a safer, more sustainable future for generations to come. 8.5    Self Check Exercises a.    Brief of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) b.    The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) in detail 8.6    Glossary Rehabilitation - the process of returning to a healthy or good way of life Mandate – a formal order from a superior court or official to an inferior one Exacerbation- the process of making something that is already bad even worse 8.7 Answers to self check exercises a. see 8.2                 b. see 8.3 8.8    Terminal questions Q1 Analyse The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) in detail. 8.9    Suggested Readingwww.preventionhub.net Chapter-9 Disaster Risk Reduction Structure 9.0    Learning Objectives 9.1        Introduction 9.2       Mainstreaming of Disaster Risk Reduction in Developmental Stretegy 9.3       Mainstreaming of National Plan and its Sub-Plan 9.4       National Disaster Mitigation Fund 9.5       Measures Taken for Prevention and Mitigation of Hazards 9.6       Conclusion 9.7      Self-Check Exercises 9.8      Glossary 9.9          Answers to self check exercise 9.10         Terminal questions 9.11        Suggested Reading 9.0     Learning Objectives After studying this lesson, the learner will be able to -    Familiarize yourself with the measures taken for prevention and mitigation of hazards. -    Gain a comprehensive understanding of mainstreaming of National Plan and its Sub-Plan -     Know the mainstreaming of disaster risk reduction in developmental strategy 9.1    Introduction: The Yokohama message emanating from the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction in May 1994 underlined the need for an emphatic shift in the strategy for disaster mitigation. It inter-alia stressed that disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness and relief were four elements, which contribute to and gain from the implementation of the sustainable development policies. These elements along with environmental protection and sustainable development, are closely inter related. Nations, therefore should incorporate them in their development plans and ensure efficient follow up measures at the community, sub-regional, regional, national and international levels. Disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness are better than disaster response in achieving the goals and objectives of vulnerability reduction. 9.2    Mainstreaming of Disaster Risk Reduction in Developmental Strategy Prevention and mitigation contribute to lasting improvement in safety and should be integrated in the disaster management. The Government of India has adopted mitigation and prevention as essential components of their development strategy. Accordingly, the Tenth Five Year Plan document has a detailed chapter on disaster management. The plan emphasises the fact that development cannot be sustainable without mitigation being built into the developmental process. Mainstreaming DRR involves incorporating disaster risk reduction into development policy and practice. It means radically expanding and enhancing disaster risk reduction so that it becomes normal practice, fully institutionalised within an agency’s relief and development agenda. Mainstreaming has three purposes: (a)    To make certain that all the development programmes and projects that originate from or are funded by an agency, are designed with evident consideration for potential disaster risks and to resist hazard impact, (b)    To make certain that all the development programmes and projects that originate from or are funded by an agency, do not inadvertently increase vulnerability to disaster in all sectors: social, physical, economic and environment, (c)    To make certain that all the disaster relief and rehabilitation programmes and projects that originate from or are funded by an agency are designed to contribute to developmental aims and to reduce future disaster risk. Mainstreaming DRR into the developmental plans is an important mandate of the Disaster Management Act 2005. Integration of disaster risk reduction measures into ongoing flagship programmes of Government of India is being used as an entry point for mainstreaming DRR in development plans. Steps for ensuring the incorporation of DRR into various ongoing programmes\plans are as follows: (a)    Identification of key programme/projects of Government of India, (b)    Identification of entry points within the programme for integration of DRR (structural, nonstructural and other mitigation measures) at various levels viz. national, state and district levels, nr 1/2019                                                                                11 (c)    Close coordination with concerned departments such as State Planning Commission and Finance Department for promoting DRR measures into development plans and policies, (d) Advocacy for allocation of dedicated budget for DRR within the departmental plans, (e) Preparation of guidelines for integration of disaster risk reduction measures into development plans of various departments at the district and sub-district levels. 9.3    Mainstreaming of National Plan and its Sub-Plan: Three committees constituted by Government of India are working for preparing the National Response Plan, National Human Resource and Capacity Development Plan and Mitigation Plans by respective ministries who have been designated as nodal agencies for the disaster relating to their activities. The draft National Response Plan and National Human Resource and Capacity Development Plan are ready. Certain rectifications and modifications are underway before it is presented to the National Executive Committee for its approval. It is expected that National Response Plan will be put in place once it is adopted by Government of India. It will pave the way for institutionalising the response plan at three tiers as envisaged in the Disaster Management Act. Similarly, the Capacity Development Plan, once approved and adopted will provide a roadmap for undertaking the capacity building for people engaged in different facets of disaster management and enhance the capacity at the individual, organizational as well as at the environmental levels. Mitigation Plans have been submitted by the ministries of Defence, Mines (Geological survey of India), Department of Atomic Energy, Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Railways and Water Resources, which are under examination and finalization. It is expected that once these mitigation plans are approved, the concerned ministry will undertake activities for taking the prevention and mitigation measures to address the hazard and risk involved in the activities of their sector. It would be the endeavor of the government to persuade the other ministries who have yet to bring their Mitigation Plans at the draft stage to take it further for approval and adoption. 9.4    National Disaster Mitigation Fund: Section 47 of the Disaster Management Act 2005 provides for constitution of National Disaster Mitigation Fund. The provisions of the Act are as under: (a)    The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, constitute a fund to be called the National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF) for projects exclusively for the purpose of mitigation and there shall be credited thereto such amount which the Central Government may, after due appropriation made by parliament by law in this behalf. (b)    The National Disaster Mitigation Fund shall be applied by the National Disaster Management Authority. The modalities of constitution of NDMF have been discussed by MHA with the MoF, Planning Commission and NDMA from time to time. A reference was made to 13th Finance Commission. The 13th Finance Commission has given its report and as per its recommendations: “Mitigation and reconstruction activities should be kept out of the schemes funded through Finance Commission grants and met out of overall development plan funds of the centre and the states.” The issue is under consideration of Ministry of Home Affairs with other concerned Ministries. 9.5 Measures taken for Prevention and Mitigation of Hazards Risk of destruction and casualties associated with different disasters can substantially be reduced by introduction of prevention and mitigation measures. Mitigation is generally categorised into two main types of activities i.e. structural and non-structural. Structural mitigation refers to any physical construction to reduce or avoid possible impacts of hazards, which include engineering measures and construction of hazard-resistant protective structures and infrastructure. Non structural mitigation refers to policies, awareness, knowledge development, public commitment, and methods and operating practices, including participatory mechanisms and the provision of information, which can reduce risk with related impacts. The Government of India has adopted several mitigation measures for reducing the risk of being affected by disasters. These measures are being implemented by the concerned ministries. Some of these initiatives are described below. Earthquakes India has been divided into five seismic zones according to the maximum intensity of earthquakes expected. Of these, zone V is most active and comprises whole of Northeast India, the northern portion of Bihar, western Uttar Pradesh hills, Himachal Pradesh and Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Pace of Urbanisation in India has been increasing. Many of the cities and townships including the national capital of New Delhi, are located in zones of high seismic risk. Typically, the majority of the constructions in these cities are not earthquake resistant. Regulatory mechanisms are weak, thus any earthquake striking in one of these cities would turn into a major disaster. Six major earthquakes have struck different parts of India over a span of last 15 years. The following measures have been initiated for prevention and mitigation of such disasters: National Earthquake Risk Mitigation Project (NERMP): Understanding the importance of the management of such hazardous situations caused by the earthquake, the Government of India has taken a national initiative for launching a project of ‘National Earthquake Risk Mitigation Project (NERMP). The proposed project aims at strengthening the structural and nonstructural nr 1/2019                                                                                11 earthquake mitigation efforts and reducing the vulnerability in the high risk districts prone to earthquakes. Necessary risk mitigation measures are proposed to be put in place in the highly seismic zones. NDMA, tasked with this project has prepared a Detailed Project Report (DPR) which is under consultation with all the stakeholders. The proposed components of the project include techno-legal regime, institutional strengthening, capacity building and public awareness etc. National Building Code (NBC): The National Building Code of India (NBC), a comprehensive building code, is a national instrument providing guidelines for regulating the building construction activities across the country. The NBC was first published in 1970 at the instance of Planning Commission and was revised in 1983. Thereafter three major amendments, two in 1987 and the third in 1997 were issued. Considering a series of further developments in the field of building construction, including the lessons learnt in the aftermath of number of natural calamities like devastating earthquakes and super cyclones, a project for comprehensive revision of NBC was taken up under the aegis of National Building Code Committee. The revised NBC has now been brought out as National Building Code of India 2005 (NBC 2005). The salient features of the revised NBC include meeting the challenges posed by natural calamities and reflecting the state-of-the-art and contemporary applicable international practices. The code may be accessed at http://www.bis.org.in/sf/nbc.htm. Effective implementation of these codes has been a challenge. The Bureau of Indian Standards & National Design and Research Forum with the Institute of Engineers have organised series of brainstorming sessions and workshops to pave the way to inculcate the same into practice. As part of their continuous efforts, a workshop has been scheduled in the month of in May 2011 titled “Implementation of Standards in Infrastructural Development”. Efforts by Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC): The BMTPC undertook projects for retrofitting of life-line structures for generating awareness among the people as well as various government agencies about the need and techniques of retrofitting. The Council has initiated retrofitting of MCD school buildings in Delhi. It has further initiated a study of 250 bedded hall of Bara Hindu Rao Hospital, New Delhi. It has earlier carried out seismic strengthening and retrofitting of the sub-district hospital in Kupwara in Jammu & Kashmir, 442 structures in Gujarat and primary school buildings at Thano, Block Raipur and Dehradun. The experience on these retrofitted buildings is aimed to help people at large and the policy makers in particular in working towards reducing the vulnerability of lakhs of existing public and private buildings, thereby protecting most number of people in case of future earthquakes. Eart hquake and Seismic Zones: The entire Indian landmass, susceptible to1 different levels of earthquake hazards, referred to as Zone II to V as per the Seismic Zoning Map of India contained in IS 1893:2002 Fifth Revision. The general basis of the zones is as follows: Zone V: Covers the areas liable to seismic intensity 1X and above on MSK (1964) Intensity scale. This is the most severe seismic zone and is referred here as Very High Damage Risk Zone. Zone IV: Gives the area liable to MSK VIII. This zone is second in severity to zone V. This referred here as High Damage Risk Zone. Zone III: The associated intensity is MSK VII. This is termed here as moderate Damage Risk Zone. Zone II: The probable intensity is MKS VII. This zone is referred to as Low Damage Risk Zone. Note: In the revision of the Seismic Zone Map given earlier in the Vulnerability Atlas of India 1997, the seismic zone I has now been merged into Seismic Zone II and renamed as Zone II, Zone III has been extended to cover more areas in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Zones IV and V have remained unchanged. It may be mentioned here that the new intensity scale, called as MSK Intensity Scale 1964, is much more detailed and quantitative in nature as compared to the Modified Mercalli (MM) though almost similar in intensity. Hence MSK has been used in place of MM in the classification of the seismic zones given above Initiative by Ministry of Panchayati Raj: It releases funds under Backward Regions Grant Fund (BRGF) for meeting critical infrastructural gaps and other developmental requirements. The ministry has financed several district plans under the BRGF for construction of panchayat buildings, anganwadi centres, school buildings, class rooms, roads, bridges, culverts etc. and restructuring of State Institutes for Rural Development (SIRD) buildings, block resource centres, panchayat training centers etc. The ministry, vide its letter No. N-11012/35/2007- P&J, dated 2nd February 2010 has advised all the states that it is imperative for all such structures to be made disaster resilient in the line with the national vision of disaster management. Cyclones National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP) Initiative: Recurrent cyclones account for a large number of deaths, loss of livelihood opportunities, loss of public and private property, and severe damage to infrastructure, thus reversing the developmental gains whenever disasters occur. In order to reduce the loss of life and properties in the events of future calamities, the NCRMP has been launched by MHA in three phases in the cyclone prone coastal states and Union Territories, keeping in view the vulnerability of the states and their readiness with investment 12 proposals. Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project (ICZMP): The Government of India under the aegis of Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF) has launched the ICZMP. The objective of the project is to assist GoI in building the national capacity for implementation of a comprehensive coastal management approach in the country and piloting the integrated coastal zone management approach in states of Gujarat, Orissa and West Bengal. Floods National Flood Risk Mitigation Project (NFRMP): NFRMP has been envisaged for mitigation or reduction in risk, severity or consequences of floods. It aims at ensuring that arrangements are in place to mobilise the resources and capability for relief, rehabilitation, reconstruction and recovery from disasters besides creating awareness among vulnerable communities. NDMA has been entrusted to prepare a Detailed Project Report (DPR) on Flood Risk Mitigation Project. Flood Management Programme: The state governments are engaged in flood management work since the independence of the country. Upto the Tenth Five Year Plan, 45.6 million hectares (m-ha.) of flood prone areas in the country had been provided a reasonable degree of protection. The Eleventh Five Year Plan envisages protecting an additional area of 2.18 million hectares. Management of water resources is primarily the responsibility of the state governments. The schemes for Flood Control and Protection are therefore, to be planned, funded and executed by the state governments. The Government of India, under the aegis of Ministry of Water Resources has launched the “Flood Management Programme (FMP)” at a total cost of ` 8000 crores for the 11th Plan period (2007-12). Under the programme, a total of 311 flood management work schemes of critical nature are included from 19 States for central assistance up to 31st March, 2010, out of which 117 works for 10 States are reported to be physically complete. It is expected that 1.33 billion hectares of flood prone areas have thus been restored and protected which will provide safety to about 12.89 million people during high floods. For the year 2010-11, another 42 new flood management schemes have been included under the FMP from Assam, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, J&K, Kerala, Manipur, Orissa, Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand, U.P. and West Bengal. Study of Land Contour by GSI Geological Survey of India (GSI) studied the shape and material of the land getting inundated and generates data on area, shape, slope, infiltration and permeability of soil of the basin, drainage pattern, landform and longitudinal and cross profiles of the channels. On the basis of these studies, GSI produces flood hazard maps indicating prohibitive, Restricted, Cautionary and Flood Free Zones. Landslides In view of challenges caused by landslides, the ‘National Landslide Risk Mitigation Project’ (NLRMP) has been proposed to be launched. It aims at strengthening the structural and non-structural landslide mitigation efforts, reducing the landslide risk and vulnerability in the hilly districts prone to landslides and mud flows and minimise the risks arising out of disasters in landslides. NDMA has been entrusted to prepareDetailed Project Report (DPR) on Landslide Mitigation Project and is in the process of appointing consultants to conduct a study and prepare DPR after defining the scope of work in consultation with all the stakeholders. Tsunami The Tsunami of 26th December 2004 caused extensive damage to life and property in the States of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and UTs of Puducherry and Andaman & Nicobar Islands (A&NI). It hit the fishermen community badly besides their means of livelihood. There had also been extensive damage to the infrastructure including houses, harbors, jetties, roads, bridges, power, telecom, hospitals, schools and other social sector buildings after Tsunami in Samanthanpettai village Nagapattanam. One of the natural measures which could be adopted for mitigating the impact of tsunami is using shoreline tree cover. Tree plantation is a cost-effective long- lasting means of tsunami mitigation in comparison to the artificial barriers. Some locations of Indian Ocean where Tsunami struck in 2004 remained almost intact because the existing coconut palms and mangroves trees absorbed the tsunami’s energy. Similarly, the village of Naluvedapathy in Tamil Nadu region faced minimal damage and few deaths because of the forest of 80, 244 trees planted along the shoreline in 2002. Droughts The Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, under the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India released a manual for drought management in November, 2009. The manual suggests for looking beyond the traditional drought management through famine codes for dealing with situations of mass hunger and collective penury. It focuses on plans which take into account all capabilities of the state to address the impact of drought i.e., focus on mitigation measures, tapping newer technologies, enabling the systems adapt to the new legal framework and including improvement and area development programmes in drought mitigation. The National Institute of Agriculture and Extension (MANAGE), Hyderabad has been identified to launch a National Project for Integrated Drought Monitoring & Management, with MANAGE as the lead partner. A proposal submitted by MANAGES to implement this national project through available budgetary provisions of Department of Agriculture & Cooperation is under consideration. Another proposal to set up a National Institute of Drought Management is also under consideration of Ministry of Agriculture & Cooperation. The Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP) and Desert Development Programme (DDP) are being implemented by the Government of India since 1973-74 and 1977-78 respectively. These programmes aim at drought proofing and minimising desertification of fragile areas inthe arid, semi-arid and dry-sub humid regions often affected by severe drought conditions and desertification. National Rainfed Area Authority in the Ministry of Agriculture has been set up to address the issue of drought mitigation on a long term basis. It comprises experts who provide knowledge inputs regarding systematic upgradation and management of the country’s dryland and rainfed agriculture. The Ministry of Agriculture & Cooperation has also undertaken some other measures to address the drought management including: •    Implementation of water harvesting conservation, artificial recharge of ground water, traditional water harvesting and conservation, water saving technologies like drip and sprinkler irrigation systems, improved water saving farm practices, long term irrigation management etc, •    Working towards convergence of lessons learnt from studies carried out by multiple institutions working in related fields such as Central Research Institute for Dry land Agriculture (CRIDA), International Crop Research for Semi-arid Tropics (ICRISAT), India Meteorological Department (IMD), National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) and Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR), etc, •    Exploring practices such as harvesting cereal crops for fodder, supplemental irrigation if feasible, and ensuring availability of seeds when alternative crops are beneficial with logistic support from state and district machineries, •    Maximising efficient use of available surface and groundwater in drought prone areas i.e. to resort to drip and sprinkler practices wherever possible, particularly for commercial crops including fruit orchards, •    Undertaking construction of water shed structures at the right place to enhance water rech arge for life saving irrigation at critical stages of crop growth and during1drought situations, and •    Using optimally the services of Village Resources Centre established by Indian Space Research Organisation, ICAR, State Agriculture University and other organisations towards management of drought. ` 40.23 crore astheir share. Forest Fire Management: Fire prevention, detection and suppression activities are state subjects. The Central Government has been formulating policy, planning and financing the states from time to time. Forest Protection Division of Ministry of Forests headed by DIG of Forests is responsible for the forest fire management at the central level. The Joint Forest Management Committees, 36,165 in number across the country, have been given the responsibility to protect the forests from fires. The Central Government has issued the National Forest Fire, Prevention and Control guidelines and has also worked on a National Master Plan on Forest Fire Control. A centrally sponsored scheme ‘Intensification of Forest Management’ initiated since the Tenth Five Year Plan has allocated 15 percent of the funds for forest fire management. Oil Industry In the oil industry, the disaster management plan is maintained at the area level and covers a wide aspect (since their activities are likely to affect local people also). Oil companies have established their Crisis Management Plan at the company level and at the HQ level also with specialist to deal with fires and other identified hazards. In oil companies, it has been observed that international players for rescue and recovery operations are also hired at very short notice at cater to the specific requirements. Chemical Disasters The MOEF has taken the following measures towards developing a Regulatory Framework for Chemical Safety: (i)    The Environment (Protection) Act was enacted in 1986. Under the Act, two rules have been notified for ensuring chemical safety, namely, (a)    The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989 (MSIHC) amended in 1994 and 2000; (b)    The Chemical Accidents (Emergency, Planning, Preparedness, and Response) Rules, 1996 (EPPR) under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. (ii)    The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991, amended in 1992 and the Public Liability Insurance Rules 1991, amended in 1993 require maximum hazard units to procure an insurance policy and deposit an equal amount in the Environment Relief Fund to provide immediate relief to victi ms0of chemical accidents.                                             