---
title: "Complete Book 0"
book: "MPUB 307 Skills and Techniques of Administration"
category: "General"
publisher: "Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd."
type: "Educational Material"
---







According to Latest Syllabus
Read For Sure Success
In University Examination
RATAN
TEXT BOOK
SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES OF ADMINISTRATION
M.A.Pub.Ad.(Sem-III)
Dr. Sanskrati Yadav
Published by
Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd.
2nd Floor, Centre Plaza, Parinay Kunj, Lajpat Kunj Marg, Agra-282002
Copyright Authors & Publishers
Published by
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CONTENTS
| SR.NO. | TOPIC                                 PAGE NO. |
|---|---|
| CHAPTER-1 | WORK STUDY- MEANING, OBJECTIVES AND FUNCTIONS, WORK MEASUREMENT 1 |
| CHAPTER-2 | TIME MANAGEMENT-TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE TIME     9 MANAGEMENT |
| CHAPTER-3 | STRESS MANAGEMENT - CONCEPT, CAUSES, EFFECTS OF STRESS MANAGEMENT 16 |
| CHAPTER-4 | QUALITY CIRCLES - MEANING, BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS IN IMPLEMENTATING 23 QUALITY CIRCLES |
| CHAPTER-5 | GLOBALIZATION ISSUE, CHALLENGES AND STRATEGIES TO SOLVE THE PROBLEMS 27 |
| CHAPTER-6 | MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS): OBJECTIVES, ESSESNTIALSM     31 FUNCTION AND ROLE OF MIS IN PLANNING AND CONTROL |
| CHAPTER-7 | ADMINISTRATIVE IMPROVEMENT- O AND M APPROACH, OBJECTIVE,          40 FUNCTION AND ESSENTIALS |
| CHAPTER-8 | ETHICAL AND MORAL TECHNIQUES                                  50 |
| CHAPTER-9 | MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVE (MBO)                                 63 |
| CHAPTER-10 CHAPTER-11 | O.D. TECHNIQUES IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION                            70 JOB ANALYSIS                                                       79 |
| CHAPTER-12 | EXECUTIVE DEVELOPMENT- CONCEPT, PROCESS AND TECHNIQUES OF        90 EXECUTIVE DEVELOPMENT ASSIGNMENT                                                     95 |


CHAPTER-1
WORK STUDY- MEANING, OBJECTIVES AND FUNCTIONS, WORK MEASUREMENT
Structure

1 .0 Learning Objective


1.1    Introduction

1.2    Mining

1.3    Objectives and functions of Work Study

1.4    The Development of Work Study

1.5    Significance of Work Study

1.6    Work Measurement

1.7    Objectives of Work Measurement

1.8    Summary

1.9    Self-check exercises

1.10    Glossary

1.11    Answers to self check questions

1.12    Suggestive Reading

1.13    Terminal Questions

1 .0 Learning Objectives: After learning this lesson the student will be able to understand the:

-    The concept of work-study

-    The Development of work-study

-    The importance of work-study for the organisation

-    The general concept of work-measurement

-    Objectives of work-measurement

-    The techniques of work-measurement

1.1    Introduction
Improving performance is the natural goal of every one ; the administrator, the trade union leader, the industrialist, the agriculturalist, the surgeon, the university Professor, the house-wife, the fruit seller, that is anyone who is. engaged in any meaningful activity. It is more so with the management. Management has been defined as planning, organising and controlling of human and other resources in order to achieve specified goals. Management techniques help us in optimising utilization of our resources and in the improvement of over-all performance. Technique is a specific way of doing work to achieve the objective. Management technique is a set of procedural steps, which help us in planning organising and controlling of human and other resources in order to achieve specified goals. It helps the Manager to perform better in his efforts to achieve
the objectives Application of management techniques results in economy of effort in accomplishing the work and consistency of out-put.
Improvement in production can be achieved by putting in more resources. For example agriculture production can be improved by increasing the land area, by putting in more resources like seed, fertilizers, water and pesticides etc. This may however, not result in the improvement o productivity. The managers are no doubt, interested in the improvement of productivity which is the ratio between out-put and the in-put. In other words, Manager is more interested to have more out-put with the same resources or more out-put with comparatively less increase in the in-put. Work study helps us in achieving the objective i.e. in improving productivity.

1.2    Meaning
Work study has been defined by the British Standards institution, as, ‘Management Service based on those techniques, particularly Method Study and Work Measurement, which are used in the examination of human work in all its contexts, and which lead to the systematic investigation of all the resources and factors which affect the efficiency and economy of the situation being reviewed, in order to effect improvement”.
Indian Standards Institution now known as Bureau of indian Standards has defined Work- Study as ‘A Modem discipline, which analyses and evalugted all aspects of a work system in order to enhance its effectivuness and -functional efficiency”. These definitions and other literature on the subject bring out the following characteristics of Work Study ;
Works study in only one of the management services. “The internal advisory and consultancy services designed to assist the management in maintaining and improving their own effectiveness and efficiency of operations are known as management services. They serve as aids to management at different times and in different fields of operation. The recognised groups of analytical skills and branches of knowledge commonly known as management services include Work Study, Organisation and Methods, Operations Research, Computer Services, Economic intelligence. System Analysis and other similar specialized areas. Work study should also be distinguished from industrial engineering, “industrial engineering is concerned with the design, improvement and installation of integrated system of men, materials and equipments, it draws upon specialised knowledge and skill in the Mathematical, Physical and Social Sciences together with the principles and methods of Engineering Analysis and Design to specify, predict stimulus of an incentive wage-payment plan.
Standard Time = Normal + Allowance in percent and evaluate; the results to be obtained from such systems”. It Is broader in scope than Work Study although Indian Institution of Industrial Engineering considers Work Study as synonymous to Industrial Engineering.
Work study earlier aimed at improving productivity at the shopfloor, whereas organisation and methods were applied mostly in office situations Gradually, however, with the increasing application of efficiency thinking in offices the distinction between ‘O and M’ and ‘Work Study’ is getting diminished and sometimes these terms are used synonymously.
Work study seeks to examine all aspects of work system with the help of three basic techniques, viz., Organisation Analysis. Methods Study and Work Measurement most of the literature from Western World mention only Method Study and Work Measurement as techniques of Work Study, but in India, we include Organisation Analysis aldo as one of the basic techniques of work study. These three techniques are inter-related and inter-dependent and are applied to a greater or a-leaser degree in almost all work study
assignments. Organisation Analysis is a technique of breaking up an organisation into its constituent parts 0with a view to examining the structure of the organisation, the duties and responsibilities of individuals/ units and inter-relationships of individuals/units engaged in achieving specified common goals. Methods study has been defined as “a systematic and analytical approach to problems which will enable all the relevant tactors to be evaluated so that decision may ,be made”. “Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a qualified worker to carry out a specific Job at a defined level of performance”.
Work Study follows the scientific method of inductive logic i.e. A.E.E. approach.
A- nalysis i.e., identification of problem, recording facts and ascertaining reasons for those facts. E- volution i.e., conceptual modeling or thinking of alternative patterns of existing situations.
E- valuation.i.e, considering the various implications of the alternatives and selecting buitable ones for future use.

(i)    It is advisory in nature and not executive. It has no mandatory powers. It does not impose itself on anybody but helps when invited.

(ii)   It is not an axe, as it was generally mis-understood in the earlier days of its development. It they
even advise increases.

(iii)    Iit is nop Gestapo, but depend for its success on the active cooperation of the men on the job.

(iv)    It is not a cure all, it merely recommends improvements. It does not even aim at perfection, it has the motto, “There is always room for improvement.

(v)    It is not infallible. It is only impartial.

(vi)    Work study attempts to evaluate the performances capability of a work system not merely in terms of efficiency but also in terms of effectiveness and efficacy. It la axiomatic that efficiency is not enough as it is only a measure of how well a system is performing. On the other hand, effectiveness tries to reduce the gap between the desired objectives and the actual performance. Efficiency ensures that the system continues in the manner originally conceived. Thus, it may also help in policy making, which is concerned with setting up goals, organisation of system and establishment of monitoring methods as well as in implementation,- which involves setting up of sub-goals and procurement/assignment of resources.

(vii)    Work study follows systems approach and it not only aims at solving specific problems in a work situation but also attempts to examine the whole systems and optimise its performance. System approach is evidently to be desired as the best solution, for a part may not be the best solution for the whole.

1.3    Objectives and functions ofWork Study:

2.1    The Objectives of work study is to assist the management to obtain the optimum use of the human and material resources available to an organization for the accomplishment of work upon which it is engaged. Basically, it means ;

1)    the most effective use of plant and equipment,

2)    the most effective use of human effort, and

3)    the evaluation of human work
R.M. Currie and Joseph, E. Faraday indentify the following six functions of work study;

i.    Improve the organisation;

ii.    Ensure better design and planning;

iii.    Improve methods of working;

iv.    Ensure optimum use of resources;

v.    Improve methods of control; and

vi.    Increase individual effectiveness and satisfaction of work.
According to R.M. Currie Joseph E. Faraday the main contribution of the Work Study has been in the following areas :

A.    Incentive Schemes

B.    Labour Control

C.    Material handling

D.    Planning

E.    Plant and product design.

1.4 The Development of Work Study

3.1    The development of methods of improving work and of controlling it can be traced from early almost prehistoric times. The civil engineering triumphs of Mohenjodaro and Harappa are some of the hundreds of examples we know today of the way in which major problems of transportation and construction were successfully overcome by ancient people. In the field of public administration Katitilya’s Arthashastra’, written in India in 212 B.C. has been considered to be an outstanding book on Work Study.
The systematic use of the scientific approach to human work is, however, associated with the name of Fredrick Winslow Taylor, who has been called “the father of modem scientific management”. Many others, like the Gitbreths, Gantt and Bedux made significant contributions to the development of the technique, it was, however, only during the post-World War II period of economic renaissance of Europe that the major upsurge took place in the appreciation of the potentiality of Work Study as a comprehensive service to management, the management of Government, the management of trade unions, the management of fighting services as well as the management of industry.
Work Study started in India in 1936 when two American consulting engineers established a firm of consultants, now known as ISCON. Since then several other consultancy firms have been set up and have done useful work in the private sector. Simultaneously, a number of industrial organisations like Union Cartilde, ICI and Tata industries have contributed significantly in accelerating the pace of application of Work Study techniques in the country. Productivity Councils and management associations have also made serious efforts to create an awareness for the reed to increase productivity by using modern management techniques.
Since World War II, Work Study techniques have been progressively applied to Government organizations at all levels of administration. The major area of applications has, however, been labour productivity, although the present state of our economy would indicate that the emphasis should be on optimum
use of scarce resources in capital, equipment and material, which form the; major components of cost in most indpstrial activities.