12 Prevention of Disasters in Mines The various safeguards and preventive measures against coal mine fires are outlined in the Coal Mines Regulations, 1957 and related circulars, notifications and technical instructions. The Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS) examines from each and every application for underground and surface mining from all considerations. Wherever necessary the DGMS imposes additional precautionary and preventive measures. The officers of the DGMS from time to time inspect the mines to assess the implementation of the measures and suggest modifications, etc. For the new projects and reorganisational projects, after the issuance of the EIA Notification, 1994 under the Environment (protection) Act, 1986, it has become compulsory to getenvironmental clearance from the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) and for this the mines are required to develop their Environmental Management Plans (EMPs) in which the problems of the mine fires are adequately addressed as the mine fires have considerable environmental impacts. Epidemics The Ministry of Health & Family Welfare is instrumental and responsible for implementation of various programmes on a national scale in the areas of prevention and control of major communicable diseases and promotion of traditional and indigenous systems of medicines. This ministry also assists states in preventing and controlling the spread of seasonal disease outbreaks and epidemics through technical assistance. It is actively involved in disease diagnosis during epidemics and outbreaks, operational research, manpower development, advisory role and other multifarious activities towards prevention and control of a cascade of epidemic prone disease of larger public health importance in collaboration with National Institute of Communicable Disease (NICD) and external organisations and institutes. (Photo : A health camp at Akkarapettai Villager in Nagapattinam District-December 2004) Post-disaster management of health, sanitation and hygiene services is crucial to prevent an outbreak of epidemics. The draft Public Health (Prevention, Control and Management of Epidemics, Bio-terrorism and Disasters) Bill prepared by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare is under consideration for enactment. National Vector Borne Diseases Control Programme (NVBDCP) is the key programme for prevention/control of outbreaks/epidemics of malaria, dengue, chikungunya etc., vaccines administered to reduce the morbidity and mortality due to diseases like measles, diphtheria, pertussis, poliomyelitis etc. Two key measures to prevent/control epidemics of water-borne dise ases like cholera, viral hepatitis etc. include making available safe water2and ensuring personal and domestic hygienic practices are adopted. It is impossible to always prevent epidemics, but its impact can always be mitigated by anticipating them and by being prepared. Epidemic preparedness and response is a multisectoral and multi-agency activity. Health sector plays a lead role in preparing and executing the epidemic preparedness plan but need the expertise and support of other disciplines/sectors also. Planning process will inter alia require extensive review of health infrastructure, disease surveillance and response system, availability of laboratories, trained professionals, drugs, vaccines and equipment in the country, communication system, coordinating mechanism between different sectors and between the national and international agencies and legal issues. Accordingly, Govt. of India launched Integrated Disease Surveillance Project (IDSP) in November 2004 to strengthen capacity at state/district levels to detect and respond to the epidemics in early rising phase. Under the project, the district and states have been strengthened by providing additional technical manpower (epidemiologists, microbiologists, entomologists), training of rapid response teams for outbreak investigation and control, strengthening of laboratories for detection of organisms causing epidemic prone diseases, and establishment of IT network for data compilation, dissemination and analysis. The states are at varying stages of implementation. The key achievement of IDSP has been creation of capacity at sub-district/district/state levels to detect early warning signals and outbreaks of epidemic prone diseases so that they can be responded early. They collect weekly surveillance data, monitor disease trends and investigate rising in cases. About 85% of districts are reporting these data to Central Surveillance Unit through e-mail and more than 60% report through portal. The result is that states have detected and responded to more number of outbreaks after implementation of IDSP. For example, a total of 553 outbreaks were reported and responded to by states in 2008, 799 outbreaks in 2009 and 990 outbreaks in 2010. Earlier not many outbreaks were reported in the country by the States/ UTs. Finally, a mention must be made about the International Health Regulations (IHR), 2005 which were adopted by the 58th World Health Assembly in May 2005 and came into force on 15 June 2007 (in India on 8 August 2007). IHR (2005) also provide us an opportunity to strengthen core capacities to detect, assess and notify and control all public health emergencies of international concern (PHEIC). These capacities will also help us to control endemic infectious diseases which may not spread to other countries. 9.6 Conclusion: In conclusion, DRR is essential for fostering sustainable development and ensuring the safety and well-being of populations worldwide. By investing in risk-informed decision-making, early warning systems, infrastructure development, and community engagement, societies can become more resilient to disasters and better equipped to recover swiftly when they occur. Additionally, incorporating DRR principles into policies, planning processes, and development projects can help build a safer and more sustainable future for generations to come. However, effective disaster risk reduction requires collaboration and coordination among governments, organizations, communities, and individuals at local, national, and global levels. Continued efforts in research, education, and capacity-building are crucial to further enhance our understanding of risks and vulnerabilities and to strengthen resilience in the face of evolving threats. 9.7Self Check Exercises a.    Mainstreaming of National Plan and its Sub Plan b.    National Disaster Mitigation Fund c.    Measures taken for prevention and mitigation of hazards 9.8    Glossary Sustainable - involving the use of natural products and energy in a way that does not harm the environment Regulatory Mechanisms – A regulatory mechanism is the combination of steps or processes that an organism can engage to ensure that a biological process is controlled Integration - the action or process of combining two or more things in an effective way 9.9    Answers to self check exercises a. see 9.3                 b. see 9.4          c. see 9.5 9.10    Terminal questions Q1 Analyse the National Disaster Mitigation Fund. Q2 What are the various measures that are taken for prevention and mitigation of hazards 9.11    Suggested Readinghttps://asdma.gov.in/ Chapter-10 Disaster Preparedness Structure 10.0      Learning Objectives 10.1       Introduction 10.2      Institutional Arrangements 10.3         Forecasting System 10.4         Disaster Management Support (DMS) - ISRO 10.5         Radiological and Nuclear Emergencies 10.6         Preparedness 10.7         Conclusion 10.8         Self-Check Exercises 10.9         Glossary 10.10        Answer to self check exercise 10.11         Terminal questions 10.12        Suggested Reading 10.0    Learning Objectives After studying this lesson, the learner will be able to -    Familiarize yourself with the institutional arrangements for disaster preparedness. -    Gain a comprehensive understanding of Disaster Management Support (DMS) - ISRO. -    Forecasting System a useful tool in disaster preparedness 10.1    Introduction: Facing disaster by way of mitigation, prevention, preparedness, response, evacuation, relief and rehabilitation has been part of the administrative ethos. India has a long history of rendering relief in an organized fashion in times of drought and famine. The states have antiquated relief code which deals with the general principles of administration of relief. It starts with 1 the1responsibility of the Government for combating distress, defining scope of object of such measures etc. India, with a vast agrarian economy in the past had focused on distress relief mainly related to agricultural activities. Preparedness included collection of statistical data on the rainfall, weather conditions, crop pattern activities relating to management of cattle etc. The relief work focused on departmental work and village work for generation of employment during drought. With the changing pattern of disaster and with the introduction of technology, material and new financial terms into disaster management, several modifications have been incorporated in the administrative measures for relief work. The scope of disaster has since changed and so the response thereto. With the constitution of successive Finance Commission under the provision of the Constitution, the measures for relief and the scope of disaster have enlarged. An attempt has been made in the succeeding paragraphs to capture the information relating to timely prediction/forecasting of different kind of disasters and development of Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for responding such disasters. 10.2    Institutional Arrangements Forecasting about climate change is pre requisite for taking preparedness measure to respond to the disaster is the most important element of disaster management. The Ministry of Environment & Forest (MoEF), Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), Ministry of Science & Technology (MST), Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), Ministry of Water Resources (MWR), Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Ministry of Non-conventional Energy (MNES), Defence Research & Development Organization (DRDO), Ministry of Defence (MoD), Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW), Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) and Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) promote and undertake climate and climate change related research in the country. Government of India has designated the offices as given in the Box as the nodal agencies for early warning of different natural hazards: India Meteorological Department (IMD) Modernized meteorological observations and research in India was initiated more than 200 year ago, since 1793, when the first Indian Meteorological observatory was set up at Madras (now Chennai). IMD was formally established in 1875 with a network of about 90 weather observatories for systematic observation and research. India Meteorological Department’s tradition of monitoring weather and climate spans more than 135 years giving it a sound and useful dataset to fall back upon for environmental assessment. Ozone monitoring network was started as a globally pioneering2 effort as early as in 1954 realizing that this trace gas plays a very important role in atmospheric chemical mechanisms. It also started radiation measurements about 50 year back and currently maintaining 45 stations in the country for providing exclusive countrywide dataset for assessment of solar energy resources. A network of 10 Global Atmosphere Watch Stations (GAW, formerly Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network or BAPMoN) consisting of Allahabad, Jodhpur, Kodaikanal, Minicoy, Mohanbari, Port Blair, Pune, Nagpur, Srinagar and Vishakhapatnam, is maintained by IMD as per WMO protocols and standards since 1974 to generate data and information on the exchange of trace materials between the atmosphere and the earth’s surface, making atmospheric turbidity and air quality measurements to quantify trends and acid rain threats. Atmospheric monitoring: There are 25 types of atmospheric monitoring networks that are operated and coordinated by the IMD. This includes meteorological, climatologically, environment, air pollution and other specialized observation of atmospheric trace constituents. It maintains 559 surface meteorological observatories, about 35 radio-stations and 64 pilot balloon stations for monitoring the upper atmosphere. Specialized observations are made for agro meteorological purposes at 219 stations and radiation parameters are monitored at 45 stations. There are about 70 observatories that monitor current weather conditions for aviation. The IMD collects meteorological data over oceans by an establishment of cooperation fleet of Voluntary Observing Ships (VOF) comprising merchant ships of Indian registry, some foreign merchant vessels and a few ships of the Indian Navy. These ships, while sailing on the high seas, function as floating observatories. Records of observations are passed on to the IMD for analysis and archival. 10.3    Forecasting System India Meteorological Department (IMD) follows a two-stage forecasting strategy for long range forecasting of the south-west monsoon season rainfall over the country as a whole. The Long Period Average (LPA) of the south-west monsoon season rainfall over the country as a whole for the period 1951-2000 is 89cm. The first long range forecast for the south-west monsoon season (June-September) rainfall is issued in April and the forecast update is issued in June. From 2007 onwards, IMD has been using the following statistical models for preparing quantitative and probabilistic forecasts of the south-west monsoon rainfall (June – September) for the country as a whole: a.    A 5- parameter statistical ensemble forecasting system requiring data up to March, for the first forecast in April. b.    A 6- parameter statistical ensemble forecasting system requiring data up to May for the fore cast update in June. Three of these 6-parameters are same as that used3 for April forecast. For preparing the first stage forecast for the 2011 South-west monsoon rainfall for the country as a whole presented here, the 5-parameter statistical ensemble forecasting system has been used. Operational Statistical Forecast System: In the IMD’s Ensemble Statistical Forecasting system for April forecast, the following 5 predictors are used. The model error of the April forecasting systems is ±5%. The 5-parameter ensemble statistical forecasting system was also used to prepare probability forecasts for five pre-defined rainfall categories. These are deficient (less than 90% of LPA), below normal (90-96% of LPA), normal (96-104% of LPA), above normal (104-110% of LPA) and excess (above 110% of LPA). The forecasted probabilities in percentage based on this system for the above 5 categories are 6%, 30%, 53%, 10% and 1% respectively. Experimental Forecasts: IMD has an experimental dynamical forecast system. The experimental ensemble dynamical forecast for the 2011 south-west monsoon rainfall was computed as the ensemble average of 10 member forecasts with forecasted sea surface temperatures (SST) as boundary SST forcing. In addition, IMD takes into account the experimental forecasts prepared by the national institutes like Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad, National Aerospace Laboratories, Bangalore, Centre for Mathematical Modelling and Computer Simulation, Bangalore, National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting, Noida and Center for Development of Advanced Computing, Pune. Operational/experimental forecasts prepared by international institutes like the National Centers for Environmental Prediction, USA, International Research Institute for Climate and Society, USA, Meteorological Office, UK, the European Center for Medium Range Weather Forecasts, UK , the Experimental Climate Prediction Center, USA, and World Meteorological Organization’s Lead Centre for Long Range Forecasting - Multi-Model Ensemble were also taken into account. The experimental forecasts from majority of the statistical and dynamical models suggest below normal to normal monsoon season rainfall over the country as a whole. Forecast of Rainfall India receives 80 per cent of its annual rainfall during the southwest monsoon season of June to September. Rainfall over the country during this season shows a wide range of spatial variation due to orographic influences and preferential occurrence of rain-bearing systems in certain regions. India has a very extensive rain gauge network and rainfall monitoring over the coun try. 9                                                                        13 The real-time monitoring and statistical analysis of district wise daily rainfall is one of the important functions of the IMD at New Delhi. Based on the real time daily rainfall data, weekly district wise, sub-division wise and state wise rainfall distribution summaries are prepared regularly by the Rainfall Monitoring Unit. Maps showing weekly and cumulative rainfall figures in 36 meteorological subdivisions of the country are prepared. This information is very important to many user agencies, particularly for agricultural planning. Sea Surface Temperature Conditions over the equatorial Pacific & Indian Oceans: The El Niño conditions that were originated since June, 2009 peaked in December 2009 and then started to weaken to reach ENSO-neutral conditions in May, 2010. This continued till mid June when weak La Nina conditions emerged. The La Niña conditions strengthened subsequently and become moderate to strong during mid-August 2010 to early February 2011. The La Nina conditions since have weakened to weak to moderate strength as of mid-March 2011. The latest forecasts from a majority of the dynamical and statistical models indicate strong probability for the present La Niña conditions to continue till June. Subsequently the La Nina conditions are expected to weaken further to reach ENSO- neutral conditions. However, it may be mentioned that the climate forecasts prepared at this time of the year has large uncertainty. It is important to note that in addition to ENSO events, other factors such as the Indian Ocean Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) have also significant influence on Indian monsoon. Recent forecasts from some coupled models suggest possibility of the development of a weak negative Indian Ocean Dipole event during the second half of the year, which may not have much impact on the Indian monsoon. As the extreme sea surface temperature conditions over Pacific and Indian Oceans particularly ENSO conditions over Pacific (El Nino or La Nina) are known to have strong influence on the Indian summer monsoon, IMD is carefully monitoring the sea surface conditions over Pacific and Indian oceans. Forecast for the 2011 South-west monsoon rainfall: IMD’s long range forecast for the 2011 south-west monsoon season (June to September) is that the rainfall for the country as a whole is most likely to be Normal (96-104% of Long Period Average (LPA)). There is very low probability for season rainfall to be deficient (below 90% of LPA) or excess (above 110% of LPA). Quantitatively, monsoon season rainfall is likely to be 98% of the LPA with a model error of ± 5%. The LPA of the season rainfall over the country as a whole for the period 1951-2000 is 89 cm. IMD will update the above forecast in June 2011 as a part of the second stage forecast. Along with the update forecast, separate forecasts for the monthly (July and August) rainfall over the country as a whole and seasonal (June-September) rainfall over the four geographical regions of India will also be issued. Forecast for the rainfall over the country as a whole during the second of the season (August + September) will be issued in July and that for September will be issued in August. Forecasting and Warning of Cyclones IMD is the nodal agency in the country to monitor and predict the cyclonic disturbances and issue the warning and advisory bulletins. IMD, New Delhi also acts as a Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre (RSMC) for providing tropical cyclone advisories to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)/ Economic and Social Cooperation for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) Panel members countries viz Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Pakistan and Oman. IMD, New Delhi also works as a Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre (TCAC) for international civil aviation as per the requirement of International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) The cyclone warning are issued to State Government officials in four stages: i.e. (i)    pre-cyclone watch issued 72 hours in advance, (ii) cyclone alert issued at least 48 hours in advance , (iii) cyclone warning issued at least 24 hours in advance, and (iv) as post landfall outlook issued at least 12 hours in advance of expected time of landfall. IMD has prepared roadmap for cyclone genesis and further intensification, monitoring and prediction. Flood Forecasting – Central Water Commission The flood forecasting and warning system is used for alerting the likely damage centre well in advance of the actual arrival of floods, to enable the people to move and also to remove the moveable property to safer places or to raised platforms specially constructed for the purpose. A beginning in scientific flood forecasting was made in November, 1958 by CWC (then known as Central Water & Power Commission) when a Flood Forecasting Centre was set up at its Headquarters, at Delhi for giving timely Forecasts and Warnings of the incoming floods to the villages located in the river areas around the National Capital, Delhi. The network has been expanding and by now the Flood Forecasting Network of the CWC covers the entire major flood prone inter State basins in the country. The flood forecasting involves the following four main activities: (i)    observation and collection of hydrological and hydro meteorological data, (ii) transmission of Data to forecasting centres, (iii)    analysis of data and formulation of forecast, and (iv)    Dissemination of forecast. Onra n2average 6000 forecasts at various places in the country are issued during the monsoon seasons every year. The analysis of the forecasts issued during the last 25 years (1978 to 2002) indicates that accuracy of forecasts has consistently increased from around 81% to 98%. Forecast is considered accurate if forecast water level is within + 15 cm of actual water level of the inflow forecast (i.e. discharge) and is within + 20% of actual discharge. In monitoring the floods, severity of floods are placed in the following four categories by the CWC (i)    Low Flood stage – It is that flood situation when the water level of the river is flowing between warning level and danger level of the forecasting stations. (ii)    Medium flood stage – The river is called in medium floods when its water level is at or above the danger level of the forecasting station but below 0.50 of its highest flood level (HFL) (iii)    High flood state – When the water level of the river is below the HFL but within 0.50 m of the HFL of the forecasting stations. (iv)    Unprecedented flood stage – The river is called in unprecedented floods when it attains water level equal to or above its previous HFL at any forecasting stations. A computerized monitoring system has been developed under which daily water levels as observed at 0800 hours and forecasts issued by field units are transmitted to CWC headquarters in New Delhi. Based on the compilation of all such data received from field divisions, daily water level and flood forecast bulletins in two parts for stage and for inflow forecasting stations respectively. Tsunami warning – Indian National Centre for Oceanic Information System (INCOIS) Post tsunami dated 26th December, 2004, Ministry of Earth Sciences has established the Indian National Tsunami Warning System at Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad. The Tsunami Early Warning System (TEWS) was made operational on 15th Oct 2007. This agency has developed a protocol for issue for Tsunami Watch, Alert and Warnings. The Centre gives information to all responders about the origin, time, location of the epicenter, magnitude and depth of an earthquake inside the ocean and accordingly issues bulletins. The system is capable of detecting all earthquake events of more than 6 Magnitude occurring in the Indian Ocean in less than 20 minutes of occurrence and first report on the occurrence of an earthquake in India and the Indian Ocean region to sent to MHA within 2530 minutes indicating the location and magnitude of the earthquake. Further, if any rise in water level is reported by NIOT, TEWC would issue a Tsunami warning within 60 minutes of the occurrence of the earthquake. The information so generated would be disseminated through vario u2s1communication channels to the concerned user agencies in a fully automated mode. Warning about Landslide hazard – Geological Survey of India (GSI) Geological Survey of India (GSI), established in 1851 is a government organization under the Union Ministry of Mines with the Headquarter at New Delhi for conducting geological surveys and studies. It is one of the oldest of such organizations in the world. The GSI was designated as nodal agency for coordinating geological studies, landslides hazard zonation, monitoring landslides, avalanches, studying the factors responsible and suggesting precautionary and preventive measure on 29th January, 2004. The input from GSI as nodal agency help the Ministries and Departments concerned in the Central Government as well as the State Government for taking appropriate preventive and mitigation measures for reducing landslide hazard and responding in the mountainous areas and hill in the Himalayan and sub Himalayan regions. GSI is the nodal agency responsible for early warning relating to the landslides in the country. Study of Land Contour by GSI: Geological Survey of India (GSI) studies the shape and material of the land getting inundated and generates data on area, shape, slope, infiltration and permeability of soil of the basin, drainage pattern, landform and longitudinal and cross profiles of the channels. On the basis of these studies, GSI produces flood hazard maps indicating Prohibitive, Restricted, Cautionary and Flood Free Zones. Significant flood related studies and recommendations made by GSI are as follows: •    Brahmaputra Valley - a comprehensive geo-environmental data base for environmental management and flood control generated, •    Lower Banas sub-basin - selective irrigation to prevent rise of groundwater table recommended, • Kandi basin in West Bengal- GSI recommended construction of small weirs to reduce impact of flood, •    Mokameh Tal area in the Ganga Flood plain - rejuvenation of existing drainage channels to reduce flood problem recommended, •    Lower Damodar Basin- diversion along artificial canals and re-excavation of old river channel recommended, •    Landslide zonation map for Himalayan region, •    The contribution of snow melting to annual flood. GSI’s flood related studies are used by Central Water Commission, Water Resource Development Project Authorities, Urban and Rural Planning Authorities, Ministry of Environment and Forest, Ministry of Agriculture, etc. Avalanche warning – Defence Research & Development Organization (DRDO) DRDO was formed in 1958 with the amalgamation of the then already functioning technical deve lopm ent establishments of the Indian Army and the Directorate of Technical Development and projection with the Defence Science Organization. DRDO was then a small organization with 10 establishment or laboratories. Over the years it has grown as multi directionally in terms of the Variety of disciplines, number of laboratories, achievements and stature. Today network of more than fifty laboratories are deeply engaged in developing Defence technologies. Center for Snow and Avalanche Study Establishment (SASE) is one of the laboratories of the DRDO located at Chandigarh with its primary function to do research in the field of snow and avalanches and to provide avalanche control measures and forecasting support to Armed forces. The SASE is the nodal agency for issuing advisories and warnings about the avalanche in the country. 10.4    Disaster Management Support (DMS) – Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) The Space activities in the country started during early 1960s with the scientific investigation of upper atmosphere and ionosphere over the magnetic equator that passes over Thumba near Thiruvananthapuram using small sounding rockets Realising the immense potential of space technology for national development, Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, the visionary leader envisioned that this powerful technology could play a meaningful role in national development and solving the problems of common man. The objective of ISRO is to develop space technology and its application to various national tasks. ISRO has established two major space systems, INSAT for communication, television broadcasting and meteorological services, and Indian Remote Sensing Satellites (IRS) system for resources monitoring and management. ISRO has developed two satellite launch vehicles, PSLV and GSLV, to place INSAT and IRS satellites in the required orbits. Accordingly, ISRO has successfully operationalised two major satellite systems namely Indian National Satellites (INSAT) for communication services and Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites for management of natural resources; also, Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) for launching IRS type of satellites and Geostationary Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) for launching INSAT type of satellites. The Disaster Management Support (DMS) Programme of ISRO, provides timely support and services from aero-space systems, both imaging and communications, towards efficient management of disasters in the country.. The DMS programme addresses disasters such as flood, cyclone, drought, forest fire, landslide and Earthquake. These include creation of digital data base for facilitating hazard zonation, damage assessment, etc., monitoring of major natural disasters using satellite and aerial data; development of appropriate techniques and tools for decision support, establishing satellite based reliable communication network, deployment of emergency communication equipments and R&D towards early warning of disasters. To s uppo rt the total cycle of disaster (emergency) management for the country in near real time, the database creation is addressed through National Database for Emergency Management (NDEM), a GIS based repository of data. NDEM is envisaged to have core data, hazard-specific data and dynamic data in spatial as well as spatial form. Airborne ALTM-DC data acquisition is being carried out for the flood prone basins in the country. The development of flight model of C band DMSAR is nearing completion. SAR data was acquired over selected basins using Development model of DMSAR. Towards providing emergency communication for disaster management activities and at the behest of Ministry of Home Affairs, ISRO has set up a satellite based Virtual Private Network (VPN) linking the National Control Room at MHA with DMS-DSC at NRSC, important national agencies, key Government Offices in Delhi and the Control Rooms of 22 multi-hazard-prone States. Further ISRO has developed and deployed INSAT Type-D terminals (portable satellite phones), INSAT based Distress Alert Transmitter (DAT) for fishermen, Cyclone Warning Dissemination System (CWCS) and DTH based Digital Disaster Warning System (DDWS) in disaster prone areas. As part of R&D support to DMS for remote sensing applications, work on Tropical Cyclone Track intensity and landfall prediction, Earthquake Precursor studies, Coastal Vulnerability mapping and Early Warning of Landslides are being carried out. The DMS programme is also supporting the many international initiatives by sharing data and information. Through International Charter “Space and Major Disasters” and Sentinel Asia (SA) initiative for supporting disaster management activities in the Asia-Pacific region, ISRO is providing IRS datasets and other information for use during major calamities. 10.5    Radiological and Nuclear Emergencies Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) is the nodal agency for providing the necessary technical inputs to the National or local authorities for responding to any nuclear or radiological emergency. The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) is the nodal ministry to coordinate with the various response agencies in the event of any nuclear or radiological disaster in the public domain. A Crisis Management Group (CMG) has been functioning since 1987 at DAE for this purpose. This Group is chaired by the Additional Secretary, DAE, and has on board expert members from different units of DAE and Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB). Each member has an alternate member and CMG is backed by resource agencies of various units of DAE. Based on the radiological conditions and their consequences, emergencies at nuclear facilities are categorized as emergency standby, personnel emergency, plant emergency, on-site emergency and off-site emergency. As a basic regulatory requirement, emergency preparedness exists at all nuclear and radiation facilities to respond to any on-site or off-site emergency in their area s. But to handle radiological emergencies arising from a transport 1accident or from the movement or handling of ‘orphan source’ (radioactive sources that have lost regulatory control is called ‘orphan sources’) or due to malevolent acts like explosion of an RDD, Radiation Exposure Device (RED) or IND any time or anywhere in the country, a network of 18 units of Emergency Response Centers (ERCs) has been established by Bhabha Atomic Research Center, DAE. These ERCs are equipped with radiation monitoring instruments, protective gear and other supporting infrastructure. Installation of Radiological Detection Equipment As a part of preparedness measure Radioactive Detection Equipments (RDE’s) are being installed at entry and exit points in the country. On the initiatives of MHA and in consultation with the various Stakeholders, the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) and Electric Corporation of India Limited (ECIL) a technical survey of the entry and exit points in a phased manner was undertake for installation of the RDE’s. The survey for installation of RDEs at 29 entry/exit points has been identified by BARC (12 seaports, 14 airports and 3 international borders). The responsibility of installation of these RDE’s rest with the concerned Ministries and Departments as the responsibility for allocating funds for prevention, mitigation etc. for Disaster rests with the concerned Central Ministries and Departments. As such Ministry of Shipping, Ministry of Civil aviation and Ministry of Home Affairs are taking necessary action to carryout installation of RDE’s in the time bound manner in consultation with BARC and ECIL. Epidemic Three core capacities are essentially required to deal with epidemics. These are (i)    Establishment/strengthening of a laboratory based disease surveillance system to collect baseline data on infectious diseases, monitor disease trends and to detect epidemics in early rising phase, (ii)    Development of epidemiological, clinical, entomological and laboratory capacities to investigate the epidemics to characterize the cases in terms of time, person and place and to understand the transmission dynamics, and (iii)    Development of response capacities to prevent/control the epidemics to reduce the morbidity and mortality to the minimum. The outbreaks/epidemics are usually investigated by the district or state Rapid Response Teams. Several central/regional institutes like National Centre for Disease Control (formerly National Institute of Communicable Diseases), Delhi; National Institute of Virology, Pune; National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata; Vector Control Research Centre, Puducherry and other ICMR institutes provide epidemiological, laboratory and entomological support to ther states for investigation and control when the outbreaks/epidemics are widespread and states request for assistance. Also there is increasing collaboration with Department of Animal Husbandry in managing emerging zoonotic diseases such as avian influenza and Crimean Congo Hemorrhagic fever. 10.6    Preparedness Annual Conference of Relief Commissioners and Secretaries of States and UTs: An annual Conference of Relief Commissioners, Secretaries, to the Department of Disaster Management of States and UTs is organized before the onset of south west monsoon to review the status of preparedness for ensuing Monsoon and to discuss other disaster management related issues. The representatives of various Central Ministries, Organizations rendering Emergency Support Functions besides representatives of Central Para-Military Forces also participate. Trigger Mechanism This mechanism has been developed to activate the disaster response system automatically after receiving warning signals of a disaster happening or likely to happen or on receipt of information about the incident. The responders are required to undertake activities as per the SOPs issued in respect of such disasters. There may be scenario where early warning signals could be available and there may happen a disaster without any early warning. Crisis Management Plan (CMP) and Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) In accordance with National Crisis Management Plan 2003 of the Cabinet Secretariat, MHA has formulated its CMP 2004 and circulated it to all States and UTs. The CMP of MHA comprises of two parts; Part-I deals with aspects, which are common to all contingencies situations and Part-II about the individual Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for dealing with specific crisis situation. SOPs are preparedness plan which emerges and activates the procedure for response on receipt of calamity or receipt of figure of impending disaster. It identifies the financial and administration powers to the people made responsible for the procedure. The CMP of MHA is reviewed periodically. It was last reviewed in 2009 and was circulated to all Ministries and Departments of Central Government as well as States and UTs. An SOP for management of Natural Disasters formulated by this Ministry has also been circulated vide this Ministry’s letter No.32-35/2003-NDM-I dated 21-04-2009. The State Governments have been advised to formulate the similar kind of the CMP and SOPs. MHA has conducted number of training workshops for the States and UTs for assisting them in formulation of the SOPs. Role and Responsibility of Central and State Governments Mini stry1of Home Affairs is the nodal Ministry for management of natural disasters (other than drought, hailstorm and pest attack, which are handled by Ministry of Agriculture) on behalf of the Government of India. Disaster Management Division (DM Division) performs the function in the Ministry of Home Affairs. The Central and State Governments are jointly responsible for undertaking relief, rehabilitation, preparedness, mitigation and response measures. The basic responsibility for undertaking these measures in the event of a disaster rests with the concerned State Government. The Central Government supplements the efforts of the State Governments by providing logistic and financial support in case of natural calamities of severe nature. The logistic support includes deployment of aircrafts and boats, specialist teams of Armed Forces, Central Paramilitary Forces and personnel of National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), arrangements for relief materials & essential commodities including medical stores, restoration of critical infrastructure facilities including communication network and such other assistance as may be required by the affected States to meet the situation effectively. DM Division of MHA closely monitors the disaster and disaster like situation to facilitate strategic interventions in the form of logistic and financial support by the Government of India to augment the resources of the affected States and UTs to deal effectively with each disaster situation. For this purpose close liaison is made with the affected States on the one side and the concerned Central line Ministries such as Ministry of Health, Ministry of Defence Ministry of Civil Aviation, Food and Civil Supplies etc on the other. National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC) At the Centre, under the Chairmanship of the Cabinet Secretary the NCMC has been constituted in the Cabinet Secretariat. The other members of this Committee include the Secretary to the Prime Minister, Secretaries of the Ministries of Home Affairs, Defence, Information & Broadcasting, RAW, NDMA, Deputy NSA and Director of Intelligence Bureau. Secretary (Security) Cabinet Secretariat is the convener of the NCMC. The NCMC gives direction to the Crisis Management Group as deemed necessary. Crisis Management Group (CMG)/National Executive Committee This is a group under the Chairmanship of the Home Secretary comprising the senior officers from the various ministries and other concerned departments. CMG’s function is to review contingency plans every year formulated by the Central Ministries/ Departments and the measures required for dealing with a natural disaster; co-ordinate the activities of the Central Ministries and the State Governments in relation to disaster preparedness and relief and to obtaininformation from the nodal officers on measures relating to the above. The Joint Secretary (DM) is the Convener of CMG for natural disasters. nr 1/2019                                                                            14 State Crisis Management Group (SCMG) There is a State Crisis Management Group (SCMG) under the Chairmanship of Chief Secretary and Relief Commissioner. This Group comprises senior officers from the Departments of Revenue/relief, Home, Civil Supplies, Power, Irrigation, Water Supply, Panchayat (local selfgovernment), Agriculture, Forests, rural Development, and health, Planning, Public Works and Finance. The SCMG is required to take into consideration the guidance received, from time to time, from Government of India and formulate action plans for dealing with different natural disasters. It is also the duty of the Relief Commissioner of the State to establish a Emergency Operation Center (Control Room) at State headquarters as soon as a disaster situation develops. Besides having all updated information on forecasting and warning of disaster, the EOC would also be the contact point for the various concerned agencies. Role of District Administration The district Administration is the focal point for field level organizations. It is responsible for implementation of all government contingency plans. Considerable powers have therefore been wrested upon the District Collector to carry out operations in the shortest possible time. The District Administration in the country is required to prepare an advance Contingency Plan depending on the type of disaster likely to affect the district. Contingency Plans are to follow a framework as laid down nationally which comprises type of preparedness, the relief material required to be mobilized and the concerned departments that need to work together and provide an efficient feedback and monitoring system. The District Magistrate exercises coordinating and supervisory powers over functionaries of all the Departments at the district level in the event of emergencies. During actual operations for disaster mitigation or relief, the powers of the Collector are considerably enhanced, generally, by standing instructions or orders on the subject, or by specific Governments orders, if so required. Sometimes, the administrative culture of the State concerned permits, although informally, the collector to exercise higher powers in emergency situations and the decisions are later ratified by the competent authority. District Relief Committee: The district level Relief Committee consisting of official and non-official members including the local Legislators and the Members of Parliament reviews the relief measures. Role of Sub-district Administration A District is sub-divided into sub-divisions and Tehsils or Talukas. The head of a sub-division is ca lled the Sub-Divisional Officer (SDO) while the head of a Tehsil is generally known as the Tehsildar (Talukdar or Mamlatdar in some States). Contact with the individual villages is through the village Officer or Patwari who has one or more villages in his charge. When a disaster is apprehended, the entire machinery of the District, including officers of technical and other Departments, swings into action and maintains almost continuous contact with each village in the disaster threatened area. In the case of extensive disasters like drought, contact is maintained over a short cycle of a few days. The entire hierarchy right from the Central Government (the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation in the Ministry of Agriculture and irrigation) to the District level is connected by means of a telecommunication system. Control Rooms National Emergency Operation Centre (NEOC) The National Emergency Operation Centre (NEOC) in the Ministry of Home Affairs functions 24X7 to monitor the disaster or disaster like situation. Based on the feedback received from National Forecasting Agencies viz Indian Meteorological Department, Central Water Commission, Snow & Avalanche Study Establishment etc. advisories to the concerned States/UTs are issued from time to time for keeping watch on the developing situation and take necessary measures such as evacuation of the vulnerable persons, operation of relief camps, pre positioning of essential commodities etc. During the south west monsoon, daily situation reports (sitreps) are prepared based on the feedback received from the affected States and concerned Central Ministries and organizations, and are sent to all concerned. During the calamities of severe nature, special situation reports are also prepared and issued to all concerned. NEOC also issue SMS alerts to the concerned officers in MHA, PMO and Cabinet Secretariat. These reports are also uploaded on the website www.ndmindia.nic.in.. 10.7    Conclusion: In conclusion, disaster preparedness is a fundamental investment in resilience and sustainability. By fostering a culture of readiness and equipping stakeholders with the knowledge, skills, and resources needed to anticipate, respond to, and recover from disasters, we can significantly reduce loss and suffering. Effective preparedness efforts not only save lives but also minimize economic disruption and facilitate faster recovery. Moreover, integrating preparedness into development planning and policy-making processes can help build more resilient societies capable of withstanding and adapting to a wide range of hazards, both natural and human-induced. However, successful disaster preparedness requires ongoing commitment, collaboration, and investment from governments, organizations, communities, and individuals. Continuous improvement based on lessons learned from past experiences, coupled with innovation and technology, is essential to enhance preparedness efforts and address emerging risks. By prioritizing disaster preparedness as a shared responsibility and a cornerstone of sustainable development, we can build safer, more resilient communities and ensure a more secure future for all. 10.8    Self Check Exercises a.    Forecasting System b.    Disaster preparedness c.    Radiological and Nuclear Emergencies 10.9    Glossary Remote sensing- Remote sensing is the process of detecting and monitoring the physical characteristics of an area by measuring its reflected and emitted radiation at a distance (typically from satellite or aircraft. Tsunami – is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Spatial - connected with the size or position and area of something 10.10    Answers to self check exercises a. see 10.3                b. see 10.6                c. see 10.5 10.11    Terminal questions Q1 Discuss the institutional arrangements for disaster preparedness. Q2 How forecasting system in India is helpful in disaster preparedness? Suggested Readings https://asdma.gov.in/ Chapter-11 Relief and Rehabilitation Structure 11.0      Learning Objectives 11.1       Introduction 11.2          Disaster Relief 11.3      Disaster Rehabilitation 11.4         Recovery 11.5          Some Indian Experiences in recovery in the last two decades 11.6         Conclusion 11.7         Self-Check Exercises 11.8         Glossary 11.9         Answer to self check exercise 11.10        Terminal questions 11.11        Suggested Reading 11.0     Learning Objectives After studying this lesson, the learner will be able to -            Have an understanding about Disaster relief and rehabilitation phases -            Have an understanding about Disaster recovery 11.1    Introduction The disaster relief phase involves providing direct assistance through measures to alleviate suffering and often by providing financial assistance to people who are impacted. Relief can also include counselling and other support services. Relief is significant because it is critical to engage with the impacted community at a time when people are most at-risk. Activities in the relief phase include evacuations, establishment of relief centres, providing temporary shelter and first aid. During the relief phase, emergency services are critical and, usually in the case of bushfires, involves individual and community volunteers who can serve and protect people and property. Such organisations in Australia include Army Reserves and state-based services like the Rural Fire Service and Country Fire Authority. Key stakeholders that engage in this phase include fire services, police services etc. Relief actions like providing water supplies and temporary housing often continue to be vital for months after immediate relief begins. 