1.5    Significance of Work Study
Good managers have been investigating and improving performance ever since human effort was first organised on a large scale. Unfortunately, no country seems to have an adequate supply of competent managers. The prime value of work study lies in the fact that, by carrying out its systematic procedures, a manager can achieve results as good as or better than the less systematic genius was able to achieve in the past.
Work Study succeeds because it is systematic both in the investigation of the problem being considered and n the development of its solution. Systematic investigation takes time. It is therefore, necessary, in all but the smallest organisation to separate job of making won studies from the task of management. The factormanager or the foreman, in their day-to-day work with its many human and material problems are never free from interruption for long. However, capable lie may, be. a manager can rarely afford to devote a long time, without interruption, for long. However; capable he may be, a manager can rarely afford to devote a long time, without interruption, to the study of a single activity. Unless all the facts are known, it is impossible to be sure that any alterations in procedure which are made based on accurate information and will be fully effective. It is only by continuous observation and study at the workplace or in the area where the activity is taking place that the facts can be obtained. This means that work study must always be the -responsibility of someone who is able to undertake it full time, without direct management duties, someone in a staff and not a line position. Work Study is a service to management and supervision.
We have now discussed, very briefly, some aspects of the nature of work study and why it is such a valuable “tool” of management. There are other reasons to be added to the above. These may be summarised as follows:-

(i)    It is a means of raising the productive efficiency (productivity) of a factory or operating unit by the reorganisation of work, method which normally involved little or no capital expenditure on plant and equipment.

(ii)    It is systematic. This ensures that no factor effecting the efficiency of an operation is over looked, whether in analysing the original practices or in developing the new, and that all the facts about that operation are available.

(iii)    It is the most accurate means yet evolved of setting standards of performance on which the effective planning and control of production depends.

(iv)    The savings resulting from property applied was study start at once and continue as long as the operation continues in the improved form.

(v)    It is a “tool” can be applied everywhere. It can be used with success where-ever manual work is done or plant is operated, not only in manufacturing shops but also in offices, stores, laboratories and service industries such as wholesale and retail distribution and restaurants, and on farms.

(vi)    It is one of the most penetrating tools of investigation available to the management. This makes it an excellent weapon for starting an attack on inefficiency in any organisation, since, investigating one set of problems, weakpeases of all the other functions affecting them will gradually be laid bare.

1.6    Work Measurement
As stated in an ILO publication :
Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a qualified workers to carry out a specified job at a defined level of performance”. The work study report of the secretariat training school, Ministry of Home Affairs defined it as : “Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the work content of a specified test by determining the time required for carrying it out as a defined standard ot performance by qualified workers.”
Work measurement is thus a devices for estimating more precisely me amount of time, it should take or will take to perform the assigned work. Work measurement has both a negative and positive tole. Negatively it locates the existence of ineffective time; positively it sets standard times for the performance of work. Since Method Study is a technique for reducing work content, therefore, it is necessary that method Study should precede work measurement. In short, work measurement is interested in investigating, reducing and subsequently eliminating ineffsetive time.
It is very easy to apply this technique to highly repetitive operations. It is said that it is very difficult to apply this technique to work of key administrative posts; work with unpredictable result.; However, we must try to use this techniques even under such situations through establishing norms or standards of performance which may be less precise but rational. This technique would make even such persons accountable and responsible rather than they make their own kingdom within the organisation.

1.7    OBJECTIVES OF WORK MEASUREMENT
Work measurement is concerned with investigating, reducing and eliminating ineffective time. Besides, it also helps setting performance standards which connote. “The optimum rate of output that can be achieved by a qualified worker as an average for a working day or shift due allowance being made for the necessary time required for rest.” The following advantages would result through the application of work measurement in anorganisation.

(i)    Comparing Alternative Methods :
There are generally many methods to perform a given Job. Where two alternative methods seem equally good and suitable the one which consumes less time for completion will be better. The techniques of work measurement offer the best means of making this choice.

(ii)    Correct Meaning of Work :
Staffing is an important area of management. Work measurement can help us in making the public offices staffed by persons in right quantity and quality. Most of the Committees and Commissions have reported that government office are overstaffed to a great extent but they have not offered any method by which to assess and curtail the staff.

(iii)    Effective Planning and Scheduling of operations :
Effective Planning and scheduling of operations require the exact estimation and availability of resources-men, money and material, All these can be made possible through the technique of Work
Measurement as the information generated by this technique form a reliable basis for planning and forwarti loading the men and materlal for the administrators to utilize them to their best advantage. The mairr case of the failure of the planning in India has been the lack of any accurate measurement of work. Unless the work has been measured it cannot be planned and scheduled with any assurance that a promised operation completion can be met.

(iv)    Effective Means of Control:
Once the operations have been planned, then they are to be implemented. At the stage of implementation management is interested to know how closely this is followed in practice. There is a need of control by the management to ensure the predesigned output Maintenance of proper records for all types of activities, plus a knowledge of the performance which is maintained while work is being done, form a reliable basis for control.

(v)    Helpful in Cost Estimation :
Standards are helpful in determining the cost of the work performed. This is helpful to management in preparing budgets and in measuring the effectiveness of forecasts. By knowing what the cost should be and comparing them with budget figures, it is possible to ascertain the reasons for the difference. This may mean that there is a need for devising more efficient procedures and setting new stendards to.conform to them. Thus, standards help in reducing costs.

(vi)    Better Staff Morale :
It creates better morale among staff through their perception of what is expected of them in terms of quantity and quality. The emcient workers can be separated from the poor workers and thus the work of efficient workers can be recognized. This is also helpful in installing incentive wage system.

(vii)    Standards of Efficiency :
Standards serve as a basis for measuring the effectiveness of any organisation by indicating the achievement as compared with the standards.

(viii)    Better Management:
On the basis of the standards managerial functions can be predicted and discharged more effectively.

1.8    Summary
As enunciated earlier there are fundamentally eight basic steps in performing a complete work study. Some of them are relevant f for Method Study while these or some others are relevant for Work Measurement. Isolating those steps which are necessary for Work Measurement, the basic procedure could’ easily be formulated. Depending on the optimum use of which the Work Measurement is to be put will depend whether all the eight steps are necessary. The essence of work measurement would depend upon selecting the requisite unit of measurement. A standard unit of measurement should be comparable, exact and stable. The measurement of all work done in an organisation could be carried out through measuring by any of three ways-measuring individual output, measuring groups on routine work and groups on special work.

1.9    Self Check Exercises

a.    The development of Work Study.

b.    Objective of work measurement

1.10    Glossary
F.W. Taylor        : Taylor developed the techniques of Work study and work measurement.
Work measurement : It is concerned with reducing and investigating ineffective time in the organisation.

1.11    Answer to self check exercises
To see a.1.4

b. 1.7

1.12    Suggesting Reading

L.M. Parsad; Organisation Behaviour
S.L. Goel; Personnel Administration and Management

1.13    Terminal Questions

1.    Discuss Work-study in the organisation. How work study can be developed.
*****
CHAPTER-2
TIME MANAGEMENT-TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE TIMEMANAGEMENT
Structure

2.0 Learning Objective

2.1    Introduction

2.2    Time Management Techniques and strategies

2.3    Summary

2.4    Self Check Exercises

2.5    Glossary

2.6    Answers to self check exercise

2.7    Suggesting Reading

2.8    Terminal Questions

2.0 Learning Objective: After going through this lesson the students will be able to know

-    The basic concept of Time Management.

-    The management Techniques and Strategies

-    The time study to solve the organisation problem.

-    Assessment of the time use in the organisation.