11.2    Disaster Relief Disaster Relief is the process of responding to a disaster event that has led to adverse impact on the lives of the affected community, to alleviate the suffering and providing humanitarian aid. Relief refers to the provision of appropriate essential services to the affected community in a timely manner based on the initial rapid assessment of the immediate requirements after disasters. The evacuation of people from their residence in cases of risk of the occurrence of disasters, and thereby provisions of emergency services including temporary shelter and immediate needs like food, clothing, non-food items etc. are also considered under disaster relief. In the alleviation of sufferings of the affected community, the phase of disaster relief is usually considered up to six months from the occurrence of the incident. It includes the immediate aftermath when essentials are required and extends up to the rehabilitation phase of disaster response/ recovery sometimes overlapping with it. Disaster Recovery needs to be synchronized with rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts in order to bring about quicker and effective recovery of the affected community. The following figure (Figure-1) indicates the Disaster Recovery cycle with an indicative timeline of the steps post disaster event and corresponding unit cost of materials. The First facet of disaster recovery is the Relief that starts with the disaster event and extends till stability is reached (usually about 6 months post the devastating event). This is followed by the Rehabilitation and Reconstruction phases that start post some stability is reached. Proper needs assessment is an important component of these phases and thereby the requirement for stability. There are certain international laws that necessitate disaster relief (Haider, 2013). The International Human Rights Law indicates that it is the duty of the state to protect and to fulfil human rights of their people within the administrative jurisdiction of the state. The key sources of the Law includes the International covenants on Civil and Political Rights and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966, the Convention on Prevention and Punishment of Genocide, 1948, Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, 1979, Regional IDP conventions and International Customary Law including jus cogensnorms. The key provisions of the International Human Rights law are Political Rights that includes Right to life, freedom from torture, freedom of movement etc. The economic and social rights include Right to food, housing, clothing, health, livelihood, adequate standard 145 of living etc. These are also to be provided to the citizens of nation as per the Constitution. Humanitarian assistance, thus, becomes an obligation on the part of the State, as legal space is present for individuals to claim right to humanitarian assistance. Based on the experience of various agencies in disaster response, there is a set of laws, rules and principles dealing with International Disaster Response (termed as IDRL). It aims to improve international humanitarian framework covering humanitarian assistance to the affected population. The IDRL applies to both state and non-state actors and are based on treaties (international, regional, bilateral), nonbinding UN resolutions, non-binding ‘Guidelines for Domestic Facilitation and Regulation of International Disaster Relief and Initial Recovery Assistance’, 2007 as well as the International Law Commission’s draft articles on protection of persons in the event of disasters. The key provisions of such laws ensure sovereignty of the state as a key feature of international disaster assistance, and attribute the primary responsibility for all aspects of humanitarian assistance within its territory (initiation, organization, coordination and implementation) onto the state. The IDRL also highlights the importance rather than right of humanitarian assistance in disaster contexts. Humanitarian Principles Humanitarian response to disasters are based on four key pillars: o Humanity– Human sufferings must be addressed wherever it is found protecting lives, health and ensuring respect for human beings o  Neutrality– Humanitarian actors must not be biased or take any side in hostilities or be engaged in controversies of political, racial, religious or ideological nature. o Impartiality – carried out on the basis of need alone, giving priority to the most urgent cases and making no distinction on the basis of nationality, race, gender, religious belief, class or political opinions o Operational Independence– autonomous from political, economic, military, or other objectives that any actors may hold with regards to areas where humanitarian action is implemented. It becomes extremely important to respond to disaster situations upkeeping the 4 pillars of humanitarian principles for an effective, equitable and just disaster relief. Disaster Relief – Materials and Guidelines The basic ideology of disaster aid is to alleviate sufferings of disaster-affected population and to provide to them materials and support for ensuring their survival without affecting their dignity . In order to provide an effective, needs oriented response strategy, certain minimum standards are suggested for 146 humanitarian relief. (The Sphere Project 2011, 2013) .These standards for humanitarian relief are recognized as “Sphere Standards”. The following are essential constituents of disaster relief: Participation of disaster affected community in the assessment, design, implementation and evaluation of assistance programmes . Initial Assessment on the parameters of threats to life, dignity, health and livelihoods in order to determine the requirement and nature of the response. Response when needs are unmet, and the relevant authorities in the area are unable or unwilling to respond to protection and assistance of the affected population under their jurisdiction. Equitable and Impartial assistance based on the vulnerability and needs of individuals or groups affected by disaster. Monitoring effectiveness of response and changes incorporated to improve the assistance program or phasing out, as required. Evaluation of humanitarian action, intended to draw lessons for improving practice and policy and enhance accountability. Ensuring aid workers competencies and responsibilities including qualifications, attitude and experience to plan and effectively implement the appropriate program. Supervision, management and support of personnel to ensure effective relief. Based on the above considerations, few standards are set for ensuring minimum requirements of Water, Sanitation, Food, Nutrition, Shelter and Healthcare to satisfy basic right to life with dignity in the disaster affected community. Water supply, Sanitation and Hygiene promotion: §    All hygiene facilities and resources provided must reflect the vulnerabilities, needs and preferences of the affected population and the users are involved in the management and maintenance of facilities. §    All the affected communities must have safe and equitable access to sufficient quantity of water for drinking, cooking and personal/ domestic hygiene along with the adequate facilities to collect, store and use required sufficient quantities of water. §    Water provided must be palatable, and of sufficient quality to be drunk and used for other uses without significant risk to health. §    Adequate number of all-day, safe, and rapidly accessible toilets preferably close to their dwellings, designed, constructed and maintained in a hygienic manner. §    Disaster affected population to be sufficiently aware of vector control measures to prevent risk to health/ well-being. §    Disaster affected population should have the access to solid waste management/ disposal facilities. §    Proper drainage arrangements must be ensured in order to avoid the problem of land erosion or the condition of water logging due to disaster events. Food Security, Nutrition, Food- Aid: §    Response to provide food supplies must be respectful keeping in view the local context of food preferences, access, impact of disaster events on current and future food security, meeting nutrition needs of the affected population etc. §    If the affected population is at risk of malnutrition, the appropriate assistance program must be based on the cause, type, degree and extent of malnutrition keeping in mind micronutrient deficiencies. §    Affected people should have the access to adequate food and non-food items of appropriate quality in order to ensure their survival, prevent erosion of assets and upholds the affected person’s dignity with protection and support of primary production mechanisms of food and unrestricted access to markets. §    To ensure that the affected people have income generation/ employment opportunities to generate fair remuneration and contribute towards food security. §    Rations for food distribution must be designed to bridge gaps between populations requirement and their own food resources. §    Ensuring that food is stored, prepared and consumed in a safe and appropriate manner at the household and community levels. Shelter, Settlement and Non-Food items: §    Existing shelter and settlement solutions must be prioritized through a quick disposal system. §    To facilitate returning of community dwellers to their original dwellings with improved hygienic and safe conditions through appropriate physical planning. §    Any construction activity undertaken must be in accordance with the local safe building practices and must maximize livelihood opportunities and minimizing adverse environmental impacts with respect to material sourcing and construction techniques. §    Disaster affected people must possess sufficient clothing, blankets, bedding to ensure dignity, safety and well being with access to items of personal hygiene (soap etc.), cooking and eating utensils, cooking facilities including fuel, and artificial lighting. §    Disaster affected households in need of maintenance or construction/ safe use of their shelter must have access to necessary tools and equipments. Health Services § Standardized Health services (following accepted protocols and guidelines)delivered by trained, competent health workers , and consistent supply of essential medicines and consumables must be accessible to all, coordinated by the responding agencies §    Primary healthcare services must be kept free for disaster victims during disasters. §    The delivery of health services must be guided by collection, analysis, interpretation and utilization of relevant public health data §    Essential health services must be prioritized to address the main causes of excess morbidity and mortality following disaster event, including diagnostic facilities focusing on: New born and children Addressal of injuries to prevent avoidable morbidity, mortality and disability Prevention/ Reduction of mental health problems and associated impaired functioning Prevalent chronic health conditions § Corresponding information relating to the excess morbidity and mortality through communicable diseases and the availability of treatment/ healthcare must be shared with all affected people §    Prevention of vaccine-preventable diseases must be ensured by health agencies once the disaster situation stabilizes §    Reproductive health services of the Minimum Initial Services Package (MISP) must be made available and accessible on priority during the onset of emergencies (including access to minimum set of HIV prevention, treatment care and support) and comprehensive Reproductive health as the situation stabilizes Disaster Relief- key components Post Disaster reliefs or aids are usually arrived in the form of funds, foods, medicines, equipments, building materials, technical assistance, or debt relief. Relief activities usually include the provision of food, medicines and healthcare, safe drinking water and sanitation, temporary shelters, sense of security 149 and psychological and social first aid. Relief workers focus is on meeting the immediate needs of the affected individuals and community. The affected area receives disaster aid from domestic and foreign sources. Such disaster aid is then distributed among the affected community. The process of raising a request for disaster aid involves Flash Appeals by certain agencies from/ on behalf of the disaster affected nation and the corresponding pledges and disbursement of disaster aid in response to the appeals. Flash appeals includes identifying needs of the affected community, coordinating a strategic response in order to satisfy the needs, followed by publicizing funds and materials need in order to carry forward the response to disaster events along with inventorying relief and early recovery projects. Flash appeals are generally made by the government of the disaster affected nation. Irrespective of the appeals made by the administration of the affected area, to help victims of the extreme event, any NGO may also make such appeal. If the disaster event affects a very large number of people, the United Nations (UN) could also make an appeal to the nations and potential donors across the globe on behalf of a disaster affected country or countries (Paul, 2011). A pledge is a non-binding promise that is often very general, and could also be a ministerial statement. It could include emergency relief and reconstruction aid. Donor agencies cannot generally give away funding or any other form of aid without terms of reference or contract that specifies the utilization specifying its intent and objectives. Disaster Aid is the fund/ materials towards disaster relief that is actually released by the donor agencies to the disaster affected nations. 11.4 Disaster Rehabilitation Rehabilitation phase starts after the completion or near completion of immediate response stage, when order begins to be restored and an estimate of losses/ damages due to the disaster could roughly be assessed.Rehabilitation may be defined as “an overall dynamic and intermediate strategy of institutional reform and reinforcement, reconstruction and improvement of infrastructure and services, aimed towards the support of the initiatives and actions of the affected population in the political, economic and social domains, as well as reiteration of sustainable development.” (NDMA, 2016). The efforts on post disaster reconstruction and rehabilitation (that are important facets of disaster recovery) are considered as opportunities to “build back better”. They are seen as enablers for mainstreaming disaster risk reduction efforts and embedding Risk reduction into developmental measures for building resilient communities. Rehabilitation can be classified into four categories: 1.    Physical Rehabilitation– Reconstruction of physical infrastructure which includes land use planning, micro and macro-zonation, retrofitting, Disaster resilient cropping patterns, watershed management etc. It also includes the aspects of Relocation. 2.    Social Rehabilitation– These includes restoration of social structures in the destruction areas and may emphasize upon the vulnerable groups like children, elderly, women and marginalized communities. 3.    Economic Rehabilitation – includes livelihood restoration and business continuity, so that income generation is restored with particular emphasis on sustainable employment/ income generation. 4.    Psychological Rehabilitation– includes stress management with particular focus on PostTraumatic Stress Disorders Rehabilitation programs must include the understanding developed over time about the systematic causes and the long-term consequences of the disaster event (Niazi). The vulnerability of the community that was exacerbated by the exposure to the disaster event must be addressed in this stage of disaster management by mainly addressing the altered poverty levels emerging after the disaster. Immediate relief and reconstruction activities including physical rehabilitation, provides immediate boost to the local economy. When such physical measures are supported by the improvement in land, water and environmental resource management, with improvement of economic opportunities, the vulnerabilities could be addressed effectively, thus ultimately improving the quality of life and disasters thus provide the window of opportunity during the rehabilitation phase to gradually introduce to the community concepts like better construction practice, rainwater harvesting, improved sanitation, sewerage and drainage thereby promoting better management of resources. Figure-3 indicates the steps from Disasters to sustainable development. Rehabilitation must, therefore, be undertaken taking into consideration the detailed socio-economic profile of the affected community and risk assessments with monitoring and evaluation frameworks in place. Past interventions (pre-disaster development related schemes and programs and post-disaster interventions) must be monitored and analyzed to avoid creating or exacerbating risks. A community led process, in coordination with local staff would ensure proper planning and implementation of rehabilitation programs. The local government thus plays a very important role in the rehabilitation of disaster-affected community. PDNA & Rehabilitation Post Disaster Needs Assessment is a prerequisite for planning disaster Rehabilitation (IFRC, 2012). A detailed needs assessment would bring about the requirement for interventions at various levels. Based on these identified requirements, rehabilitation strategy is prepared that considers the following : 151 The nature of disaster and the resultant type, scale and extent of damages Proper stakeholder analysis Coordination between various agencies involved in rehabilitation Risk management to ensure new risks are not built into the community during the rehabilitation/ development phase and focusing on Disaster Risk Reduction efforts Gender sensitive redevelopment Environmental and other resource considerate redevelopment in the form of interventions that bring about sustainable improvement in the quality of life. Balancing needs with available resources are critical in the rehabilitation stage. Relief stage might attract large international and national aid while the rehabilitation stage might not garner the same amount of attention. Thus prioritization of investment would be a key requirement for effective rehabilitation. Bottlenecks for rehabilitation include (Aysan & Davis, 1993): Funds– sources and distribution Materials for reconstruction, livelihood diversification or resource management Equipment and tools– for facilitation of reconstruction and rehabilitation Energy/ Power– for critical infrastructure and facilitate economic rebuilding of affected community Land– especially post devastating disasters like landslides, floods, soil/ sea erosion etc. Human resources– due to casualty or outmigration Data– reliable information could be problematic due to the decentralized work environment and lack of inter agency coordination Administrative structures and organizations– due to excess work pressure on public sector 11.4    Recovery : The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) defines recovery as the “decisions and actions taken after a disaster with a view to restore or improve the pre-disaster living conditions of the stricken community, while encouraging and facilitating necessary adjustments to reduce disaster risk”. While emergency response is vital as it is aimed at saving human lives and providing relief, the ultimate objective of any crisis management is restoration of devastated livelihoods. Recovery efforts following rescue and relief in any disaster can be classified into short term and long term. The short term activities for recovery are debris clearance, providing semi-permanent shelter and ensuring sanitation and restoring lifelines, while the long term activities involve building a safer and more sustainable livelihood. Nature of Recovery The damage caused by floods, earthquakes and cyclones is on a much larger scale than other disasters and recovery after these disasters poses a challenge. In disasters like drought, 152 the relief phase is prolonged and since there is no damage to the infrastructure and property, the rehabilitation is confined to restoration of livelihoods which can get subsumed in normal development programmes. Recovery in case of epidemics is more in the form of sanitising the locality against any future recurrence and may also involve counseling of the victims. Industrial disasters being quite varied in nature, the rehabilitation in major ones like the ‘Bhopal Gas Tragedy’ could involve rehabilitation efforts spanning over a generation of victims apart from restoring livelihoods and providing social and psychological assistance. Rehabilitation following disasters such as landslides and avalanches is localised and is of a similar nature as in earthquakes but on a smaller scale. Finding safer sites near such locations often poses challenges and resistance. Guiding Principles for Post-Recovery •    Mainstreaming disaster risk reduction in recovery and development process, •    Improving coordination, •    Promoting participatory approaches and decentralising planning and programming for recovery, • Enhancing safety standards and integrating risk reduction in reconstruction and development, • Improving the living conditions of the affected communities and sectors, •    Building local and national capacities for increased resilience, risk management and sustainable development, •    Taking advantage of ongoing initiatives, •    Gender sensibility, •    Demonstrative effects, •    Monitoring, evaluation and learning. Assessment The first step after stabilizing the situation by providing sufficient relief is to assess the damage. A meticulously executed assessment exercise would provide an ideal base for the rehabilitation efforts. This exercise is best carried out through multi-disciplinary teams which go into all aspects of damage (social, economical, psychological) in participation with the local community. Based on the assessment of the damage and the needs, a recovery strategy has to be formulated. The strategy should include all interventions - economic, social, political and psychological. The resources should be identified and the roles and responsibilities of all concerned should be defined. Co-ordination Following any major disaster, a number of players arrive on the scene and as already 153 stated, ensuring proper coordination amongst them thus becomes very important. Recovery activities are taken up by government agencies, local bodies, international agencies, voluntary organisations and others, through separate, overlapping and uncoordinated interventions. This leads to imbalances in the scale of operations, duplication of efforts in some areas, gaps in others and leakage and misuse of resources. Therefore establishing a framework for coordination is necessary for effective recovery. The role of voluntary organisations including international ones like the Red Cross is extremely useful for mitigating the impact of disaster. The administration is also required to set up a voluntary organisations’ coordination centre to coordinate the relief and rehabilitation activities of the multiple organisations so that they are not concentrated in a few pockets. It is often observed that post-disaster recovery efforts tend to focus on rapid and visible solutions to restore normalcy at the cost of sustainable development. The post-disaster recovery phase provides a ‘window of opportunity’ for disaster risk reduction. Risk reduction aspects should therefore be built into the redevelopment process. Shelter Shelter is one of the most visible and immediate needs in post-crisis settings. Relief efforts are often focused on providing shelter quickly, without taking into account the impact of short term shelter strategies. Long-term shelter strategies help not only to focus on determination and implementation of realistic and permanent reconstruction plans for the affected communities, but are also concerned with rebuilding community confidence and support structure for civic responsibility and urban governance, through participatory planning of reconstruction. The development of disaster resistant housing is a major factor in reducing vulnerability to disasters. However, shelter issues in mitigation go beyond the structural aspects. Rights to ownership and security of tenure make an enormous difference to the maintenance, management and development of shelter, particularly in urban areas. Sustainability in Recovery Process Normally, it is seen that the recovery efforts have a tendency of tapering off with the passage of time. The Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery of the UNDP has also observed “the general experience is that once the initial flurry of activities of providing rescue and relief is over, the attention received by the recovery efforts goes on declining steadily over a period of time and ‘business as usual’ sets in”. The sustainability component in recovery process therefore is important. This could be achieved by capability building of the community and awareness generation and preparing local crisis management plans. Accountability A system of accountability needs to be evolved during the relief and rehabilitation phase. This 154 system should ensure that the relief material reaches the target groups and that the funds are being utilised efficiently and optimally. A grievance redressal mechanism should also be put in place. Evaluation After the recovery phase, it is necessary to conduct a detailed evaluation of all aspects of crisis management. This should bring out the strengths and weaknesses of the disaster management machinery and also provide the basis for future improvements. Such an evaluation should be carried out by an independent professional agency like the NIDM, in all major disasters. This assessment should also include a quick audit of the expenditure incurred. Guidance Notes on Recovery The International Recovery Platform (IRP) and United Nations Development Programme India have developed Guidance Notes on Recovery on nine sectors namely Shelter, Infrastructure, Gender, Livelihood, Environment, Governance, Climate Change, Health and Psycho-social support. These are initial steps in documenting, collecting and sharing disaster recovery experiences and lessons. This collection of the successes and failures of past experiences in disaster recovery is expected to help in the planning and implementation of future recovery initiatives. The aim of the guidance notes is not to recommend actions, but to place before the personnel involved in the risk-reducing recovery process a menu of options. The sector specific Guidance Notes are primarily intended for use by policymakers, planners, and implementers of local, regional and national government bodies interested or engaged in facilitating a more responsive, sustainable, and risk reducing recovery process. Since the governments are not the sole actors in disaster recovery and IRP believes that the experiences collected in this document can benefit many other partners working together to build back better. These Guidance Notes on different sectors are available on their website www.recoveryplatform.org. 11.5    Some Indian Experiences in Recovery in the Last Two Decades Few experiences of post disaster recovery rehabilitation and reconstruction works are illustrated in the subsequent paras. This shows the experiences which country as a whole has gathered in course of its recovery process after the event of different kind of disasters whether human induced or natural. This may guide the responders in the future such endeavors and may also help them to take corrective measures. Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984) The Bhopal Gas Tragedy is one of the world’s worst industrial catastrophes. It occurred on the night of 2-3 December, 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) Pesticide plant in Bhopal which was the Indian subsidiary of Union Carbide Corporation, USA. The accident occurred due to leakage of Methyl Iso Cynate (MIC) and other chemicals due to ingression 155 of water and the resulting reaction affected a large number of persons. Approximately 2000 people are known to have died in the first 72 hours and large proportion of the survivors suffered acute multi-system morbidities (eyes and lungs were the target organs). The ICMR estimated that approximately 62.58% of the total population in Bhopal suffered from inhalational toxicity. The people who resided in areas close to the carbide factory were exposed to higher concentration of potentially lethal toxic gases. 11.6    Conclusion: Relief and rehabilitation efforts are crucial components of disaster response, aimed at providing immediate assistance to affected populations and facilitating their recovery and reconstruction in the aftermath of a disaster. Relief activities focus on addressing the immediate needs of survivors, including food, water, shelter, and medical care, while rehabilitation efforts aim to restore livelihoods, infrastructure, and community cohesion over the longer term. In conclusion, relief and rehabilitation play vital roles in mitigating the impact of disasters and promoting resilience and recovery. Rapid and effective relief efforts can save lives and alleviate suffering in the immediate aftermath of a disaster, while rehabilitation efforts help communities rebuild and regain their self-sufficiency and dignity. Additionally, rehabilitation initiatives should prioritize sustainability, resilience, and inclusivity, taking into account the needs and perspectives of affected populations, including vulnerable groups such as women, children, the elderly, and persons with disabilities. However, successful relief and rehabilitation require coordinated action, collaboration, and support from governments, humanitarian organizations, civil society, and affected communities. Long-term investment in preparedness, capacity-building, and risk reduction measures can enhance the effectiveness of relief and rehabilitation efforts and reduce the vulnerability of communities to future disasters. By prioritizing human dignity, equity, and sustainability in relief and rehabilitation interventions, we can build stronger, more resilient societies capable of overcoming adversity and thriving in the face of challenges. 11.6    Self Check Exercises a.    Disaster Relief b.    Disaster Rehabilitation c.    Disaster recovery 11.7    Glossary Inclusivity - the practice or policy of providing equal access to opportunities and resources for people who might otherwise be excluded or marginalized, such as those having physical or intellectual disabilities or belonging to other minority groups. Humanitarian – concerned with trying to make people’s lives better and reduce suffering Capacity Development - Capacity-building is defined as the process of developing and strengthening the skills, instincts, abilities, processes and resources that organizations and communities need to survive, adapt, and thrive in a fast-changing world. 11.8    Answers to self check exercises a.    see 11.2 b.    see 11.3 c. see 11.4 11.9    Terminal questions Q1 What are the guiding principles in disaster relief? Q2 What do you mean by disaster rehabilitation? Discuss its phases. Suggested Readings https://asdma.gov.in/ Chapter-12 Role of International Organizations, Corporate Sector and Community Structure 12.0      Learning Objectives 12.1    Introduction 12.2         Hyogo Framework of Action 12.3         Agencies of United Nations involved in Disaster Management 12.4         Conclusion 12.5         Self-Check Exercises 12.6         Glossary 12.7         Answer to self check exercise 12.8          Terminal questions 12.9         Suggested Reading 12.0    Learning Objectives After studying this lesson, the learner will be able to -            Know about various international agencies and frameworks involved in Disaster Management 12.1    INTRODUCTION India has played an important role in global initiatives on disaster management. With multi dimensional initiatives and expertise, India is taking a leading role in strengthening regional cooperation among South Asian countries for reducing disasters. Further, India has hosted the SAARC Disaster Management Centre in New Delhi with a clear mandate for enhancing regional cooperation. India is a signatory to the Hyogo Framework of Action and is committed to achieving the goals set under it through systematic and sustained efforts under the five priority action areas mentioned in the framework. The succeeding paragraphs give a brief account of international and regional organisations working in the disaster management along with India’s participation. 12.2    Hyogo Framework of Action Representatives from 168 countries participated in the global conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in January 2005 in Kobe, Japan. The Hyogo Framework of Action (HFA) 2005-2015 was adopted to work globally towards sustainable reduction of disaster losses in lives and in the social, economic and environmental assets of communities and countries. The framework set three strategic goals and five priority action areas given as under:- Three Strategic Goals: Followings are the goals as agreed to under the HFA- (i)    The more effective integration of disaster risk reduction into sustainable development policies, planning and programming at all levels, with a special emphasis on disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness and vulnerability reduction. (ii)    The development and strengthening of institutions, mechanisms and capacities at all levels in particular at the community level that can systematically contribute to building resilience to hazards. (iii)    The systematic incorporation of risk reduction approaches into the design and implementation of emergency preparedness, response and recovery programmes in the reconstruction of the affected communities. Five Priority Action Areas: Under the HFA the following priority areas have been identified for the countries to concentrate in their efforts for making the countries disaster resilent. (i)    Ensure that disaster risk reduction is a national and a local priority with a strong institutional basis for implementation, (ii)    Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning, (iii)    Use knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels, (iv)    Reduce the underlying risk factors, (v)    Strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels. Key Activities: Following key activities are envisaged under this framework •    Promote socio-economic development practices, •    Land-use planning and other technical measures, Disaster Management in India •    Strengthening of institutional and technical capacities, •    Review and implement preparedness and contingency plans, •    Promote voluntarism and community participation, •    Creation of provision of emergency funds, •    Dialogue, coordination and exchange of information between disaster managers and development sectors. India is one of the participating countries and works closely with the UN-ISDR to implement the Priority Areas of HFA for DRR. There is a Biennial Monitoring Framework developed by UNISDR and a National Progress Report submitted accordingly with UN-ISDR. To implement the framework’s activities, a Working Group has been constituted under the Chairmanship of Joint Secretary (DM), MHA. The group comprises representatives from Ministries of Rural Development, Panchayati Raj, Urban Development, Health and Family Welfare, Environment and Forests, Women and Child Development, Earth Sciences, Science and Technology and also from Planning Commission, NIDM and NDMA. 12.3 Agencies of United Nations involved in Disaster Management There are various UN organizations engaged in the field of disaster management. Many of such organisation have direct linkages with UN’s mainstream body, where as other’s are evolved and are developed from the region of Asia, which have been most vulnerable to earthquake and cyclone. India has been actively involved in their setting up besides being members on the basis of its full time membership. A brief overview of such organizations has been presented in the following paras: United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) At the end of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction in July 1999, the International Programme Forum adopted the Geneva Mandate on Disaster Reduction, together with the strategy document, “The Forum recommended that in international cooperative framework for disaster reduction be maintained and strengthened. In December 1999, General Assembly Resolution 54/219 created the UNISDR, as a successor of the secretariat of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction, in 2001. Assembly resolution 56/195 mandated the secretariat to serve as the focal point in the United Nations System for the coordination of disaster reduction and to ensure synergies among the disaster reduction activities of the United Nations Systems and regional organizations and activities in socio-economic and humanitarian field In 2005, the assembly, through resolution 60/195, endorsed the” Hyogo Declaration” and “Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and communities to Disaster” adopted by the world conference on Disaster Reduction, held in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan. The Hyogo Framework for Action has tasked the ISDR Secretariat with supporting the implementation for the strategic objectives identified therein. Mission: In order to build the resilience of nations and communities to disasters through the implementation of the HFA , the UNISDR strives to catalyze, facilitate and mobilise the 160 commitment and resources of national, regional and international stakeholders of the ISDR system. The mission of UNISDR is to be an effective coordinator and guide all its ISDR partners, globally and regionally, to: •    Mobilise political and financial commitments to disaster risk reduction and Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters (HFA); •    Develop and sustain a robust, multi stake-holder system; •    Provide relevant knowledge and guidance. Functions and Responsibilities: The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) was adopted by United Nations Member States in 2000 and is owned by local, national, regional and international organisations. UNISDR is led by an Assistant Secretary-General for Disaster Risk Reduction and overseen by the Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs, who also serves as the Chair for the wider ISDR system of partnerships. The mandate of UNISDR is to act as the focal point in the United Nations system for the coordination of disaster reduction and to ensure that disaster risk reduction becomes integral part to sound and equitable development, environmental protection and humanitarian action. ISDR mechanisms: The various mechanisms have been developed to achieve the mission which are enumerated as follows: •    The biennial Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction (GFDRR) acts as the main global forum for continued and concerted emphasis on disaster reduction. Open to all states and the ISDR stakeholders, it primarily assesses the progress made in the implementation of the HFA, enhances awareness of disaster risk reduction, share experiences and learn from good practices, also identify remaining gaps and necessary actions to accelerate national and local implementation;, It acts as Regional platforms for disaster risk reduction, including ministerial meetings, led by regional inter-governmental organisations. •    As an Inter-Agency Group it acts as a venue for ISDR system joint work programming among the participating organisations (currently FAO, IFRC, ILO, OCHA, UNDP, UNEP, UNESCO, UNICEF, WFP, WHO, WMO and the World Bank). Thematic platforms led by UN specialised agencies or technical institutions provide knowledge products and help to report on developments (for instance early warning, recovery, education, risk identification) etc. •    The Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs also convenes a Management Oversight Board with his peers (from OCHA; UNDP representing UNDG; the World Bank; WMO; UNEP; and IFRC). This Board supports the Chair in providing UN system-wide leadership and highlevel 161 advocacy for disaster risk reduction. •    Several stakeholder groups and networks associated with ISDR – among them include a Scientific Technical Committee, Global NGO Network for DRR, Gender-and-Disasters, media groupings, an emerging Parliamentarian Network and member state, which participate actively in ISDR, are called upon in GA and HFA resolution to establish multi stakeholder national platform for disaster risk reduction to facilitate coordination across sector. United Nation Disaster Management Team (UNDMT) The UNDMT in India is a team comprising of UN agencies such as FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), ILO (International Labour Organization), UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), UNFPA (United Nations Population Fund), UNHCR (United Nations High Commission for Refugees), UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund), WFP (World Food Programme) and WHO (World Health Organization). The primary purpose of the UNDMT in India is •    To ensure a prompt, effective and concerted country-level support to a governmental response in the event of a disaster, at the central, state and sub-state levels, •    To coordinate UN assistance to the government with respect to long term recovery, disaster mitigation and preparedness, •    To coordinate all disaster-related activities, technical advice and material assistance provided by UN agencies, as well as to take steps for optimal utilisation of resources by UN agencies. UNDMT works very closely with the nodal ministries of the member agencies and provides support as per the established procedures. UNDMT joined the Asian Development Bank and World Bank to do an assessment of the reconstruction requirements after the tsunami in 2004 and Kashmir Earthquake in 2005. Based on the joint assessment of the damages in the tsunami affected states, UN formulated “Tsunami Recovery Programme” to support the tsunami affected states in their recovery and reconstruction programmes. UNDMT and NDMA have constituted a working group to undertake some pilot joint initiatives on various aspects of DM. United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) The United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team is a stand-by team of disaster management professionals which are nominated and funded by member governments, OCHA, UNDP and operational humanitarian United Nations Agencies such as World Food Programme (WFP), United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organization (WHO). UNDAC is designed to assist the United Nations and governments of a 162 disaster-affected country in meeting international needs for early and qualified information during the first phase of a sudden-onset of emergency as well as in the coordination of incoming international relief at the national level and/or at the site of the emergency. The UNDAC Team is a United Nations Team of multi-national personnel trained in disaster management for rapid assessment of priority needs and on-site coordination of international assistance. The team members are international disaster/emergency managers from all parts of the world. Under the UNDAC System, whenever a major disaster strikes a country and international assistance is warranted, the Office of the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) deputes a team of experts trained in the UNDAC system to carry out an assessment of the requirements for assistance as well as coordinating such assistance with the host country. UN OCHA have empanelled and trained officers worldwide including officers from India. Upon request of a disaster-stricken country, the UNDAC team can be deployed within hours to carry out rapid assessment of priority needs and to support national authorities and the United Nations Resident Coordinator to coordinate international relief on-site. Officers trained under the UNDAC system ( who have attended the UNDAC Induction and Refresher courses) are on contract with the UNDAC for a period of two years (a token amount of 1 USD per year is given to the Officer) after some documentary formalities. After the expiry of the contract, it has to be renewed. Such officers are known as Active members in the UN OCHA parlance and they are liable to be requisitioned for disaster assessment by the UN OCHA in any disaster affected country. The Government of India have joined the membership of United Nations Disaster Assessment & Coordination (UNDAC) system and has paid, an amount of US$ 50,000 (Fifty thousand) in 2001, with UNOCHA the implementing body of UNDAC programmes. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) is a United Nations body formed in December 1991 by the General Assembly resolution 46/182. The resolution was designed to strengthen the response of UNO to complex emergencies and natural disasters by creating the Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA), and replacing the Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator, which had been formed in 1972. The OCHA was therefore the result of a 1998 reorganization of the DHA and was designed to be the UN focal point on major disasters. Its mandate was also expanded to include the coordination of humanitarian response, policy development and humanitarian advocacy. OCHA is thus an interagency body, serving UN agencies and NGOs in the humanitarian domain. Its main product is the Consolidated Appeals Process, an advocacy and planning tool to deliver humanitarian assistance 163 together in a given emergency. OCHA is headed by the Undersecretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator. OCHA has 1,064 staff located across the world. Major OCHA country offices are located in Afghanistan, Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Colombia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Palestinian territories, Sri Lanka and Sudan (including a sub-office in Southern Sudan’s capital Juba), while regional offices are located in Panama City, Dakar, Cairo, Johannesburg, and Bangkok. OCHA also has some liaison and support staff in New York and Geneva. International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG) INSARAG is a global network of more than 80 countries and disaster response organizations under the United Nations umbrella. INSARAG deals with urban search and rescue (USAR) related issues. INSARAG aims at establishing standards for international USAR teams and methodology for international coordination in earthquake response. Members of INSARAG are both earthquake-prone and responding countries and organisations. INSARAG was established in 1991, following initiatives of international search and rescue teams that responded to the 1988 Armenia earthquake. INSARAG Structure: INSARAG policy is determined by its Steering Group. The Steering Group meets annually to review achievements and areas of improvement. It is composed of representatives from each INSARAG Regional Group (Africa, Europe, Asia/Pacific, and the Americas) and the INSARAG Secretariat (FCSS in OCHA-Geneva). Regional Groups: To facilitate worldwide participation, INSARAG is organized in three regional groups: Africa & Europe, Asia & Pacific and the Americas. The regional groups meet annually to exchange information and experiences acquired in previous relief operations, plan SAR training and discuss methodology for cooperation among SAR teams. It makes recommendations to the Steering Group for further improvement of international cooperation and coordination in disaster response. Working Groups: INSARAG creates regional and international working groups on an “as required” basis to develop solutions to problems that were identified in regional meetings. The working groups discontinue after delivering the requested result. All member countries and organizations are encouraged to participate in INSARAG Working Groups. INSARAG Membership: INSARAG is a network of stakeholders of international earthquake response. Any country or organization with international urban search and rescue response capacity or countries that are prone to earthquakes may join the network. India is a member of INSARAG Asia Pacific Regional Group and has been participating in the INSARAG meetings 164 at international and regional levels. Instructors from India participate in the mock exercises organized by the INSARAG. India was the Chairman of INSARAG Asia Pacific Regional Group in 2005-06 and organized the meeting as well as the UNDAC Refresher Course during this period of the chairmanship. The INSARAG Guidelines provide guidance for the preparation and deployment of search and rescue (SAR) teams for international disaster response operations to earthquake-prone countries as well as checklists for the minimum requirements of USAR teams envisaged for international response operations. The INSARAG Guidelines define coordination and cooperation procedures for international and national responders in major disasters. The following phases are covered: • Preparedness •    Activation •    Operation •    Reassignment/stand-down •    Return to home base. In addition, the guidelines focus on topics of particular concern to any organisation that are deployed to international emergency response operations. These include background information about the international humanitarian environment and an explanation of the role of the United Nations system (i.e. OCHA and other UN Humanitarian Agencies) as well as the concept for the On-Site Operations Coordination Centre (OSOCC). USAR Exercises: Each year, INSARAG organises regional USAR simulation-exercises and awareness training courses. These events provide a platform to introduce and practice disaster response coordination methodology as defined in the INSARAG Guidelines. The exercises and courses are typically hosted by earthquake-prone countries. The target audiences are national disaster managers, the UNDAC team, IHP Support Modules as well as domestic disaster response teams and international USAR teams. The recent INSARAG Asia-Pacific Earthquake Response Exercise was held in Agra, India from 3-6 May, 2011. Global Facility for Disaster Risk Reduction (GFDRR) GFDRR was set up in September 2006 jointly by the World Bank, donor partners (21 countries and four international organisations), and key stakeholders of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN-ISDR). It is a long-term global partnership under the ISDR system established to develop and implement the HFA through a coordinated programme for reversing the trend in disaster losses by 2015. Its mission is to mainstream disaster reduction and climate change adaptation in a country’s development strategies to reduce vulnerability to natural hazards. At the national and local levels, it also includes other sectoral development 165 strategies that