2.1    Introduction
The Statement that “Time is money” sums up the significance of time management. Though most of the people in Government, Public Enterprises and Private Sector understand the- implications of time management but, m actual practice, we find that time is wasted and its importance is undermined. Most of the executives in administration complain that they are too busy but still they while away a lot of their time in unnecessary activities. All other resources can be increased whenever required but not time as it is inelastic and therefore, we must make the best use of time. Just .to illustrate the importance of time, many studies conducted revealed that persons in administration hardly devote 30 to 40 per cent of their time for the activities they have been engaged. It means that if proper use is made of time, we can provide services with the existing infrastructure two to three times more and thus the process of development can be accelerated.
Thus, if all the services make the best use of time, we can accelerate the process of development and help the people of the country suffering from abject poverty, ill health, illiteracy, unemployment, in leading a good standard of life. In developed countries, the most precious resource is time and that is why they are developed but in developing countries, time is unconsciously and consciously wasted in useless activities resulting in under-development or backwardness.
Nation must be committed to utilise even a fraction of second for accelerating the tempo of development to usher in socio-economic democracy as enshrined in the preamble of the Indian constitutions and further stressed in Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State policy. How to go about it ? How to ensure optimisation of time ? How to make the best use of time? The answers to these questions are very simple, i.e., time management at all levels.
If our country can manage time, we can achieve in a year the work of a decade and thus can move fast towards modernization and development and can say with pride that India occupies a prominent place as in the past in the community of Nations.
We have already discussed a number of Techniques like PERT/CPM, Method Study, Work measurement which can help us in managing time but no technique of time management can compel us to move as time demands. Thus, the ultimate success of time management depends upon the people engaged in the pursuit of socio-economic development and leading the country. If all of us understand the value of time, then there would be no place for strikes, lock outs, work-stoppage, Bandhs, Dharnas, etc. All these activities are anti-nation and anti development. In developed countries like Japan, time is utilised profitably and they do not waste time in any way. If the persons in Government or industry have to register a protest, they do simply by wearing black badges or present memoranda but not stoppage of work.
The aim of time management is not to turn workers into machines who work without interruptions or breaks, nor is it to develop rigid routines. Rather, the aim is to organise and arrange the use of time so that time pressures and overcrowded schedules and wastages are reduced, and that staff can have adequate rest periods without lowering work output.
If forced to work under continuous pressure, people devise means of escape such as by taking daysoff for illness or slowing down their pace and becoming inellicient. These ways of relieving pressure may be observed among staff in an average overcrowded department. It has been repeatedly shown in industry that regular breaks increase work efficiency and work output.

2.2    TIME MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES & STRATEGIES
Laurent Jaung and Susank Jones in their book “Time Management for Executives” (Charlo Scriknero songs, New York, 1981) have said that the happiest people are busy people. But, there are two kinds of busy” harried or disorganised busy and calm effective bosy. You can improve your “effectiveness quotient” and become an enlightened consumer of time if your master the basic time-management skill”.
It is very difficult to enlist all the techniques of time-management as these are many and range from simple commonsense approach to sophisticated techniques of PERT/CPM, OR. Method Study, Work measurement, etc. We take here the techniques not discussed in other chapters.

1.    Assessment of Time Use for Activities that are not related to work
In this technique, is columns across a sheet of paper, write down all the activities that are not related to work and that might take place during the course of a working day (e.g., relaxing in staff room or canteen, personal telephone calls, going out to shop, reading a newspaper, tea or coffee breaks, arriving late, leaving early, interruptions by other staff).
Give copies of the papers to staff members who have volunteered to take part in this exercise. Ask them to record the number of minutes spent on each activity not related to work over a period of one or more days.
Collect the records and add up the minutes spent on non-working activities each day by each staff member.
Request all staff members who have’ agreed to record their non-work activities to meet together to discuss the results or some team of outside experts may be deputed to collect this data.
Give the group the totals from above without revealing the identity of the staff members who provided the data.
Discuss the following questions with the groups :

a.    Is the amount of time spent in non-working activities reasonable, too much, or not enough ?

b.    Would it be better to have recognized time breaks (e.g., 30 minutes for tea, shopping, reading the newspaper, or chatting) rather than having many unofficial breaks ?

c.    Would recognized or official breaks, i.e., at different times so that the work did not stop, improve the quality of the work ?
List the recommendations decided by the group for each of these questions and implement them.
A serious problem that is responsible for the wastage of time of large number of executives is either the visit of the political elite to them or their visit to them. The political elite and their kith and kin visit the key administrators who waste a lot of time in entertaining them and then getting the work done of their supporters. Some of the administrators in the field interviewed personally by the writer revealed that 50 to 60 per cent of the time is wasted in entertaining and making arrangements for these political elite. The people have formed the impression that “Administration exists only for the VIPs and not for the common man’’. If the political executives are really interested in making the administration sensitive and responsible they must see that administration is impartial, honest and does not waste time in attending on the few people. Even when they visit the field, no official should visit them until and unless called for. The army of Civil Servant should not waste the time simply standing before the ministers and looking to their faces for orders. This would help the key officials in administration to .devote a great deal of their time for development and modernization.

2.    Assessment of Time Use for Activities that can be done at Lower Levels
Most of the senior persons in the organisation perform the work which can be done at lower levels or that does not require the competence of the level where it is being done. If such work is delegated at the lower level, the time spent by the busy people at the higher level can be saved. This would also be economical since the salary scales are higher at upper levels. Let us understand this with the help of a Case Study from Thailand reported in Public Health Development and Administration by Dr. K. Klinoubol (New Delhi, Deep, 1989, pp. 336-44). Conducted under the guidance of the author.
Acceptance of female sterilization in Thailand has increased considerably, but because of the shortage of doctors, especially in rural areas, long delays occurring before surgery are common. Women are discharged from hospital within 24 to 48 hours of delivery and although many wish to have post-partum sterilization, they often find it inconvenient to return to hospital for tubal ligation. Besides, it is very costly.
The Tahi Ministry of Public Health decided to introduce the performance of post-partum tuballigation by trained nurse-mid-wives, since this could alleviate the shortage of doctors and so reduce waiting times and, free doctors for more skilled tasks. This reduces costs as well.
In 1979, a pilot study was conducted by the Ministry of Public Health in which five nurse- midwives with operating-room experience were traided to perform post-partum tuballigation by a minilaparotomy incision under local anaesthesia. The performance of the trained nurse-midwives was compared with that of doctors in a controlled, randomized clinical trial. The results suggested that trained nurse-midwives can safely perform the procedure.
In the subsequent study, an expanded field trial of the nurse training programme was carried out by the Ministry of Public Health to evaluate the replicability of the training programme in provincial settings.
The results of the field trial of the nurse-training programme are similar to those of the pilot study, and further demonstrate that trained nurse-midwives with operating-room experience can safely perform postpartum tubal ligation under local anaesthesia in provincial settings. The nurse- midwives gained both surgical experience and self-confidence in a relatively short period. The average operating time of the nurse after 12 months (15 minutes) was nearly that of the doctors in the previous study (12 minutes).
The acceptability of the service as perceived by the patients was clearly, impressive. The attitudes of doctors toward the use of trained nurse-midwives in their hospitals to perform tubal ligation were very positive. As a result of this study, it has been suggested to the Ministry of Public Health that an expanded programme be planned and implemented. Secondly, it is suggested that as medical procedures become accepted and routine, doctors should delegate these tasks to nursing and other personnel. - Delegation does not undermine the professional role; It enhances it. The more the doctor delegates the more time he has available for those task he cannot delegate and the more his work becomes confined to problems that staff with less training have failed to solve. In addition, more of his time can be devoted to supervising the work he has delegated and to providing continuing education to all engaged locally in activities to improve health.
But delegation is also a matter of economics. The ratio between the remuneration of the doctor and the average worker tends to be much higher in developing countries than in the more developed countries. Auxiliaries can also be trained at much lower’ cost than can higher grades of professional staff. Thus, it is that much more important to ensure that the doctor’s time is used only for task that require his skill and knowledge. The same is true of other highly trained health professionals-dentist, pharmacists, health inspectors, nurses, sanitary engineers and many others. There is a strong case for every highly trained professional grade to be matched by a corresponding auxiliary grade. Furthermore, as their training is shorter, auxiliary staff can be working in the field much earlier than more highly trained personnel.
To quote Allan Rosenfield :
“I firmly believe that personnel other than physicians can and should be trained in the techniques, of vasectomy, post-partum and interval tubal ligation, provision of injectable hormal contraceptives and where legally and culturally acceptable, the carrying out of menstrual regulation or early first trimester abortion procedures.”
The author as a professor at a training Institute conducted a survey with three senior groups of civil servants and found that 40 per cent of their time is being spent on activities which can easily be done at the lower levels and thus through proper planning, we can save their time. In the University, there are generally three levels of teachers-Lecturers, Readers and Professors. It has generally been seen that all of them do the same nature of work. The professors who are supposed to build the tempo of research and guide the faculty are busy in routine teaching as others are doing resulting in the wastage of scarce resources. The analysis suggest the need of carefully planning of work to save time and money. We may make use of the techniques like ABC Analysis, Management By Exception to plan the work at a particular level. Sydney F. Loves in his book “mastery and management of time” /Prentice Hall, USA, 1978) has rightly said that one must prune the trees of his activities so that one may not get lost on the branches. ”Not every task requires a high quality level. Time can be gained from one to apply to another.”

3.    Time Proportion Study to give weightage to PriorityAreas
The executive should plan their work according to the priority so that more attention can be paid to such work. Here the executive may analyse the activities done during the day and the time devoted on each activity ; The writer has done this exercise on many executives. The analysis of the results of such exercise suggest that the executives spend more time on activities that are less significant and spend less time on activities-that are very important. It means that the executives never devote time in proportion to the intensity of the activity resulting in many wrong decisions affecting the performance of the organisation. For example, the Universities, Apex institutions in all areas at the National level are created to do researches which can help in policy-making and planning in different areas but on examination, it has been seen that they are engaged in routine activities. An opening of a department of a subject like Public Administration, Sociology etc. in a University and a College is done with different objectives : that is why staffing at two levels is entirely different. The University Department is supposed to engage itself in Research, Consultancy, and teaching while a college department is mostly meant for teaching. A careful analysis in practices would indicate that both are engaged merely in teaching and that is why we generally hear that the Universities have become white elephant on the State exchequer. Administrative Reforms Commission examined the problem of administration and it has observed that in most cases the top administration only okays the proposal initfated at lower levels. This means that the high level administration finds no time to think of real issues meant for them like Organisational Development, Management of Change, Conflict Management.

4.    Time-Proportion Study on Meetings
In today’s administration, top level executives/experts attend a number of meetings which are not well planned and well focused resulting in the wastage of time of executives/experts. Whenever you go to the Secretariat of any Government or Corporation, you will find that most of the key people are busy in one meeting or the other. The analysis of the agenda and outcome of the meetings would indicate that there is too much wastage of time and that is why the key officials find no time to listen to the grievances of the people and develop a climate of understanding. Let me quote here the Study conducted in the context of International Administration by the author (International Administration by Dr. S.L. Goel, New Delhi, Sterling, 1977, pp. 153-54).
The technical staff of the SEARO has to spend a.lot of time in attending meetings of other regional agencies for liaison purposes. Besides, they have to prepare a large number of documents to exchange information with other regional organizations. These activities have been increasing over the years, largely because the increasing number of organizations tend to complicate the process of co-ordination. This was also pointed out by the UN Secretary-General who wrote :
I detect a sense of concern in many quarters at the growth in the number of bodies and programmes which have been established primarily for co-ordination purposes or in which co ordination activities play an important and increasing role, in the time and the documentation required to service them, and in the complexities and even the duplications which they involve.
The meetings and the documentation service dealing with co-ordination may hence be reduced to a level essential for programme achievement. This can save a lot of the specialists’ time which would be utilized for other fruitful activities.
It is strange that even in Universities, most of the time of the key officials is spent on meetings like Senate, Syndicate Finance Board and Plethora of Sub-Committees and it is very difficult to meet them and discuss important issues. The key officials who must find time to ensure academic excellence in the University get no time for it as they are exhausted in meetings dealing with matters of relatively lesser importance. It is, therefore, suggested that the time on these meetings may be reduced to be utilised on areas of greater significance.

5.    Time Study to Solve the Problems and Not Symptoms
It has been generally seen that most of the executives do not find time to decide a case thoroughly from all angles but rather deals with the symptoms and thus deals with it temporarily. In this way, issue lingers on and continues in this way for long resulting in. the wastage of time and resources not only of the management but also of the beneficiaries as well as creating bitterness between the two. It has been seen that the cases which could be dealt in a week’s time continues for years.
It has been observed on the analysis of decided cases by various courts in the country that the key officials in the administration initiate action against the employees on disciplinary grounds hurriedly resulting into wastage of resources and time of the administration in attending courts. All these litigations can be avoided if the key. personnel attend thoroughly rather than doing half heartedly.. Key officials by attending to real problems can save a lot of time in the long-run and make the administration efficient and responsible.

6.    Well Planned Time Table for Field Visits
Many of the key personnel have to control a wide-network of offices. A part of it can be controlled through telephone, or reporting. But, there is a need of personnel discussion among the head-quarter and the field staff which involve the use of time in travelling and discussion. It has been seen that officials plan their visit in such a way that they waste most of the time in travelling and less in discussion. It is suggested that field/headquarter visits must be well planned so that the discussion can be pertinent and all the issues are discussed to avoid meetings off and on. The headquarter personnel must carry with them a well prepared schedule to guide them in the field while the field people must also come prepared with definite schedule to clarify the vague points.

7.    Fixing of Time Schedule to Devote Time to Work
It has been observed that in most of the offices the time for the visitors is fixed so that they may not be visiting throughout the day and waste the time of the personnel. At the Schedule time people visit the offices with dissatisfaction. It is suggested that the Personal Assistants before sending any person to visit the officials must listen to him, keep his file ready so that action can be taken immediately and the person concerned may not visit again and again. A lot of time, as already mentioned, of the officials is wasted when the same people for the same work, visit the offices again and again. A brief training to staff and especially the Personal Assistants can help in quick disposal of public cases and thus avoiding their recurrent visits.

8.    Providing Regular Time for Rest and Recreation to Avoid Fatigue
Executives are human beings and thus cannot work beyond their capacity. It is, therefore, suggested that they may observe regular rest periods to feel fresh. However, these rest periods may not be done at will but must be already notified to avoid difficulty to the staff and the people until and unless there are compelling reasons for it.

9.    Brevity
Besides, the executives must learn to be brief and to the point and discourage relatives/friends to visit them in offices. Telephonic discussions must also be brief.

2.3    Summary
Time management would not only be beneficial to the executives but would also provide more opportunities to the people to share their ideas and views that the administration and thus we would be able to lay the solid foundations of People’s Participation, Development and Modernisation.
The development and modernization of developing countries can be accelerated by an efficient Public Administration. It has been observed that Personnel in Administration are not utilizing their time for the assigned job. They are wasting a lot of time in unnecessary trivial activities which are non-productive. We must manage our time purposefully to build Modern India otherwise we would remain an under-developed country as time and tide waits for none.

2.4    Self Check Exercises

a) Time Management Techniques and strategy

2.5    Glossary
Time Management : Fix the time to do the work in the organisation.
F.W. Taylor        : He is the pioneer in the techniques of Time Management in the organisation.

2.6    Answer to Self Check Exercise
To see 2.2

2.7    Selected Reading:

1.    S.L. Goel, Personnel Administration and Management

2.    L.M. Parsad, Organisation Behaviour

2.8    Terminal Questions

1.    What do you understand by the term Time Management? What are its techniques and strategies?
*****
CHAPTER-3STRESS MANAGEMENT - CONCEPT, CAUSES, EFFECTS OF STRESS MANAGEMENT
Structure

3.0 Learning Objective

3.1    Introduction

3.2    Definition of Stress

3.3    Stress Levels

3.4    Causes of Stress

3.5    Consequences of Stress

3.6 . Management of Stress in Organisation

3.7    Approaches to Stress Management

3.8    Summary

3.9    Self Check Exercise

3.10    Glossary

3.11    Answer to Self check exercise

3.12    Suggesting Reading

3.13    Terminal Questions

3.0 Learning Objective: After learning this lesson the students will be able to know

-    The concept ofStress

-    The levels of Stress

-    The Causes of Stress

-    How to manage Stress in organisation

-    The approaches to Stress Management

3.1    Introduction
Stress has a variety of meaning to people in workplace. To the production manager in a chemical plant, it may the tension of missing the shipping date of a large order for a major customer. To the business executive, it may be frustration associated with the inability to acquire sufficient short-term loans from banks to cover-the operating needs, and so on.
The phenomenon of stress is highly individualistic in nature. The people who possess high- levels of tolerance power can thrive away stress very well. At the same time, some individuals will not perform well unless they experience a level of stress which energises and activates them to put forth best efforts. On the other hand, others who possess very low levels of tolerance for stress become paralysed when they have to face stress. This way stress has a variety of meanings to people in the workplace.

3.2    Definition of Stress
In the words of Salagyi and Wallace, “Stress is an internal experience that creates psychological or physiological imbalance within an individual and results from factors in the external environment, the organization, or the individual.”
This definition identifies three main elements of stress in organization :
ELEMENTS OR COMPONENT OF STRESS
Source :      Andrew Szilagyi and Marc Wallice, Organizational Behaviour and Performance, 1990,
pp. 220.

1.    The stimulus element of component: This includes the initiating forces that result in a feeling of stress. Stress stimuli can originate from the environment, the organization, and the individual.

2.    The response component : It involves physiological, psychological, or behavioural reactions to stress. Two responses to stress are most frequently identified. One, frustration which is caused by any obstruction between a behaviour and its goal and, second, the anxiety which the feeling of being unprepared to respond appropriately in some situation. Stress associated with organizational activities is called job stress.

3.    The Interactive component : The interactive component of stress is the interaction of stimulus and response stress factors. For example, for the air traffic controller, stress is a complex interaction of environmental, organizational, and personal feelings and responses.

3.3    Stress Levels
On the basis of performance, the stress levels may be categorized as: (1) Low stress, (2) Optimum stress, and (3) High stress.
There is an optimum level of stress for every individual under which he/she will perform to full capacity. If the stress experienced is below, this optimum level, the individual gets bored and the motivational level to work go down to low point. If a person operates in a very low stress environment continuously, the person is likely to withdraw physically from the work. This may result in committing careless mistakes frequently, forgetting to do things and thinking about something else than the assigned work during the hours of work. The high stress level may create exhaustion. The person becomes the victim of nervousness, indecisiveness and bad judgement.
The stress level may be different for different individuals. Each individual can sense and determine how much stress is functional for him or her to operate in a better productive manner.

3.4    Causes of Stress
Szilagyi and Wallace have stated that stressful situations can have a number of sources. The three major sources are:

(1)    Environmental sources : The environment can have multiple, complex effects on stress. For the study purpose, they can be internal and external. External environmental factors can include the state of the economy and predicted trends. One external event that caused great stress in organizations was the stock market crash. Stress increases during election years, as newly elected leaders often bring uncertainty about their behaviour. Similarly, changes in the technological environment must be considered as stress sources. The stressful effects of technological changes may diminish with time. For example,, many clerical personnel experienced stress when typewriters were replaced with word processors.
Internal environment also includes sources of stress related to health and safety. There is growing concern over the short and long term effects of exposure to toxic chemicals and radiation.

(i)    Organizational sources : Organizations consist of goals, strategies, policies, and people. Together or separately, these elements can be stress inducing. In contemporary times, one of the most stress-inducing events in many organizations was the manner in which management responds to mergers and acquisitions. Better understanding of organizational sources of stress may be obtained by looking at the three levels in an organization: organizational, group and individual. The picture is somewhat clearer for organizational sources of stress. For example, authority and reporting patterns seem to be stress inducing under certain circumstances. Reporting to a committee or to a superior in another state can result an uncomfortable situation. Situation. Policies and procedures can also be sources of stress. Ineffective performance evaluation and reward policies can reduce motivation, which will affect subsequent attitudes and performance. A number of group factors are powerful sources of stress for the employee, including poorly defined roles cerning who does what and when, group activities that produce will between melhbers, low levels of participation and support, conflict within the group and with group and with other groups, and disagreements about group leadership. At the individual level, many of the above factors functiotional stress inducers.