the countries most vulnerable to natural disasters may undertake to alleviate poverty and address sustainable growth. ASEAN Region Forum (ARF) The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) was established in 1994. The ARF membership including India, which joined in 1996 is 25 countries. The first ARF meeting in 1994 brought together Foreign Ministers from Australia, Brunei, Canada, China, European Union (Presidency), Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, New Zealand, PNG, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Russia, Singapore, Thailand, USA and Vietnam. The current Chairman of ARF is H. E. Pham Gia Khiem, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Foreign Affairs, Ministry Govt. of, Vietnam. ASEAN established the ARF Unit at the ASEAN Secretariat, Jakarta, Indonesia on 26th June 2004. Based on its Terms of Reference, the ARF Unit’s role and functions are as follows: •    To support the enhance role of the ARF Chair, including interaction with other regional and international organizations, defense officials dialogue and Track II organizations, •    To function as depository of ARF documents/papers, •    To manage database/registry, •    To provide secretarial works and administrative support, including serving as the ARF’s institutional memory. The ARF is the Principle Forum for Security Dialogue in Asia and complements the various bilateral alliances and dialogues, which underpin the region’s security architecture. The ARF is premised on the idea drawn from the ASEAN experience that a process of dialogue can produce qualitative improvements in political relationships. It provides a platform for members to discuss current regional security issues and develop cooperative measures to enhance peace and security in the region. The ARF is characterised by consensus decision-making and minimal institutionalisation. The ARF concept paper set out a three-stage, evolutionary approach to the ARF’s development, moving from confidence building to preventive diplomacy and, in the long term, towards a conflict resolution capability. While the ARF continues to focus on confidence building measures, ARF members have also agreed that preventive diplomacy should proceed in tandem with these efforts, particularly in areas of overlap between confidence building and preventive diplomacy. As all ASEAN members are automatically ARF members, India is actively participating in the ARF meetings and disaster relief exercises. Asian Disaster Reduction Centre (ADRC) A resolution was adopted at the United Nations General Assembly in 1997 to reduce damage from natural disasters substantially by designating the 1990s as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. Following a series of national conferences held during the period from 1994 to 1997 to discuss the cooperation for disaster reduction, a ministerial level conference was held in Kobe, Japan in 1995 in which 28 countries from Asia and other regions participated. It adopted the Kobe declaration which includes an agreement to consider the creation of a system which has the functions of a disaster reduction centre for the Asian region. The Asian Disaster Reduction Centre (ADRC) was thus established in Kobe in 1998 following an agreement among the participating countries with the Japanese government. The mission of the ADRC is to enhance disaster resilience of the member countries, to build safe communities and to create a society where sustainable development is possible. The Centre works to build disaster resilient communities and to establish networks among countries through many programmes including personnel exchanges in this field. Currently there are 29 member countries of ADRC. Each member country has to bear the annual contribution calculated on the basis of GDP. India is one of the founder members of ADRC. Presently India contributes about US $ 28,100 annually to ADRC as membership fees. Key activities of ADRC are as under: •    Collaboration with UN organizations, •    To organise the Asian Conference on Disaster Reduction, an annual international conference for officials responsible for disaster reduction efforts in member countries and experts employed by the UN and other international agencies, for the purpose of sharing disaster information and reinforcing mutual cooperation between member countries and agencies, •    Systematic gathering of information on natural disaster and disaster reduction, setting up a database of Asian disaster-reduction information and sharing experiences for a Safer Asia including satellite data •    Development and application of the Global unique disaster Identifier Number (GLIDE) system: SAARC Disaster Management Centre (SDMC) SAARC is association of South Asian countries for regional cooperation which was established on 16th January, 1987. It has eight member countries, namely Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka with its head quarters at Kathmandu. SAARC Disaster Management Centre (SDMC) was set up in October 2006 at the premises of National Institute of Disaster Management in New Delhi. The Executive Director of the NIDM is also the Director of SAARC Disaster Management Centre New Delhi. The Centre has the mandate to serve all eight Member Countries of South Asia Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC) - by providing policy advice and facilitating capacity building services including strategic learning, research, training, system development and exchange of information for effective disaster risk reduction (DRR) and management in South Asia. The Centre has developed its network with various organisations and institutions in the South Asian countries for research, documentation training and capacity building. and to promote better cooperation and understanding amongst the countries for holistic management of disasters. The main functions of the SAARC Disaster Management Centre are: •    Document and disseminate date, information, case studies, indigenous knowledge and good practices relating to disaster management particularly from the member countries, •    To analyze information, undertake research and disseminate research findings on disaster management among the member countries, •    To develop educational materials and conduct academic and professional courses on disaster management, •    To organize training and awareness programmes for various stakeholders on disaster management for the member countries, •    To develop training modules on various aspects of disaster management and conduct programmes of Training for Trainers including simulation exercises, •    To provide assistance in the formulation of policies, strategies, disaster management frameworks and any other assistance as may be required by the member countries or organisations and institutions nominated by the member countries, •    To undertake, organise, facilitate and participate in workshops, conferences, seminars, lectures etc. on various aspects of disaster management in the member countries, •    To undertake publication of journals, research papers and books and establish and maintain an online resource centre in furtherance of the aforesaid objects, and •    To collaborate with other SAARC centres, particularly SMRC, SCZMC and SAARC Forestry Centre to achieve synergies in programmes and activities. 12.4    Conclusion: The role of international agencies in disaster management is pivotal, as disasters often transcend national boundaries and require coordinated, multi-sectoral responses. International agencies provide crucial support in various aspects of disaster management, including preparedness, response, recovery, and risk reduction, leveraging their expertise, resources, and networks to assist affected countries and communities. In conclusion, international agencies play a vital role in enhancing the effectiveness and efficiency of disaster management efforts worldwide. By facilitating coordination and cooperation among governments, humanitarian organizations, and other stakeholders, international agencies help ensure a more comprehensive and timely response to disasters, thereby saving lives, reducing suffering, and minimizing the socio-economic impact. Additionally, international agencies contribute to building local capacity, promoting resilience, and advocating for policy changes that prioritize disaster risk reduction and sustainable development. However, the effectiveness of international agencies in disaster management depends on their ability to work collaboratively with local authorities and communities, respect local cultures and priorities, and ensure accountability and transparency in their actions. Moreover, addressing the underlying drivers of vulnerability, such as poverty, inequality, and climate change, requires sustained commitment and investment from both national governments and the international community. By strengthening partnerships, fostering innovation, and promoting inclusivity and equity, international agencies can continue to play a vital role in building a safer, more resilient world for all. 12.5    Self Check Exercises a.    Hyogo Framework of Action b.    Agencies of United Nations involved in Disaster Management 12.6    Glossary Parlance - a way of expressing yourself or a style of using words of a particular group of people Consolidated – to join things together into one; to be joined into one Alliance - an agreement between groups, countries, etc. to work-together and support each other 12.7    Answers to self check exercises a. see 12.2                                           b. see 12.3 12.8    Terminal questions Q1 List and explain the international agencies involved in Disaster Management. Q2 What is Hyogo Framework of Action? 12.9    Suggested Reading       https://asdma.gov.in/ Chapter-13 Role of ICT Systems in Disaster Management Structure 13.0      Learning Objectives 13.1    Introduction 13.2    The Indian Experience 13.3  Online Inventory of Emergency Resources 13.4  GIS in Disaster Management 13.5    National Emergency Communication Plan 13.6         Conclusion 13.7         Self-Check Exercises 13.8         Glossary 13.9         Answer to self check exercise 13.10        Terminal questions 13.11        Suggested Reading 13.0    Learning Objectives After studying this lesson, the learner will be able to -            Familiarize with the Indian experience of ICT role for disaster management -            Comprehend online inventory uses in disaster management -           Know the National Emergency Communication Plan 1 3.1 Introduction With advancement in Information & Communication Technology in the form of Internet, GIS, Remote Sensing, satellite-based communication links; it can help a great deal in planning and implementation of disaster risk reduction measures. These technologies have been playing a major role in designing early warning systems, catalyzing the process of preparedness, response and mitigation. ICT tools are also being widely used to build knowledge warehouses using internet and data warehousing techniques. These knowledge warehouses can facilitate planning & policy decisions for preparedness, response, recovery and mitigation at all levels. Similarly, GIS-based systems improve the quality of analysis of hazard vulnerability and capacity assessments, guide development planning and assist planners in the selection of mitigation measures. Communication systems have also become indispensable for providing emergency communication and timely relief and response measures. In order to reduce the risk and vulnerabilities in India the Ministry of Home Affairs, being the Nodal Ministry for Disaster Management, is taking lead on disaster management and mitigation in the country. The Ministry has drawn up a National Disaster Management Framework for the country. This National Framework covers the prime sectors such as institutional mechanisms at all administrative levels, disaster mitigation/prevention to be mainstreamed into the development process, envisaged legal/policy framework, early warning systems, preparedness & emergency response measures and human resource development .The Ministry has undertaken various nationwide initiatives to strengthen disaster management systems in the country. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has joined hands in this effort of Government of India and is implementing GoI-UNDP Disaster Risk Management (DRM) programme in 169 most vulnerable Districts of 17 States in India. Information coordination and management is seen as one of the major challenges in India due to the large geography and diversity of language/cultures.The GoI-UNDP DRM Programme addresses these issues very carefully by using Information and CommunicationTechnology tools for faster response,effective decision making and develop well informed practitioners. There are number of ICT based initiatives, tools and applications developed to help the disaster managers function efficiently. 11.3    Online Inventory of Emergency Resources It has been observed that a comprehensive database of disaster management related inventory and organized information dissemination system on availability of specialized resources is very essential for mobilizing the specialized equipment and skilled human resources to respond immediately during disaster. Lack of adequate information about availability has hampered quick and measured response resulting in delays which could be critical in case of sudden eventualities. Therefore, a need to prepare a database of such resources, from District to State level was strongly felt. When disasters strike, the disaster managers at the District/State level respond with the resources at their command. While the Disaster Manager (District Magistrate / Collector) is generally aware of the resources a this command within the District,he may not beaware of there sources available in the neighboring Districts or in the neighboring States.The disaster manager at the State level [the Relief Commissioner does not have an inventory of resources available within the State.Therefore, all the resources available within the State are not brought to bear for saving lives, and when some specialist equipment is required, there is a lack of knowledge as to the whereabouts of the equipment either in the neighboring District or in the neighboring State.Lives can be lost because of such delays or lack of required resources. What is IDRN? The IDRN (India Disaster Resource Network – www.idrn.gov.in) is a nation-wide electronic inventory of essential and specialist resources for disaster response,covering specialist equipment,specialist manpower resources and critical supplies. IDRN as been initiated by Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) in collaboration with United Nations Development Program (UNDP) to systematically build the disaster resource inventory as an organized information system for collection and transmission of information about specific equipments, human expertise and critical supplies database from District level to State level to provide availability of Resources for disaster response ,so that disaster managers can mobilize the required resources within least response time. The IDRN lists out the equipment and the resources by type and by the functions it performs and it gives the contact address and telephone numbers of the controlling officers in-charge of the said resources so that the equipment can be promptly mobilized. The IDRN is a live system providing for updating of inventory every quarter. Entries in to the inventory are made at two levels–District and State level. This online information system can be accessed by authorized Government officials, District level nodal persons, corporate bodies and public sector units. District nodal authority will be responsible for collecting, compiling and updating their inventory data to the central server with the help of concerned District departments. Adequate authorization and security has been in-built and is being maintained in the portal to prevent unauthorized access to this inventory. The user may avail the facilities like analyzing or querying the information resource inventory through given user friendly interfaces to get a list of resources available in the District and State level. Target Audience: The users and partners of IDRN initiative are : District administrations of all States and UTs, all State/UT administration of India, around 5000 member corporate bodies with Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), around 33,000 builders, contractors and construction companies with Builders’ Association of India (BAI), the entire Indian Railways and numerous public sector undertakings in the country. How it works? The India Disaster Resource Network is a web-based application with controlled access to the database. 226 items mainly consist in gof equipments, human resources and critical suICpTfporlDieisassteraRirsekRedcuactitoen gorized in the system.The data related to these items are collected from the line departments and various organizations at the District level.The data is entered in to the portal at the District level. Figure:The data collection and collation process in IDRN Description of the Portal The authorized users can enter the portal through the User ID and Password provided to the m by the IDRN Administrator, Ministry of Home Affairs.Various users can access the portal based on their access level predefined viz. user from the Ministry can access the administration of part of the portal, here as a State disaster management department user can view only the data in the database. Capturing Inventory: The inventory data of the specified item are collected from various departments below District level in a paper format and Data is entered at the District level through the IDRN portal www.idrn.gov.in. Locating Resources: The database can be queried by using various options available in the portal viz. Country wide query, 173 summary report, department wise report, common query, database report IeCTtcfo.rDiTsahsteerRimskRoedsutctiocnommonly used report to access countrywide data is shown below. The user can choose one or multiple Activity, category item and State, District and the source of the equipment and find the details in a report. 13.4    GIS in Disaster Management During any emergency situation, the role of are liable Decision Support System is very crucial for effective response and recovery. Geographic Information System (GIS) provide most versatile platform for Decision Support by furnishing multi layer geo-referenced information which includes hazard zoning, incident mapping, natural resources and critical infrastructure at risk, available resources for response, real time satellite imagery etc. GIS-based information tools allow disaster managers to quickly assess the impact of the disaster/emergency on geographic platform and plan adequate Mobilization of right resources to right locations within least response time. Such database would also play a fundamental role in planning and implementation of large scale preparedness and mitigation 174 The Ministry of Home Affairs have initiated the development of a GIS-based National Database for Emergency Management (NDEM) in collaboration with various Govt. Ministries/agencies such as Dept. of Space, Dept. of Science & Technology and Ministry of Communications & IT. The Ministry with technical support from UNDP is also in process of developing GIS based tools for emergency management on pilot basis. The resources available, the critical infrastructures etc are mapped for the national capital as demonstrative system. 13.5    National Emergency Communication Plan In emergency response and management, it is extremely important to have the communication links operational between decision makers at various levels and operational response teams/personnel on the site. Unfortunately at the time of emergency situations such as natural or manmade disasters, the first casualty is the regular telecommunications infrastructure of public wired and wireless (GSM/CDMA) telephones. Considering the crucial role of MHA during such emergencies, it is tn be implemented in 6 months To estaMsh ccnaiuiiucatlcri between HCOC MEÔC, •Concerned State EOG and NQRTs to be deployed at LMsasIcrEmergcncy sites Cornmnnraboii eoucnient ¿t^CtiEQCaod 1*081? -VSATtenntiat (Autotrattóri» andana fu HE OC) -VHMphuu -VHeo Corner * ! -CHKS hMdheW »faine -VK haidieb PA System Essential to set-upreliable information and Communication network employing both terrestrial and satellitebased communication technologies with redundancies to establish a network for emergency communications The Ministry of Home Affairs is planning to execute the communication plan in two phases. Phase–I In the first phase, the VSAT network in the first phase will use resources only from POLNET and will provide required communication links Between National Emergency Operations Centre (NEOC) ,remote Disaster sites and respective State Emergency Operations Centre(SEOC). Phase–II The second phase envisages integrated network of all EOCs at national, State and District levels as well as transportable terminals deployed at emergency/disaster sites, using satellite and terrestrial communication networks. PHASE - II NATIONAL EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION PLAN Figure :PhaseII-NationalEmergencyCommunicationPlan 13.6    Conclusion: Information and Communication Technologies inform of Internet, GIS, RemoteSensing, Satellite communication etc. are indispensable in planning and successful implementation of most Disaster Risk Reduction initiatives. However, the potential of most advanced technologies is required to be harnessed in early warning, preparedness and response systems along with adequate emphasis on building human capacities to use these tools and technologies. 13.7    Self Check Exercises a.    Online inventory of Emergency Resources b.    GIS in Disaster Management c.    National Emergency Communication Plan 13.8    Glossary Catalyzation - to bring about the catalysis Sustainable Growth – the maximum growth rate that a company can sustain without having to increase financial leverage Tariff - a tax that has to be paid on goods coming into a country 13.9    Answers to self check exercises a. see 13.3                       b. see 13.4                      c. see 13.5 13.10    Terminal questions Q1 Discuss in role of GIS in disaster management. Q2 What are the different phases of National Emergency Communication Plan? 13.11    Suggested Reading ndmindia.mha.gov.in Chapter-14 International Cooperation for Disaster Management Structure 14.0      Learning Objectives 14.1    Introduction 14.2         Hyogo Framework of Action 14.3         Sendai Framework for disaster risk reduction 2015-2030 14.4          United Nations International Strategy for disaster reduction (UNISDR) 14.5          The level of international cooperation in disaster risk reduction 14.6         Capacity Development 14.7           A call for action of international cooperation for disaster risk reduction 14.8         Conclusion 14.9         Self-Check Exercises 14.10        Glossary 14.11         Answer to self check exercise 14.12        Terminal questions 14.13        Suggested Reading 14.0    Learning Objectives After studying this lesson, the learner will be able to -             Know the various frameworks at international level for disaster risk reduction -            How capacity development can reduce the impact of disasters -             A call for action of international cooperation for disaster risk reduction 14.1    Introduction: Reducing mortality and minimising the numbers of people injured, displaced and left without a livelihood has never been more challenging, especially given the scale of the COVID-19 pandemic. Meanwhile, climate-related disasters have almost doubled over the last 20 years. This has increased inequalities within and between countries, with those contributing least to global emission soften experiencing the worst effects of the climate emergency. As highlighted by the recent IPCC WG-I report, human-induced climate change is intensifying weather and climate extremes in every region, while the average global temperature could rise by 1.5°C above the pre-industrial level by the early 2030s, much earlier than predicted. Failure to address the increasingly complex and systemic nature of disaster risk is undermining efforts 178 to achieve the overall 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, notably the eradication of poverty and hunger, as well as the rest of the SDGs. At the current climate trajectory, global financing gaps will continue to increase. For instance, developing countries need an estimated US$70 billion annually for adaptation, and this figure is expected to reach somewhere betweenUS$140 billion and US$300 billion by 2030. Driven by climate and conflict, humanitarian needs are at their highest ever, with one in every 33 people globally in need of assistance and protection. Subsequent chapters look further into financing gaps for disaster risk reduction. An international collective effort is critical to keep the rise in global average temperature within the 1.5°C safer limit outlined in the Paris Agreement, and to address some of the challenges also outlined there. International cooperation must be increased to support climate-affected countries in setting sustainable adaptation priorities that build resilience and reduce risk. While financing is an important indicator of international cooperation, it is only one of its key elements. As outlined in the Target F indicators, technology transfer and capacity development are critical components in bolstering global efforts to build climate and disaster resilience. These become important when considering the huge gaps in access to technology, and limited capacity, in developing countries. Only half ofthe 193 Members of the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) have modern multi-hazard early warning systems, which are vital to support adaptation and disaster risk reduction in climatesensitive sectors such as health, water and agriculture. In particular, there are major gaps in weatherobservation systems in Africa and small- island developing States. Similarly, while 120 countries have reported that they have developed disaster risk reduction strategies at national and/ or local levels, capacity gaps remain in translating them into action. Low- and middleincome countries will benefit from scaled-up international cooperation and support to implement these strategies – and this includes developing the appropriated at an ecosystem, backed by robust statistics. This report focuses on international cooperation in disaster risk reduction, in line with Target F of the Sendai Framework and SDG17 on global partnership for sustainable development. It highlights the continued impact of disasters, and maps this against trends in international financing, to manage the risk of such disasters and to avert, minimize and address losses and damages. The report also analyses different forms and levels of international cooperation – international financing, technology transfer and capacity development – and makes recommendations to strengthen international cooperation. The analysis and information provided in the report are based on data reported by Member States through the Sendai Framework Monitor. Other data sources support this when relevant, and are indicated. 14.2    Hyogo Framework of Action •         In January 2005, representatives from 168 countries gathered in Kobe, Japan for a global conference on disaster risk reduction •        Hyogo Framework of Action (HFA) (2005-2015) was adopted to work on a global level for sustainable reduction of disaster related losses of lives and the social, economic and environmental assets of communities and countries •         The framework set three strategic goals given as under: o                More effectual assimilation of disaster risk reduction into planning and programming at all levels, sustainable development policies, having a special emphasis on disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness and reduction in vulnerability o               At every community level, institutions, capacities, and mechanisms that can systematically contribute to increasing disaster resilience are being developed and reinforced. o                The systematic integration of risk reduction approaches into the design and application of emergency readiness, response and recovery packages in the reconstruction of the affected communities o                Under the HFA the following priority areas have been identified for the countries to concentrate in their efforts for making the countries disaster resilient o                Assuring that disaster risk reduction is a local and national priority with a strong institutional foundation for implementation o               Improve early warning by recognising, assessing, and monitoring disaster risks o                Build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels by utilising knowledge, innovation, and education o                Minimize the underlying risk factors o                Reinforce disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels •         India is one of the participants, and it collaborates closely with the UN-ISDR to implement the HFA for DRR Priority Areas 14.3    Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 •        Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction of 2015-2030 (Sendai Framework) was the first major agreement after-2015 development agenda and provides the Member States with concrete actions to protect development gains from the risk of disaster •        The Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in 2015, the UN General Assembly approved it (WCDRR) •          It aims to reduce disaster risk and harm to lives, livelihoods, and health, as well as to people’s, businesses’, communities’, and countries’ economic, physical, social, cultural, and environmental assets, over the next 15 years •       Hyogo Framework was succeeded by Sendai Framework •        The Sendai Framework lays out seven global goals to steer and measure progress. The following are the seven global goals: o                Greatly reduce global disaster mortality by 2030, aiming to lower the average per 100,000 worldwide mortality rate in the decade of 2020–2030 compared to the period 2005–2015 o               Reduce the number of individuals impacted globally by 2030, to lower the average global figure per 100,000 in the decade 2020– 2030 compared to the period 2005–2015 o              By 2030, reduce direct economic losses in terms of world gross domestic product (GDP) o                Substantively reduce the damage due to disaster to critical infrastructure, disturbance of elementary services, health and educational facilities o                By 2020, the number of countries having national and local disaster risk reduction policies will have increased significantly o                Significantly improve international cooperation to emerging countries through satisfactory and sustainable support to complement their national actions for implementation of the present Framework by 2030 o               By 2030, significantly improve the readiness of multi-hazard early warning systems and people’s access to disaster risk information and assessments 14.4    United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) o              In December 1999, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 54/219, which established the UNISDR as the successor of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction Secretariat in 2001 o               It is designated by UNISDR to serve as the focal point for disaster management in the United Nations System and to ensure synergies between disaster reduction efforts of the United Nations Systems and regional organisations, as well as actions in the socio-economic and humanitarian domains o               For developing the resilience of communities and nations to disasters employing operation of the HFA, the UNISDR attempts to catalyze, simplify and mobilise the commitment and resources of stakeholders in the ISDR system at the national, regional, and international levels •        The Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction (GFDRR), which takes place every two years, serves as the principal global forum for a continuous and deliberate focus on disaster reduction 14.5    The level of international Cooperation in disaster risk reduction While outlining the means of implementation and the role of different actors and stakeholders, the Sendai Framework emphasizes that ‘developing countries require an enhanced provision of means of implementation, including adequate, sustainable and cooperation and global partnerships for development, and strengthen their efforts to reduce disaster risk.’ As a result, Target F of the Sendai Framework has highlighted the role of international cooperation in accelerating its implementation. Importantly, Target F does not limit international cooperation to financing, but also features core components of technology transfer and capacity development. This section analyses each of these three components using reported data from the Member States on the Sendai Framework Monitor. timely resources, through international continued international support, so as to Inspite of data limitations, the analyses provide good insights into the level of international cooperation in disaster risk reduction. Financing Technology Transfer k International Cooperation [Target F] Capacity Development Financing The majority of international financing for disaster risk reduction has come from multilateral sources. Countries have reported on receiving international disaster- related funding from both multilateral 182 (Indicator F2) and bilateral (Indicator F3) sources. In the last 15 years, starting from the Hyogo Framework for Action (2005-2015) and during the first five years of the Sendai Framework (20162020), a total of 26 countries have reported receiving US$5.02 billion through multilateral sources and 19 countries have reported receiving US$566.92 million bilaterally. Technology transfer International cooperation through ODA and other official flows to developing countries boosts global immunity to disaster risk. In addressing economic disparity – and disparity in technological innovation and research capacity – among countries, it is crucial to enhance technology transfer. This involves facilitating flows of skill, knowledge, ideas and technology from developed to developing countries to support the implementation of the Sendai Framework. During 2005-2020, Member States reported a total of 1,113 programmes and initiatives on science, technology and innovation (STI). This is a very conservative estimate, aggregated from the reports of 12 countries only. Of these, seven countries reported a contribution of US$394 million towards technology transfer during this period. Also, 20 countries have reported benefiting from 395 such programmes related to STI. Instances of routing technology transfer through universities and research organisations have been reported, pointing to the need to further strengthen science-policy interface in some countries. 11.6    Capacity development During 2005-2020, a total of 2,203 instances of capacity development on disaster risk reduction were reported. Again, this is a very conservative estimate, as it comes from just 15 countries. Of these,10 have reported providing US$648.9 million in capacity development support for disaster risk reduction. Further, 19 countries have reported benefiting from 287 such programmes and initiatives, including four countries that also offered such support. Capacity development is an integral component of assistance in disaster risk reduction, enhancing the self-reliance of developing countries. Examples of meteorological capacity development have been reported. In addition, targeted capacity development has been provided for statistical capacity in disaster risk reduction. To date, eight countries have reported providing 686 such initiatives, and six countries have reported benefiting from 39 such initiatives during2005 -2020. Target F is the least reported among the targets of the Sendai Framework. Nonetheless, the analyses 183 so far point to the fact that, while severe gaps in financing remain, a good level of international cooperation is taking place in disaster risk reduction. This is encouraging, and needs to be further tracked and analysed to provide a better overview and understanding of gaps in financing, technology transfer and capacity development. An increase in reporting on Target F will also help us understand the gap between the provision and receipt of international cooperation – and this understanding will enable us to map the flow of assistance, and so develop a better understanding of north-south, south-south and triangular cooperation. 14.7 A call for action on international cooperation for disaster risk reduction •    Meet ODA commitments: The international community needs to meet the target of 0.7 per cent of GNI for ODA that was originally conceived as a minimum commitment to developing countries. •    Balance the composition of assistance: While increasing ODA commitments, it is important to ensure financing is spread evenly across the spectrum from development to disaster response and prevention. An international financing system that allocates only 0.5 percent of the total aid volume to prevention and preparedness is not realizing the cost benefits that flow from investing in disaster risk reduction benefits such as saving lives, reducing the numbers of disaster-affected people, reducing damage to critical infrastructure, and reducing direct economic losses; all key targets of the Sendai Framework. •    Increase and sustain funding for prevention: Consistency in funding for risk prevention is crucial to building long-term resilience in the face of major planetary emergencies, including the COVID-19 pandemic, the climate emergency and wholesale destruction of the environment. To preserve development gains, international cooperation should acknowledge this. •    Improve understanding of national financing for disaster risk reduction: We need a better understanding of national financing for disaster risk reduction, and of the interplay between national and international sources. Strengthening budgetary tagging and tracking will help us do this. •    14.8 Conclusion: The future is not just about more money from donors, but about better investments in reducing risk. This requires a balanced combination of funding, technology transfer and capacity development, underscored  by south-south and triangular cooperation. Significant improvements are urgently needed in the availability, quality and reliability of data to track international 184 cooperation in disaster risk reduction. Target F is the least reported of the Sendai Framework targets (only 79 countries as of April 2021). Better tracking of international cooperation is critical to accelerate efforts for Sendai Framework implementation. 14.9    Self Check Exercises a.    UNISDR b.    The level of international cooperation in disaster risk reduction c.    Capacity Development 14.10    Glossary Philanthropic - giving money to help people who are poor or sick, or to pay for things such as museums or schools that are good for society Infrastructure – the basic systems and services that are necessary for a country or an organization, for example buildings, transport, and water and power supplies Public Good - a commodity or service that is provided without profit to all members of a society, either by the government or by a private individual or organization. 14.11    Answers to self check exercises a. see 14.4                b. see 14.5                c. see 14.6 14.12    Terminal questions Q1 Discuss the Sendai Framework for disaster risk reduction 2015-2030. Q2 Explain the level of international cooperation in disaster risk reduction. 14.13    Suggested Reading Chapter-15 Role of NGOs, Army, Police, Educational Institutions in Disaster Management Structure 15.0      Learning Objectives 15.1    Introduction 15.2    Role of NGOs in Disaster Management 15.3    Role of Army in Disaster Management 15.4    Role of Police in Disaster Management 15.5    Role of Educational Institutions in Disaster Management 15.6         Conclusion 15.7         Self-Check Exercises 15.8         Glossary 15.9         Answer to self check exercise 15.10        Terminal questions 15.11        Suggested Reading 15.0    Learning Objectives After studying this lesson, the learners will be able to -            Know about role of various agencies in disaster management in disaster management such as Army, Police, NGOs and Educational Institutions 15.1    Introduction: Disaster management is a multifaceted endeavor requiring coordinated efforts across various sectors of society. Among the key stakeholders are the army, police, NGOs, and educational institutions, each playing vital roles in mitigating the impact of disasters and facilitating recovery processes. Firstly, the army and police forces are pivotal in disaster response due to their specialized training, resources, and organizational capacity. They are often at the forefront of rescue operations, providing immediate assistance, maintaining law and order, and ensuring the safety and security of affected communities. Their swift deployment can save lives, restore infrastructure, and facilitate the delivery of essential services in the aftermath of disasters. Additionally, NGOs bring invaluable expertise, flexibility, 186 and community-focused approaches to disaster management. Through their grassroots networks, they provide humanitarian aid, medical assistance, shelter, and psychosocial support, addressing the diverse needs of affected populations. Moreover, educational institutions play a crucial role in disaster preparedness and risk reduction by fostering awareness, conducting research, and training future professionals in relevant fields. By integrating disaster management into curricula and promoting interdisciplinary collaboration, they contribute to building resilient communities capable of mitigating, adapting to, and recovering from various hazards. Collectively, the concerted efforts of these stakeholders are indispensable in effectively addressing the complexities of disaster management and fostering resilience at local, national, and global levels. 15.2    Role of NGOs in Disaster Management: Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) play a crucial role in disaster management in various capacities, complementing the efforts of governments and other relief agencies. Their roles can include: Immediate Response and Relief: NGOs often have teams trained and equipped to respond quickly to disasters. They provide immediate relief such as food, water, shelter, and medical aid to affected populations, especially in areas where government response may be delayed or insufficient. Community Empowerment and Capacity Building: NGOs work to empower local communities by providing them with the necessary knowledge and skills to prepare for and respond to disasters. This includes training in first aid, disaster preparedness, search and rescue techniques, and community-based early warning systems. Advocacy and Awareness: NGOs advocate for policies and practices that promote disaster risk reduction, resilience building, and sustainable development. They raise awareness about the impact of disasters on vulnerable populations and work to influence decision-makers to prioritize disaster risk reduction and preparedness. Coordination and Collaboration: NGOs often collaborate with government agencies, international organizations, and other stakeholders to coordinate disaster response efforts effectively. They may participate in coordination meetings, share information and resources, and mobilize support from donors and volunteers. Long-term Recovery and Rehabilitation: Beyond immediate relief efforts, NGOs are involved in longterm recovery and rehabilitation efforts. They help communities rebuild infrastructure, restore livelihoods, and address the psychosocial needs of survivors, facilitating their recovery and rebuilding process. Research and Innovation: Some NGOs engage in research and innovation to develop new technologies, methodologies, and best practices for disaster management. They contribute to the development of more effective and efficient strategies for mitigating disaster risks and enhancing community resilience. Monitoring and Evaluation: NGOs monitor the effectiveness of their interventions and evaluate their impact on affected communities. This helps them assess the strengths and weaknesses of their approaches, learn from past experiences, and continuously improve their disaster management initiatives. 15.3    Role of Army in Disaster Management:- The army plays a crucial role in disaster management, particularly in situations where large-scale emergencies overwhelm civilian authorities. Here are some key roles the army typically fulfills in disaster management: Search and Rescue Operations: The army is often deployed to conduct search and rescue operations in disaster-affected areas. They have specialized teams and equipment for locating and extracting survivors trapped in collapsed buildings, flooded areas, or other hazardous conditions. Medical Assistance: Military medical personnel and facilities are mobilized to provide emergency medical care to disaster survivors. This includes setting up field hospitals, triage centers, and providing medical supplies, expertise, and support to overwhelmed local healthcare systems. Evacuation Operations: The army assists in the evacuation of affected populations from disaster zones to safer areas. They may use vehicles, helicopters, boats, or other means of transportation to evacuate people from areas at risk of further harm. Logistics Support: The army provides logistical support to ensure the efficient distribution of relief supplies, including food, water, shelter, and medical supplies. They have the capacity to transport and distribute large quantities of aid to remote or inaccessible areas. Infrastructure Repair and Reconstruction: Military engineers and personnel assist in repairing critical infrastructure such as roads, bridges, airports, and communication networks that are damaged or destroyed by disasters. They play a key role in restoring essential services and enabling access for relief efforts. Security and Law Enforcement: In situations where law and order are disrupted by disasters, the army may be called upon to maintain security and provide law enforcement support. They help prevent looting, maintain public order, and ensure the safety of relief workers and affected populations. Coordination and Command: The army often provides overall coordination and command structure in disaster response efforts, particularly in situations where a unified command is necessary to manage complex operations involving multiple agencies and stakeholders. Disaster Preparedness and Training: Military personnel are often trained in disaster response and preparedness techniques. They may conduct training exercises with civilian authorities and other agencies to improve coordination and readiness for future disasters. International Assistance: In cases of large-scale disasters or humanitarian crises, the army may participate in international relief efforts, providing assistance to affected countries through humanitarian missions, disaster response teams, and airlift operations. 15.4    Role of Police in Disaster Management:- The police play a crucial role in disaster management, working alongside other emergency responders and agencies to ensure public safety, maintain order, and provide assistance to affected communities. Here are some key roles of the police in disaster management: Public Safety and Security: During disasters, the police are responsible for maintaining law and order to ensure public safety. They manage crowd control, prevent looting, enforce evacuation orders if necessary, and address any criminal activities that may arise in the aftermath of the disaster. Search and Rescue Operations: Police personnel often participate in search and rescue operations, particularly in urban areas where their knowledge of the local terrain and infrastructure can be valuable. They work to locate and evacuate survivors, often collaborating closely with fire departments and other rescue teams. Traffic Control and Management: In the event of disasters such as natural calamities or accidents, the police manage traffic flow and road closures to facilitate emergency response efforts and ensure the safety of responders and evacuees. Emergency Communication: The police play a key role in maintaining communication networks during disasters. They help disseminate critical information to the public, coordinate response efforts between different agencies, and provide updates on evacuation routes, shelter locations, and emergency services. Evacuation and Shelter Management: Police officers assist in the orderly evacuation of affected populations from disaster-prone areas to safer locations. They may help direct traffic, provide transportation assistance, and manage shelters for evacuees, ensuring that basic needs such as food, water, and medical care are met. Community Engagement and Support: The police engage with communities before, during, and after disasters to provide education on disaster preparedness, evacuation procedures, and safety measures. They also offer support and assistance to vulnerable populations, including the elderly, disabled, and those with special needs. Coordination with Other Agencies: Police departments collaborate closely with other emergency response agencies, including fire departments, medical services, and local government agencies, to coordinate disaster response efforts effectively. This collaboration ensures a unified approach to managing the crisis and maximizing resources. Assessment and Damage Control: Police officers assist in assessing the extent of damage caused by disasters and identifying areas that require immediate assistance. They work to secure hazardous areas, mitigate further risks, and ensure the safety of responders and residents. Recovery and Rehabilitation: In the aftermath of disasters, the police continue to support communities in the recovery and rehabilitation process. They help restore normalcy, assist in rebuilding efforts, and provide emotional support to those affected by the disaster. 