(3)    Individual sources : Individual sources of stress are distinct from those inherent in the job or in the individual’s personality. In essence, they are factors within the individual’s life that can be stress inducing.

3.5    Consequences of Stress
The stress levels and consequences as classified by Nirmal Singh (Organization Behaviour: Concepts, Theory and Practices) are depicted below;
| Stress level |  | Low stress | Optimum stress | High stress |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Reactions | - | Boredom/Apathy | High Energy | Exhaustion |
| Behaviours | - | Low motivation Careless mistakes Psychological and physical withdrawal Inactivity | High motivation Heightenedperception High involvement | Nervousness Indecisiveness Bad judgment |


| Performance |  | Low performance | High performance | Poor performance |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Health effects |  | Dull health | Good health | Insomnia psychosomatic illness |


According to A.D. Szilagyi and Wallace, consequences of stress can be classified into three categories: viz. Behavioural consequences, physiological consequences and organizational consequences; as described below:

1.    Behavioural consequences : When stress level increase beyond normal, a number of behavioural reactions can be exhibited, including anxiety, aggression, apathy, boredom, depression, fatigue, impulsive behaviour, etc. Other causes can also elicit these behaviours, but stress is at the heart of many.

2.    Physiological consequences : A growing body of work suggests that a strong link exists between stress and physical problems or disorders. Medical research leads some scholars to suggest that greater than 50 per cent of illness have stress-related origins. The type of physiological disorders that appear to be stress-related are many and varied. They may be such minor dysfunctions as sweating, dry mouth, and hot and cold flashes; problems in the form of visible frustration, anxiety and depression.

3.    Organizational consequences : Support is growing for the theory that stress is a prime contributor to many organizational problems, particularly poor performance and high turnover and absenteeism. When high stress is prolonged, people realize that something must change before they break down. Withdrawal, anger, sabotage, alcoholism, and other negative behaviours might be exhibited. Another form of stress-reducing behaviour seen with increasing frequency is absenteeism or turnover. Research on turnover and absenteeism shows a modest but definite relationship with stressful work conditions.

3.6 MANAGEMENT OF STRESS IN ORGANIZATIONS
Stress is a factor that everybody has to contend with both in the work and non-work spheres of life. It is important for every individual to manage the stress, since the body has only a limited capacity to respond to stress. There are several ways in which stress can be handled effectively: that is, relaxation meditation, physical exercise and engaging in sports activities, etc. In addition these, there is a technique known as “managing work-to-home transitions” which is also helpful in combating stress. This strategy emphasises that it would be beneficial to psychologically shift attention from stressful work situation to a relaxed evening at home in the family environment as one reaches the end of the working day. This is instead of carrying the pressures of the work to the home, the suggestion is to finish the process of work during the last working hour and enter the home in a relaxed and peaceful frame of mind.
Szillagyi and Wallace have categorized the stress management strategies as :

1.    Individual Strategies
A number of individual stress management strategies have been identified over the past few years.

(1)    Physical examination : A physical examination conducted by, a qualified physician is almost a prerequisite for any stress management system. Awareness of one’s physical condition, smoking and drinking habits, and heredity all help in understanding the causes and potential effects of stress.

(2)    Physical exercise : It has also become popular to relieve built-up stress and tension. The growth of health and exercise clubs is clearly related to awareness of the need for stress reduction.

(3)    Meditation : In one form of meditation, one sits with eyes closed and emits a special sound (a mantra) for a few minutes a number of times each day. This procedure is said to allow the mind to transcend daily stressful experiences and reach a calmer state.

(4)    Self-awareness activity: In some ways similar to personal audit, self-awareness forces individuals either self-motivated or guided by counselling, to do at least three things: first, carefully analyze their managerial skills; second; seek feedback and information from people around them such as peers and superiors; and third, develop a programme to improve deficient skills.

(5)    Alternative employment : Stress may be managed by leaving the firm and seeking alternative employment in another firm. Many times the only way to reduce stress is to change the situation.

2.    Organizational Strategies
Recent publications and surveys indicate that a majority of the firms offer some kind of formal stresses management programme for their workers. These stress management activities may take the form of formal programme or less formal changes in policies or procedures. For example, some firms pay particular attention to selection and placement programmes with new employees. The emphasis is on attempting to communicate to the employee through an extensive orientation programme, what the person might expect in the new job.
More formal stress management programmes can focus on the employee’s job and its inherent characteristics. Job redesign activities that emphasize reverse job enlargement or enrichment have gained management’s attention in recent years.
Much has been learned about work related stress in recent years. But much more needs to be learned before we can fully understand the cause and effects of stress, as well as determine the best ways to treat it. The fact that stress is a major concern of management is itself a good sign.
Nirmal Singh has prescribed the following strategies of stress management:

1.    Delegation of authority.

2.    Time management.

3.    Clinical Techniques,and

4.    Organizational practices.

1.    Delegation of authority : Many tasks can be delegated to subordinates without losing authority. Discussing important issues with subordinates not only provide them strength to manage many activities and at the same time relieves the manager to attend to more important organizational issues. Such delegation also serves to those at lower levels to step into higher level positions in future.

2.    Time management : A number of time-management techniques can be used at work. Fixing priorities of activities, leaving routine correspondence work to be attended and responded by the personal assistance. One has to frequently assess how goal directed efforts are to take stock of what has to be accomplished.

3.    Clinical techniques : This technique involves clinical diagnosis, counselling, detection of stress by periodic screening, and prevention programmes to keep stress under control. Biofeedback mechanisms are now increasingly being used in many western countries. This mechanism helps the individual to self-monitor stress levels. If the stress level is high, signals are flashed and the individual can immediately slow down and relax.

4.    Organizational practices : Under the organizational practices for stress management, the manager manages his own stress as well as that of his employees. Company-wide programmes are initiated which increases the performance and productivity of the organization and its employees. Some of the strategies used for stress management of employees include:

(1)    Role analysis techniques : This programme helps both manager and employee to analyse what the job entails and what the expectations are. This technique certainly helps to reduce role ambiguity, role conflict, and role overload: thereby lowering the stress levels for the individual.

(2)    Job location assistance : This is a kind of assistance offered to employees who are transferred; by finding alternative employment for their spouses in the new place, if so desired by the transferred employees. This sort of arrangement helps to reduce the anxiety arid stress for moving the family to new place.

(3)    Recreational facilities : Companies in the west are also providing recreational facilities to employees. Employees are permitted from 30 minutes to an hour of company time to exercise, swim or relax in their choice. Group meditation programmes are also made available to the employees by certain companies. All these efforts help to reduce the stress levels.

(4)    Employee assistance programme : These programmes offer variety of assistance to employees: such as counselling employees on how to deal with alcohol and drug abuse, managing personal finances, handling conflicts at the workplace, dealing with marital and the family problems, dealing with other kinds of stresses and coping with health problems.

(5)    Career counseling : This technique helps the employee to obtain professional advice towards career building and to achieve personal goals. It also makes aware the employees about what additional educational qualifications or specialized technical training they should acquire for career advancements. All these can reduce the stress levels by becoming more realistic about their options.

3.7    APPROACHES TO STRESS MANAGEMENT
Both organizations and individuals are highly concerned about stress and its effects. In attempting to manage stress, the organizations and. individuals have three broad options: prevent or control it, or escape from it: or learn to adapt to it. Several approaches exist for coping with stress, and these often involve cooperative efforts of employees and management. The various approaches include the following :

1.    Social support : Social support is the network of activities, interactions and relationships that provide an employee with the satisfaction of important needs. Nirmal Singh has specified four types of support in a total network: such as instrumental (task assistance), informational, evaluative and emotional. The social support should come from supervisors, co workers, friends and family. Its focus may be on either work tasks or social exchanges and may even take the forms of games, jokes or teasing.

2.    Meditation : Meditation is another method which involves quite, concentrated inner thought in order to rest the body physically and emotionally It helps to remove persons from the stressful world and reduce their symptoms of stress temporarily.
There are a number of popular practices of meditation known in different names, such as mantra, yoga, etc. The different practices of meditation have the common elements, viz. a restively quiet environment, comfortable position, repetitive mental stimulus and a passive attitude.

3.    Bio—feedback : A different approach for managing stress in biofeedbach Under this method, people under medical guidance learn from instrument feedback to influence symptoms of stress, such as increased heart rate or severe headaches, it is an internal processing which controls the heart, oxygen consumption, stomach acid flow, etc. so biofeedback may be helpful in reducing undesirable effects of stress.

4.    Personal wellness : It is a preventive approach preferable for reducing the causes of stress. Health care specialists can recommend changes in life-style such as breathing regulation, muscle relaxation, nutrition management and exercise that enable employees to use more of their potential.

3.8    Summary
There is an optimum level of stress for every individual under which he/she will perform to full capacity. If the stress experienced is below this optimum level, the individual gets bored and the motivational level to work go down to low point. The high stress level may create exhaustion. The person become the victim of nervousness, indecisiveness and bad judgement.

3.9    Self check exercise3.10    Glossary:
Stress Level: On the basis of performance, the stress level may be categorised as:

1.    Low Stress         2. Optimum Stress             3. High Stress
Causes of Stress: It is environmental, organisational, individual.