15.5    Role of Educational Institutions in Disaster Management:- Educational institutions, including schools, colleges, universities, and research centers, play several important roles in disaster management: Disaster Preparedness Education: Educational institutions educate students, faculty, staff, and the broader community about disaster preparedness. This includes teaching basic emergency response procedures, such as evacuation drills, first aid training, and awareness of natural hazards prevalent in the region. Research and Innovation: Universities and research institutions conduct research on disaster risk reduction, mitigation strategies, and resilience-building measures. They contribute to the development of innovative technologies, methodologies, and best practices for disaster management, helping to improve preparedness and response efforts. Training and Capacity Building: Educational institutions offer training programs, workshops, and courses on disaster management for professionals working in emergency response and humanitarian fields. These programs enhance the knowledge and skills of disaster responders, community leaders, and volunteers, improving their capacity to effectively respond to disasters. Community Engagement and Outreach: Educational institutions engage with local communities to raise awareness about disaster risks and empower them to take proactive measures to reduce vulnerabilities. They organize outreach events, public lectures, and community workshops to promote disaster preparedness, resilience-building, and sustainable development practices. Disaster Response and Relief Efforts: During disasters, educational institutions often serve as centers for providing emergency shelter, medical assistance, and support services to affected populations. They mobilize resources, coordinate volunteer efforts, and collaborate with government agencies and NGOs to facilitate relief operations and meet the immediate needs of survivors. Data Collection and Analysis: Educational institutions contribute to the collection, analysis, and dissemination of data related to disasters, including hazard mapping, vulnerability assessments, and impact studies. They use scientific methods and technologies to monitor environmental changes, predict disaster events, and inform decision-making processes for risk reduction and emergency response planning. Policy Advocacy and Public Policy: Educational institutions engage in policy advocacy and public policy research related to disaster management. They collaborate with government agencies, policymakers, and stakeholders to develop evidence-based policies, regulations, and guidelines for enhancing disaster resilience, building safer communities, and promoting sustainable development practices. Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Educational institutions foster interdisciplinary collaboration among various academic disciplines, including engineering, social sciences, public health, environmental studies, and urban planning, to address complex challenges associated with disaster management. They promote cross-sectoral approaches and knowledge exchange to develop comprehensive solutions for reducing disaster risks and building resilient societies. Overall, educational institutions play a crucial role in disaster management by advancing knowledge, building capacity, fostering community resilience, and contributing to effective preparedness, response, and recovery efforts in the face of natural and man-made disasters. 15.10    Conclusion:- In conclusion, the collaboration between the army, police, NGOs, and educational institutions forms a critical framework for comprehensive disaster management. Their combined efforts encompass immediate response, community support, and long-term resilience building. By leveraging their respective expertise, resources, and networks, these stakeholders play indispensable roles in mitigating the impact of disasters, enhancing preparedness, and facilitating sustainable recovery, ultimately safeguarding lives and livelihoods in the face of adversity. .15.11 Self Check Exercises a.    Role of NGOs in Disaster Management b.    Role of Army in Disaster Management c.    Role of Educational Institutions in Disaster Management 15.12    Glossary Pandemic - a disease that spreads over a whole country or the whole world Psychosocial – pertaining to the influence of social factors on an individual's mind or behavior, and to the interrelation of behavioral and social factors Disaster Management - The organization, planning and application of measures preparing for, responding to and recovering from disasters 15.13    Answers to self check exercises a. see 15.2                       b. see 15.3                      c. see 15.5 15.14    Terminal questions Q1 Discuss in detail the role of Army and Police in Disaster Management. Q2 Elaborate the role of NGOs and educational institutions in Disaster Management. 15.15    Suggested Reading Chapter-16 Management of COVID-19 by NDMA Structure 16.0      Learning Objectives 16.1    Introduction 16.1          Risk Assessment and evaluation by advanced mathematical modeling 16.2          Importance of local administration and community involvement 16.3          Intersection of health and disaster management 16.4         Conclusion 16.5         Self-Check Exercises 16.6         Glossary 16.7         Answer to self check exercise 16.8          Terminal questions 16.9         Suggested Reading 16.0    Learning Objectives After studying this lesson, the learners will be able to -           Acqaint themselves with the ways of NDMA to manage COVID-19 16.1    Introduction COVID-19, originated in Wuhan, China has caused a serious threat by claiming millions of human lives across the globe and posed serious social, economic, political, and environmental challenges on a longterm basis. The disease is spreading daily and this pandemic has been existing for the last 2 years or more across the world where some countries are battling with its 2nd wave (India and other south Asian countries) and some other countries have faced 3rd wave (European countries), and some are amid its 4th wave (Japan). Recent pandemic caused by novel severe acute respiratory syndromes (SARS-CoV-2) shows similarity to these earlier CoVs such as SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV by causing mass mortality. Due to the longer period of the pandemic, it is expected that multiple disasters and calamities will simultaneously hit areas already affected by COVID-19. The urban population in various regions of Central and South America, South Asia, and Africa are more likely to be affected by flooding, and these flood-affected areas will, in turn, convert to an epicenter of the pandemic explosion, making the overall situation and disaster management far more challenging. The COVID-19 situation of cities in Ottawa and Manitoba in Canada got worsened due to floods. During the first wave of COVID-19, flood-affected East Africa observed increased vulnerability among people in terms of the death toll and rapid spread of the disease as social distancing and hygiene-related COVID-19 protocols could not be followed. Concurrent hits of disasters during pandemic constrain and limit the effectiveness and application of prescribed mitigation strategies of disaster management. There have been several other instances of multiple disasters during the current pandemic viz. COVID-19 coupled with cyclone in coastal areas of Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh; COVID-19 coupled with cyclone (Yash) in coastal areas of West Bengal and Orissa, India; COVID-19 coupled with a heat wave in Florida and other parts of the United States. Multiple disasters have reportedly caused a higher rate of fatality and comorbidity. When Japan was hit by typhoon Hagibis during the phase of COVID-19, the disaster management, rehabilitation and recovery operation was jeopardized due to the lack of volunteers required to carry out these operations. Though unprecedented or as extremely rare phenomena, governments and society at large across the world are facing natural disasters (viz. flood, drought, and cyclone) alongside combatting the pandemic COVID-19. Collaboration among various public departments (viz. disaster management group, department of health, meteorology, irrigation, agriculture, and finance) and preparedness among government, civil society, and private sector are the keys to an integrated approach of mitigating the risk of disaster during COVID-19. The role of top government officials in the administration is pivotal in undertaking appropriate policies in disaster risk management during this pandemic. However, at the same time, successful implementation of those policies and strategies at an operational level requires strengthening the local bodies, local administration, and local communities by decentralization of power, particularly because of restrictions of travel during a pandemic. Okura et al.22 describe how flood-prone rural areas of Nepal combatted multidisaster environment during COVID-19 by effective dissemination of information done through communication devices (mobile phone) and CDMC (community disaster management committee) regarding resilience, preparation for coordination, and practical action against hazards. When COVID-19 is discussed concerning disaster management and lessons learned from the current pandemic, the traditional disaster risk management practice should be integrated via a bridge with a more resilient and modern 21st century disaster risk management approach having the ability to tackle risk unknown in nature or not fully understood. According to Mishra, this modern holistic disaster risk management approach considers unknown and rare events (pandemic created by an unknown virus) and the elements of risk inherent in our global system. Disaster risk management in general, with greater priority during a pandemic, should not only stick to risk mitigation and action during the shock of the disaster but also consists of an effort of rehabilitation, reconstruction, and implementing of other relief measures enabling the affected people and locality to bounce back to its original shape. With due support of civil society and government, many localities and disaster-affected people have been able to build a resilient and robust future for themselves. A comprehensive disaster management plan must ensure timely help from the state and devise a method to compensate affected people for their economic losses due to disaster causing damage in the means of their livelihood. Similarly, in the context of health disasters like the current pandemic, lessons learned during COVID-19 guide us to include strategy and scientific recourse for the smooth recovery of affected people from COVID-19. The successful implementation of a strategy for recovery and rehabilitation of affected people will lessen the economic burden and promote a healthy social balance sheet on a longterm basis. Disaster risk management as a discipline of interest both in the domain of academia and the practicing world is constantly evolving. From relatively less rigor it has grown tremendously, drawing heavily from STEM field, AI, and deep learning for more accurate technology-based scientific forecasting, viz. the end-to-end early warning system based on technology-based forecasting method launched in the Indian Ocean after the tsunami it suffered. It also requires knowledge and application of social and behavioral science for comprehensive management considering the human aspect. 16.2    Risk assessment and evaluation by advanced mathematical modeling One of the most important exercises of disaster prevention and mitigation is risk assessment. For this purpose, advanced probability-based dynamic epidemiological models (agent-based models or compartmentalized Markov chain-based models) may be used, drawing heavily from other related STEM fields (deep learning, artificial intelligence, advanced probability and stochastic process). As evident, since the source of risk, nature of the virus, and many other things are unknown, it is extremely difficult to capture the entire risk through these models. Therefore the untapped risk may be reduced by reducing the vulnerability or enhancing people’s resilience and the region’s environment under risk. The risk assessment should consider the hazard, exposure, vulnerability, emergency response, and recovery capability for a catastrophic event like COVID-19. The tools used in risk assessment use input variables 195 such as rate of spread of the disease, infection doubling rate, positivity rate, prevalence rate, demographic variables such as gender distribution, and distribution of different age groups among the affected population. The impact and consequence of the event may be analyzed by noting the mortality rate, rate of recovery, classification of severity of the disease, availability of health infrastructure, etc. Higher casualty and a less effective pos tdisaster recovery effort after Hurricane Katrina and Haiyan in New Orleans in the United States and the Philippines may be attributed to the fragile health infrastructure, lack of health insurance, and access of healthcare services to the public. It is also important to enhance the capacity of providing healthcare services and optimally allocate scarce resources and thereby minimize the fatality. The purpose of risk analysis and evaluation of impact in the context of disaster management is integrated planning and decision-making. Some major hindrances in the planning and decision-making process during the management of COVID-19 were observed. A.    determination of a proper unit of analysis of a geographical area. It may be too small or too large. A large unit of analysis loses its characteristics of granularity. For example, a complete restriction or shutdown imposed in an entire subdivision might be useless since the actual source of infection might lie in a small corner of that region. Similarly, a chosen unit that is too small might lack several sufficient data points required for an appropriate decision. B.    Local factors or drivers of risk were dominant in determining the nature of spread and other variables on COVID-19. A management information system which does not consider the variety of controlling and risk factors specific to a particular zone or locality will lead to erroneous decision-making. C.    Since the disease and the nature of the virus are very dynamic, real-time updates of information need to occur within very small time intervals—failing which appropriate and timely decision-making for disaster management becomes impossible. 16.3    Importance of local administration and community involvement All countries have issued guidelines on COVID-19 (symptoms, testing, prevention, quarantine and isolation, caregivers, treatments, etc.) and enacted laws and implemented them through administrative surveillance to contain the spread of this pandemic. The surveillance to contain the disease is largely done by using digital technologies. Tracking needs usage of tools like data dashboard, machine learning, and migration maps; contact tracing requires usage of global positioning systems and quarantine; and isolation makes use of artificial intelligence, global positioning systems, real-time monitoring of mobile devices, etc. Screening is done by using artificial intelligence, mobile phone applications, and digital thermometers. However, the role of community-based surveillance is far more important to contain the infection and manage this disaster. Areas where the community played the roles of ears to the government have managed the spread of COVID-19 efficiently. Risk reduction programs organized by community groups have been greatly beneficial for building awareness, scientific knowledge, and behavioral patterns as per COVID-19 protocol. Wearing masks, usage of sanitizers, and disinfecting the residence of infected people also helped to bring down the rate of infection to a great extent. Hence, community leadership has been instrumental in efficient disaster management by providing the authority with appropriate feedback from the ground level regarding any hindrances and negative consequences of implemented actions. Managing risk versus managing uncertainty in managing the disaster of COVID-19 The current pandemic is known for a faster rate of spread of the disease, a differential rate of mortality and recovery rate, and a higher rate of mortality among older people and people with a weaker immune system.38 As discussed, computation and capturing entire risk for managing the pandemic is extremely difficult since the scientific community is still pursuing scientific investigations to reveal facts on source of the virus, the emergence and characteristics of strains, etc. There exist uncertainty of effectiveness of various treatment protocols on people of different age groups, uncertainty concerning the opinion expressed by experts on acquired herd immunity, the effectiveness of different vaccines on generating sufficient antibody, and the timeline a vaccine can protect from the disease. Due to a lack of information on the virus and its different variants, most of the risk cannot be captured and remains unquantifiable for every pandemic. Risk analysis on any disaster is performed on past incidents and experience of that disaster, taking into account its impact, nature of devastation, frequency etc., future strategies for managing the disaster are prepared. Health hazards or biological disasters caused by pandemics require management of uncertainty. Hence, the management of health disasters warrants the advancement of risk analysis toward managing uncertainty and bridging the existing gaps. Managing untapped global risk through reducing vulnerability or building local resilience Today’s open economy, the concept of the global village, and the interconnectedness within the world through fast connecting modes of transport have significantly contributed toward the fast spread of COVID-19 and ultimately turned into a pandemic. The impact and mortality rate in different parts of the world vary depending on the robustness of the public health system. Vulnerability in this context is defined as socioeconomic, physical, environmental, and other factors contributing positively to the population’s susceptibility to hazards. During the monsoon, people in slum areas in India faced the dual hazards of flood and COVID-19 and were considered highly vulnerable under this pandemic. Building resilience means reducing the vulnerability and thereby reducing the risk of a community from exposure to disaster. The vulnerable population, staff, and frontline warriors of COVID-19 may be considered groups at high risk and these groups must be given additional attention to get protection against the disease. Considering the scale of impact of COVID-19, a good starting point of building resilience will be cooperation at a global level by sharing of information of outputs of research carried out worldwide and based on them deciding good practices to be followed. Those good practices might guide behavior and hygiene practices to be followed both at the individual and at the societal level, treatment protocols, diagnostic norms, repurposing, and optimal usage of resources. It is also further emphasized that resilience to health disaster decreases because of lack of access to good housing facilities, proper education, basic sanitation, clean water, social support, etc. Role of communities and society, as well as individual factors like awareness, integration, diversity, self-regulation, and adaptability, plays a crucial role in building resilience. The branch of study called disaster risk management has come a long way. In the initial phase, post disaster recovery and rehabilitation were of primary interest. From postdisaster recovery and crisis management, the branch evolved to disaster risk reduction and risk mitigation. The latest focus lies in building resilience. Building resilience requires building redundancy in social, economic resources, health system and infrastructure, and other capacities. The shock-absorbing capability or degree of resilience also depends greatly on systemic redundancy and modular approach—converting each locality to a self-reliant modular entity. Sustainability practices, green initiatives, and conservation of scarce natural resources It is well established that sustainability aspects are well connected in the prevention and mitigation of disasters. Researchers may further explore the linkages of the current COVID-19 pandemic with violation of sustainability practices, deviation from green initiatives, and excessive consumption of scarce natural resources. However, urban areas exposed to pollution and coastal areas prone to natural disasters need to integrate sustainability initiatives on ecosystem restoration, plantation, hazard, risk mapping, vulnerability reduction, eco-friendly policies for disaster risk management. Rampant urbanization, indiscriminate use of natural resources, rapid industrialization, and deforestation have led to the loss of natural balance by destabilizing the proportional existence of natural gifts like rivers, mountains, springs, forests, and biodiversities. Sustainability efforts to reduce pollution, carbon footprints, and limit human activities causing the emission of greenhouse gases are welcome initiatives to reduce the risk of disaster. These kinds of sustainable and green practices in consumption and production naturally immune us from various risk factors. 16.4    Intersection of health and disaster risk management There has been a lot of emphasis on research works, theory building, and policy implementation-related works in the interdisciplinary area of health and disaster risk management. In the context of disaster risk management, public health becomes a critical factor. The world health assembly, through its resolution, has also urged for strengthening of the disaster risk management system by integrating it into a national health policy. A weaker public health creates a hindrance in attaining national, regional, and global developmental targets and goals. Literature is found on the impact of the disaster on public health and clinical management-related issues, the commonalities and coordination between public health and crisis management, the impact of strengthening public health on disaster risk reduction, and the description of disaster management cycles applicable in case of an epidemic affecting public health. The Sendai framework for disaster risk reduction (SFDRR) has also given due consideration to health-related issues under disaster management. Health is considered one of the important outcomes of disaster risk management initiatives. In the context of the current pandemic COVID-19, health has emerged as a matter of concern and one of the critical goals to be achieved. In the African context, it has been strongly advised to use a strong public health system to mitigate the risk of health vulnerabilities and inequalities arising from the disaster. Any natural disaster damages the physical, mental, and psychological well-being of individuals. It also causes significant morbidity and comorbidity among people affected by disasters. Therefore “Health-Emergency disaster risk management (Health-EDRM),” after adopting the health-related objectives from Sendai Framework, augments it further with its action and research agenda to decrease the risk of health hazards as a result of the disaster. It primarily encompasses focuses on the following: a.     A holistic approach to health-related interventions is required during all phases of disaster. Cater to specific health needs of vulnerable sections of the population (people more likely to have health hazards), viz. children, elderly, differently-abled, and people having comorbidity, during a disaster. c.     Necessary steps to build health resilience among communities considering the entire spectrum of health hazards. d.     Internationally acknowledged standard of case-based reporting for measuring different health parameters during all phases of disaster (predisaster, during disaster, and postdisaster) e.    Agreed-upon guidelines regarding usage of terminologies and procedures for preparedness and building health resilience among communities should be prepared. 16.5    Conclusion: the NDMA successfully coordinated efforts with relevant stakeholders, implemented evidence-based strategies for containment, facilitated the distribution of resources equitably, and effectively communicated with the public to ensure compliance with health guidelines, then their management of COVID-19 could be considered commendable. However, if there were shortcomings such as inadequate resource allocation, lack of coordination leading to confusion or duplication of efforts, failure to adapt strategies based on emerging data and expert recommendations, or ineffective communication resulting in misinformation or public distrust, then the management by NDMA may be deemed less successful. Overall, a comprehensive evaluation of NDMA's management of COVID-19 would require a thorough analysis of their actions, outcomes, and impact on controlling the spread of the virus and mitigating its socio-economic consequences. 16.6    Self Check Exercises a.    Importance of local administration and community involvement b.    Intersection of health and management 16.7    Glossary Morbidity - Refers to having a disease or a symptom of disease, or to the amount of disease within a population. Morbidity also refers to medical problems caused by a treatment Convention – a traditional way of behaving or of doing something Hazard - something that is dangerous and likely to cause a problem or damage: an environmental/health/fire hazard 16.8    Answers to self check exercises a. see 16.3 b. see 16.4 16.9    Terminal questions Q1 Analyse the ways and means of NDMA to manage COVID-19 effectively. Q2 How local administration and community proved its effectiveness in the management of COVID-19. 16.10    Suggested Readinghttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc 201