3.11    Answer to self check exercise3.12    Suggesting Reading:
Andrew Szilagyi and Wallace, “Organisational Behaviour and Performance”

L.M. Parsad, “Organisational Behaviour

3.13    Terminal Question

1.    Discuss Stress. What are the level of stress. Also discuss the causes of the stress. Elaborate the approaches of stress in the organisation,
*****
CHAPTER-4QUALITY CIRCLES - MEANING, BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS IN IMPLEMENTATING QUALITY CIRCLES
Structure

4.0 Learning Objectives

4.1    Introduction

4.2    How to implement Quality Circles

4.3    What are the success factors for Quality Circles

4.4    Summary

4.5    Self Check Exercises

4.6    Glossary

4.7    Answer to Self Check Exercises

4.8    Suggesting Reading

4.9    Terminal Questions

4.0 Learning Objectives: After going through this lesson the students will be able to know

-    The meaning of Quality Circles.

-    The implementation of Quality Circles.

-    The successful factors of Quality Circles.

-    The Organisation benefits of Quality Circles.

4.1    Introduction
Quality Circles first emerged in Japan in the 1960’s and were originally introduced in the journal, Gemba-to-QC, first issued in April 1962 [1]. Kaoru Ishikawa has been credited with creating Quality Circles as a method of improving quality. The movement in Japan was coordinated by the Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers (JUSE). According to QC Headquarters, Japan, the basic principles behind Quality Circle activities, carried out as part of company-wide quality control activities, are as follows [2]:

·    To contribute to the improvement and development of the enterprise.

·   To respect humanity and build a worthwhile-to-live-in, happy, positive environment.

·   To exercise human capabilities fully and to eventually draw out infinite possibilities.
Prof. Ishikawa, who believed in tapping the creative potential of workers innovated the Quality Circle movement to give Japanese industry an extra edge in creativity. Quality Circles are usually characterized as small, voluntary groups of employees set up to meet periodically for such practical purposes as:

i.    Pinpointing, examining, analyzing and solving problems in areas including knowledge management, innovation, work relations, quality, productivity safety, cost, etc.

ii.   Enhancing communication between employees and management on the above areas.
This can not only improve the performance of any organisation, but also motivate and enrich the work life of employees.
The use of Quality Circles in many highly innovative companies in Scandinavian countries has been proven. The practice is recommended by many economist : business scholars and quality circles support in the collection, storage and use of both explicit and tacit knowledge. The benefits include effective team dynamics through communication, trusty shared vision, commitment, involvement, empowerment and a learning culture among the staff. Quality Circles promote individual self-development, teamwork, fellowship (each of which can in turn support knowledge sharing and distribution) and improve overall company performance and corporate image. They also have the advantage of corftinuity as the circle remains intact from project to project. This tool is staitable for all levels of employee within an organisation. However, it will only succeed if it has genuine management involvement and full understanding throughout all levels of management and the organisation concerning the multifaceted purposes served by the Quality Circle.

4.2 How to Implement Quality Circles
According to Deming (3) the idea of a Quality Circle is appealing but a Quality Circle can only thrive if management will take action on the recommendations of the Circle. When the management has no interest in participation as is often the case, the Circles simply disintegrate. They are only successful when they:

·   are part of an entire system focusing on organisational improvement which includes strong management
commitment.

·    are supported by other Quality Circles in other organisational departments

·    have employeeinput

·    are part of a long-term plan for continuous improvement,

·    are supported through education for employees and subcontractors

·    have a strong customer orientation.

10.    Principles of Participation for employee-involvement programmes including Quality Circles
Gregerman (4) outlined a number of requirements for a small business contemplating the use of quality circles. First, the small business owner should be comfortable with a participative management approach. It is also important that the small business have good, cooperative labour- management relations, as well as the support of middle managers for the quality circle program. The small business owner must be willing and able to commit the time and resources needed to train the employees who will participate in the programme, particularly the quality circle leaders and facilitators. It may even be necessary to hire outside facilitators if the time and expertise does not exist in house. Some small businesses may find it helpful to establish a steering committee to provide direction and guidance for quality circle activities. Even if all these requirements are met, the small business will only benefit from quality circles if employee participation is voluntary and if employees are allowed some input into the selection of problems to be addressed. Finally, the small business owner must allow time for the quality circles to begin achieving desired results; in some cases, it can take more than a year for expectations to be met.
However, successful quality circles offer a wide variety of benefits for small businesses. For example, they se.rve to increase management’s awareness of employee knowledge and ideas, as well as employee awareness of the need for knowledge sharing and innovation within the company. Quality circles also serve
to facilitate communication and increase commitment among both labour and management. In enhancing employee satisfaction through participation in decision-making, such initiatives may also improve a small business’s ability to recruit and retain qualified employees. In addition, many companies find that quality circles further teamwork and reduce employee resistance to change. Finally, quality circles can improve a small business’s overall competitiveness by making best use on explicit and tacit knowledge, reducing costs, improving quality, and promoting innovation.
Key elements for establishing an organisational Quality Circle (QC) Programme include:

·    Steering Committee - A QC programme for an organisation will be guided by a steering committee to provide overall vision and direction. This committee is organised by senior management but may comprise of various personnel sectors. This committee sets QC objectives, encourages activity, provides resources, authorises QC actions, evaluates and responds appropriately to QC feedback and generally provides direction and support.

·    A group leader - sometimes a volunteer, or, at the establishment of a QC, someone who is assigned to the task. The steering committee supports this person in setting objectives, managing QC activity, determining appropriate actions, etc.

·    A co-ordinator - to undertake administration of the QC. Administration however, should be kept to a minimum.

·    A facilitator will assist Circles in getting started and may train the Circle leader and participants in problem-solving techniques, brainstorming techniques, creativity techniques, etc. (depending on organisational resources the facilitator and coordinator may be the same person).

·   8-12 employees

·   Voluntary participation

·   Management action on the recommendations of the QC.
In most quality circle programmes there are no direct financial rewards for coming up with good ideas or cost savings. However, people are indirectly paid for attendance in the sense that circle meetings occur in company time. Quality circles normally meet on a regular basis, often at two-week intervals, for perhaps one or two hours.

4.3    What are the success factors for Quality Circles
Feigenbaum [5] establishes 10 Principles of Participation for employee-involvement programmes including Quality Circles:

1)    Successful programmes require genuine management involvement and understanding throughout all levels of management concerning the multifaceted purposes served by the programme.

2)    Employee suggestions must receive serious consideration and be implemented whenever sound and relevant.

3)    They should have long-term continuity in contributing to the organization - interest and value often fade in short-term programmes

4)    All staff have role - office staff are as important as production staff.

5)    Programme organisation must be clear and simple.

6)    While initial preparation is key and may involve selection of leaders and participants - participation should bevoluntary.

7)    Involvement sessions, to be effective, must be purposeful and not a “waste of time” from the point of view of participants.

8)    Issues addressed in these programmes must be kept fresh, relevant to current organizational issues and up-to-date.

9)   Leadership of involvement sessions should be from, and oriented to, line operations in the organization
rather than only from staff - so as to ensure direct operating participation.

10)    Of most importance is the fact that these programmes are not a substitute for a total companywide quality control programme in all functions / departments.

4.4    Summary
The use of quality circle in many innovative companies in developed and developing countries has been proven. This practice is recommended by many economists, business scholars and quality circles support in the collection, storage and use of both explicit and tacit knowledge. The benefit include effective team dynamics through communication, trust, shared vision, commitment, involvement, empowerment and a learning culture among the staff.

4.5    Self Check Exercise

a. The success factors for quality circles.

4.6    Glossary

·    Emergence of the concept, Quality Circle- First used in Japan in 1980s.

·   Benefit of Quality Circle, To Contribute to the improvement of the enterprise.

4.7    Answer to Self Check Exercise
To see a) 4.3 for detailed answer

4.8    Suggesting Reading:

1.    L.M. Parsad, “Organisational Behaviour”

2.    Goel S.L. “Personnel Administrations and Management”

4.9    Terminal Questions

1.    How to implement quality circles in an Organsation? Explain.

2.    Explain the success factors for the quality circles in an organisation.
*****
CHAPTER-5GLOBALIZATION ISSUE, CHALLENGES AND STRATEGIES TO SOLVE THE PROBLEMS
Structure

5.0 Learning Objectives

5.1    Introduction

5.2    Globalization Good or Bad

5.3    Challenges for the manufacturing Sector

5.4    Globalization and its impact on the Public Admin

5.5    Summary

5.6    Self Check Exercises

5.7    Glossary

5.8    Answer to Self Check Exercise

5.9    Suggesting Reading

5.10    Terminal Question

5.0 Learning Objectives :
After Learning this lesson the student will be able to know

·   The concept of globalization

·   Challenges for the Public Administration

·    Its Challenges to Manufacturing sector

·   Overall impact of Globalization on the Country.

5.1    Introduction
Almost daily, every time we turn on our radio or television, we are bombarded with the buzzword “globalization”. It is now part of our daily diet, but some people find it difficult to chew and digest. So what exactly is this globalisation of which we have heard so much about over the last couple of years? How is it going to impact on business, and especially the manufacturing sector in small island economies?
The term “globalization” describes the increased mobility of goods, services, labour, technology and capital throughout the world. Globalisation is not new; its pace has increased with the advent of new and improved technology, especially in the area of telecommunications. The origins of the word “globalization” may be traced to the 1960’s, when McLuhan coined the phrase “global village”, to describe how the world was communicating, and as a result was becoming closer than ever before.
In the commercial arena, globalisation usually takes the form of mergers and acquisition, (e.g. Barclays bank and CIBC merged to form First Caribbean International Bank) mixed firms of multinational distributors and local companies, and strategic alliances.

5.2    Globalisation Good or Bad?
Globalisation is like fire. Fire itself is neither good nor bad. If fire us used properly, it can cook food, and sterilize equipment. Used carelessly, fire can destroy lives and buildings in an instant. As Friedman says: “Globalisation can be incredibly empowering and incredibly coercive. It can democratise opportunity and democratise panic. It makes the whale bigger and the minnows stronger. It leaves you behind faster and faster, and it catches up to you faster and faster. While it is homogenizing cultures, it is also enabling people to share their unique individuality farther and wider”. So what arguments can be advanced in favor of globalisation? Those who are in favor of globalisation put forward the following arguments :

a)    Consumers benefit from lower prices due to increased competition;

b)    Globalisation improves the standard of living of people around the world; and

c)    The poor gain access to technology at lower cost (the cellular phone craze in the Caribbean is testimony tothis).
On the other hand, those who oppose globalisation offer the following arguments:

a)    The playing field is not level as rich countries continue to dump subsidized agriculture commodities indeveloping countries;

b)   Domestic industries in rich countries, particularly agriculture, textiles and construction are protected,
while rich countries demand that poor countries open upthese sectors in their respective countries; and

c)    The economic benefits of globalisation have not yet reached a significant percentage of the world population as is evidenced by high levels of illiteracy, inaccessibility to potable water, and poor basic sanitation in developing countries.

5.3    Challenges for the Manufacturing Sector
The manufacturing sector in the OECS is small with GDP contributions in most islands being less than 10%. There are many small scale producers, cottage industries, and medium size enterprises. The challenges of globalisation affect not only manufactures in the sub-region, but also, the CARICOM region as a whole. Listed below are some crucial issues to be addressed:

1.   The need to improve human resources to increase productivity and competitiveness;

2.    Firms will have to concentrate on what they do best so that they can compete in specialized niche markets, or in the production of inputs required by larger firms;

3.    Concomitant to above, the areas where firms do not have a core competency, i.e., where they are not competitive, firms will have to outsource, joint venture, or form strategic alliances with other firms;

4.    Flexible manufacturing is essential to minimize the risks of specialization. Firms should specialise in a particular type of product, a particular market niche or a specific manufacturing process. This allows firms to apply their core competencies to new product variations, to satisfy market niches in new ways, or to apply a production process to manufacture products for widely varying markets; and

5.    The establishment of business networks is another means of minimizing the risks of specialisation. Two or more firms with complementary core competencies establish ongoing relationships. In this way, they form consortia or-joint ventures to bid on projects or meet particular market requirements or to co-operate in joint purchasing, share equipment or co-ordinate transportation.

5.4    Globalization and Its Impacts on the Public Administration
The main target of the globalization process, which affects many dynamics of social life, is the nation states. On one hand the area of the state’s sovereignty has been narrowed and on the other hand its functions, functioning and responsibilities as shaped after the World War II were redefined. The state has abandoned to market forces, the areas that it occupied after 1945, under the influence of the new right’ policies. With the applications of privatization and deregulation, state’s role on production, accumulation and distribution was weakened and its regulatory role came to the front line. This transformation symbolizes a transition from interventionist state to regulatory or arbitrator state. Not only the state and its socio-economic functions were transformed, but also state’s institutional organization and its functioning, the judicial rules on which it is dependent, personnel regime and lastly conceptualization of public services entered into a thoroughly transformation process. This transformation could be described as a shift from the public administration to new public management (NPM). NPM considers that public sector can be managed as in private sector and the values and operational techniques of the private sector can be adapted to public sector. “It advocates treating citizens like customers, separating public administrators from the public policy process, and convincing both that government is nothing more than a business within the public sector” (Box et al., 2001: 611).
As a scholar has mentioned, “globalization has been accompanied by the creation of new legal regimes and legal practices and the expansion and renovation of some older forms that bypass national legal systems” (Sassen, 2000; 57). Within the context of elimination of transnational commercial disputes, the role of national legislation was receded, yet the role of international commercial arbitration centers has gained significance. This development can be interpreted as the privatization of jurisdiction. The concrete indicator of this development is the increasing number of international commercial arbitration centers. In 1993, there were 127 arbitration centers (Sassen, 2000; 57, 58). On the other hand, in the countries, where there is a separate jurisdiction order for public administration, the dependence of public administration to administrative law is seriously eroded and the function of administrative law is transformed. A scholar suggests that “in global era, administrative law now appears to be moving from its role as a surrogate political process that legitimates new extension of public power, to one that legitimates new blends of public and private power and/or private power used for public interest ends” (Aman, 1999: 270).
While the globalization process has been eroding the state’s sovereignty within the national borders, it has also modified the way of using the existent authority of the state. In this context, we can say that there were two-dimensions of authority delegation; authority delegation within the national borders and at international level. Therefore a two-dimensional erosion of state’s authorities is in question. While the state’s economic, political and judiciary authorities are transferred to the transnational powers, it is forced to share its existing authorities with the other actors. The result of globalization is not only the loss of state’s power but also the change of ways and methods of using the remainder of its power. This transformation is expressed through the concepts of governance and new public management. Governance has redefined the use of public competence and suggests the joint use of this authority not only by the official actors but also by the unofficial actors and it gives importance to the role of non-governmental organizations. New public management considers 29
the delivery of public services as a technical issue and instead of the concepts like public interest, conformity to the law; it substitutes the management-related concepts such as profitability, productivity and the customer preferences. Briefly, both the governance and the new public management lead to the elimination of the political content of the public services and their reduction to a technical activity.
The change of state’s role lies beneath the transformation resulting from globalization process. While the sovereignty is eroded, the nation state itself becomes the actor materializing the transformations that is appropriate to the demands of globalization. In the era of globalization the main function of state is to secure the functioning of the market mechanisms. It is the state itself that ensures the adaptation of structural and legal mechanisms based on the conceptualization of social state, or welfare state, to the new function. The reflection of this transformation on the administrative, structure of the state is the emergence of the new institutions that shall provide the functioning of the market mechanism. Therefore in many European countries and in Turkey, while the state is under pressure for being reduced for the benefit of the market, it is continuing to widen its institutional structure in order to secure a healthy competition environment.’’ The regulatory agencies have become the widespread model of the organization of the global era. As it is known the pioneer of these agencies is the Interstate Commerce Commission, which was established independent from the executive body in 1887 in USA (Huntington, 1996: 58-59). According to Pauliat (1998: 7-8), there are more than 50 regulatory agencies in the USA.

5.5    Summary
When we take into consideration their organization, functioning and their status vis-a-vis the executive body, regulatory agencies fit well in line with requirements of the globalization. Their wide autonomy from the executive body, their outstanding budgetary and staff possibilities, their independence from the strict rules and in some cases, during the decision process, the representation of the interest groups are compatible for the expectations of governance and new public management approach.

5.6    Self Check Exercises:

a.    Importance of Globalization for the organization.

b.    Impact of Globalization for Public Administration.

5.7    Glossary:
Globalization             : globalization means the increase mobility of goods, services, labour,
technology and capital throughout the world.
Globalization Challenges : the Challenges of globalization affect not only manufactures sector, but also the whole sector, trade of the world.

5.8    Answer to Self check exercises:
To be a. 5.2.,

b. 5.4.

5.9    Suggesting Reading:

(1)    S.L. Goel, “Personnel Administration and Management”.

(2)    L.M. Parsad, “ Organization Behaviour”.

5.10    Terminal Questions

1.    Discuss globalization, what are its impact on Public Administration.

2.    Discuss the challenges of globalization for the organization.
*****
CHAPTER-6MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS): OBJECTIVES, ESSESNTIALSM FUNCTION AND ROLE OF MIS IN PLANNING AND CONTROL
Structure

6.0 Learning Objective

6.1    Introduction

6.2    Concept and Meaning

6.3    Need of MIS

6.4    Essentials of Good Information System

6.5    Aspects of MIS

6.6    Design of Information System

6.7    Critical Appraisal

6.8    Summary

6.9    Self Check Exercise

6.10    Glossary

6.11    Answer to self check exercise

6.12    Suggesting Reading

6.13    Terminal Questions

6.0 Learning Objectives: After going through this lesson the student will be able to know

-    The concept of MIS

-    Characteristics of Good Information System

-    Aspects of MIS

-    How to design MIS

6.1    Introduction
“Knowledge is power. And when you assemble knowledge in the right place in a timely fashion, it is also profit”.
There is more than a subtle semantic difference between “data” “information and intelligence.” Data consists of isolated or independent observations of attributes or events that carry little meaning when considered alone. The aggregation of data over time, space and populations, and in the context of decisions that can or should be made, constitute information for the planner, manager and evaluation. It is the transformation of information through integration with experience and perceptions based on social and political values as well as on constraints that produces intelligence, an aggregation of internalized knowledge that provides the context in which policy-makers, politicians and decision-makers act unless data are refined and expressed as information that in turn can be used as a basis for intelligence, they are unlikely to influence
choices; and unless in choices, the potential value of Invidiously acquired viable data is recognised the choices are unlikely to reflect accurately the functional and practical relationships between needs, resources and use.
Modern technology has been able to make a major contribution towards improved management practice with respect to information systems. The contribution is possible because of two factors : firstly, the generally increased sophistication of management theory and practice, permitting the identification of information needs and uses; and secondly, the development of electronic data processing permitting the analysis of huge quantity of data in a short enough time to permit use.
The significance of information can be seen from the Napoleonic Phrases- an army marches on its stomach, administration marches on information. Information is the life blood of an organization. In short, information is the data transmitted before or after processing. Management is the planning, implementation and control of the use of a set of resources to achieve objective. A system is a set of sub-systems having independence so as to form a complex unity. Management Information system is thus a system in which required data are collected, analysed and transmitted to help the managers at various levels in the process of planning, implementation and evaluation. According to R.R. Duersch : “It is a system which provides management with the information it requires to monitor progress, measure performance, detect trends, evaluate alternatives, make decisions and to take corrective action.”
Information is the planners raw material, forming the basis for the diagnosis, structuring his objectives and permitting him to evaluate the programmes efficiency and effectiveness which have been planned. Information is the coin of the management realm, being the essential link between means and ends. It can be studied, analysed, organized, stored for future reference, summarised and/or displayed. Information is substantially different from mere data in that data is raw information while information is the aggregate of facts or data organized into knowledge or intelligence. One of the roles of management must be to sift out the information found within the data, and even before, to insure that the data collected will in fact furnish information needed. Peter Drucker has rightly said that the manager has specific tool information. It has been rightly mentioned that “‘Information is now recognized as a valuable resource and has been termed as one of ‘the 8 m’s-men, materials, machine, money, methods, markets, moments and messages a term used for information.” Information is a relative term. To quote Harper Marion : “Information may involve anything from the most minute and finite to the Universal. Processing information today calls not only for distinguishing the forest from the trees, but distinguishing leaves and chlorophyll-while still not losing sight of forest.”^ The degree to which a planner can be successful in terms of the provision of services will depend upon the degree to which he is able to obtain information about them which is valid and reliable. The term system has been defined as a coherent, integrated whole, being a combination of number of entities or elements. Similarly, in the information area there are a number of elements which have to be considered in an integrated manner, as components of one system so that they are viewed in totality as means of providing administrator with required information in the appropriate form and at a appropriate time.
As the universe is saturated with information, administration must select the pertinent information for their programmes otherwise rational policy or decisions may not be taken. This technique is tailored to provide such information to-the decision-makers which is most relevant, accurate, complete, concise^ timely, economic, reliable and efficient. A good information system provides data for monitoring and evaluating the programmes and gives the requisite feedback to the administrators and planners at all levels.

6.2    Concept and Meaning
“A management Information system is a combination of planned procedures, suitably designed forms, an appropriate organization structure and managers who are capable of utilizing the facts which are produced in a suitable form.
According to G. Murdich, “MIS is a system that collects, stores, and process data and provides information to managers for planning, controlling and decision-making.”
Prof. Murdich has rightly said that MIS would ensure in ;

a)    Providing to managers information on the impact of men, money, materials, equipment, and facilities on the various systems and the business as a whole.

b)    Maintaining Central Data banks and model banks for integrated planning, control and decision-making.

c)    Sensing, through designated communication channels, the effectiveness of systems operations.

d)   Providing timely feedback to managers on performance of all systems by means of summary, key
elements and exception reports.

e)    Scanning the environment by formal intelligence operations to keep managers informed of environmental
changes impacting the various systems of the business.
A Management Information System (MIS) has been defined as “the combination of human and computer-based capital resources which results in the collection, storage, retrieval, communication and use of data for the purpose of efficient management of operations.”
During September-December 1962, the Advanced Systems Development Division of IBM conducted a survey to determine the scope and goals of an Advanced Management Information System. The major information problems were found to fall into seven categories:

1.      Complexities in the information flow cause major communication problems and inhibit responsiveness
and growth.

2.      Duplication of effort identical reports are generated, data files are created and maintained at several
locations.

3.      Variations in field processing.-At the present time, field locations vary the processing of similar
information and vary information flows.

4.      Inaccessibility of data.-Useful and necessary data are available, but often in a form or location that
makes them uneconomical and unfeasible to retrieve.

5.     Time lapse.-This is one of the major problems of today’s processing. Data are simply not being
moved fast enough. Time lags are caused by mail, multiple audit points and varying closing periods. In many cases the data are no longer of value when they are made available.

6.     Inaccurate source data.-The sheer volume of data makes it humanly impossible to be consistently
accurate and efficient.

7.      Limited information support.-The relation between the creation of information and the servicing of all
those who could benefit from it is poor.
The development of suitable technique for a good information system would improve the capacity of administrators to make appropriate policy decisions. The information system may not serve the purpose if the administrators are not committed to use the information constructively. The administrators should use the available information sensibly and logically than to construct complex information system which may not be used. A fully integrated management information system is a system of obtaining, classifying, storing and analysing data to enable the management to define objectives, to plan to meet these objectives and to complete the cycle by evaluating progress and redefine the objectives, if there is a change in the internal or external ecological factors of management. The MIS is to control the functioning of an organization in the same manner as is done by the nervous system in the human body.
It is very difficult for a complex organization to keep track of the costs of the activities that lead to the accomplishment of a goal. Keeping track of the costs and pay-offs for each activity ensures an organization’s continued health and’ guards against financial disaster. An organization may be successful in some areas and failing in others. Without mechanism for monitoring performance management is unable to act quickly to minimize damage and prevent further financial loss. Mechanism that provides information about the organization’s performance serve as an early warning system that prevents little problems from becoming catastrophes.

6.3 Need of MIS
MIS has become necessary for organizations to meet the following emerging developments:

(a)    Increased complexity of organizations.

(b)    Development of technological revolution.

(c)    Emphasis on research and development.

(d)    Diversification of functions and activities.

(e)    Information explosion,

(f)    Complex management Issues.

(g)    Development of electronic computer.
The combined result of all these developments is the need of designing the management Information systems.
“The purpose of an MIS is to raise managing from’ the level of piecemeal spotty information, intuitive guesswork and isolated problem-solving to the level of systems insights, systems information, sophisticated data processing and systems problem-solving. Managers have always had ‘sources’ of information; the MIS provides a system of information. It is thus a powerful method for aiding managers in solving problems and making decisions.
(R.G. Murdich : Information Systems for Management, Prentice Hall, 1985, p. 14.)
Advantages: The following advantages can accrue from a good information system :

a)    Timely availability of information develops a high degree of confidence between top executives and
the members of the management.

b)    Management has not to resort to frequent meetings to sort out different issues.

c)    The executive time can be saved and devoted to critical issues.

d)    It helps in reviewing actual performance and devise corrective action.

(e ) It helps in reviewing strength and weakness of an organization, knowledge of which is most essential in formulating future plans and strategies.

6.4 ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD INFORMATION SYSTEM

1.    Accuracy and Timeliness
The information collected must be accurate and must be available in time otherwise its use would be limited.

2.    Quantitative Adequacy
Information collected should be adequate to suit the needs of the organization. The collection of more information than required would cost more and thus increase unnecessary expenditure. Therefore, we must collect only as much information is as needed by the various levels m an organization.

3.    Designing of Tools According to the Needs
A good information system should not be a prestigious show-piece. It should be according to the needs of the organization.

4.    Cyclical Flow
The information must flow constantly otherwise its use would be limited.

5.    Economic Value
The economic value of information is measured by the gain achieved from using such information. One expert even remarked that “at least 50 per cent of the cost of running our economy is information cost.” Herbert A. Simon says: “Information should be gathered up to the point where the incremental cost of additional information is equal to the incremental profit that be earned having it.”

6.    Recipient Point of View
Information conveyed to a receiver should infuse the desired knowledge in him. The value of information must be measured by the receiver in terms of its uses to him.

7.    Managerial View
Management Accounting Information has to meet these requirements:

(a)    It must be informative in the sense of decreasing the amount of uncertainty.

(b)    It must demand action. The collected information is worthwhile, if and only if, it indicates action relevant for the achievement of certain goal.

(c)    It must motivate an appropriate action. Unsatisfactory results must be prevented by its use.
Shri. J.M. Kitchlu in his article on ‘Management Information Systems in Indian Situations-some recent examples’ mentions the following essential points to be kept in mind while designing the MIS. “While the experience gained in designing the three manually operated information systems described earlier, it is possible to identify some general issues which require consideration while developing and installing a MIS for any organization. These are briefly listed below :

(a)    It is often difficult to precisely define the information requirements at any particular executive level. The general tendency is to ask for more and more information and thus overload the system with voluminous data. It is therefore necessary to clearly distinguish between the essential, desirable 35
and optional information and to determine as what would be sufficient information to meet the needs of a particular executive level.

(b)   Due to existing accounting and other systems in vogue in a number of organizations, there is inherent
time lag in generation and collection of necessary information which is often excessive. While establishing information flow procedures, therefore, one has to determine as to what maximum time lag can be permitted without adversely affecting the decision-making process.

(c)    For developing performance indices in most cases it is necessary to have norms, targets, etc., so as to highlight major deviations in improving organizations. Such norms and targets are not established in a number of operation areas and system design has therefore to include recommendations for establishing necessary norms and targets.

(d)   Standardisation of various terms used in MIS is also necessary while designing MIS as definitions.

(e)    The degree of sophistication that can be achieved in a MIS is dependent upon the extent to which other related management systems have been used by the organization. For example, designing the MIS for fertilizer projects, it was found necessary to recommend the application of PERT technique for planning and scheduling of projects so as to make the MIS more accurate, effective and useful for decision-making and control.”
The following pitfalls may be kept in view before designing the MIS :

(1)    Absence of management system to build reliable information system.

(2)    No clear definition of purpose.

(3)    No objectives for the Organization.

(4)    Absence of management participation.

(5)    Over-reliance on the consultant or manufacturer.

(6)    Communication gap.

(7)    Performance of key people.

6.5    Aspects of MIS
MIS has the following elements :
Input (data)
Analysis and Processing
Storage and retrieval
Output
Flow
Both the input and the output are directly related to information requirements of organizations. The information includes both the inflow of the input as well as the outflow of the information. The information processing, analysing and storage can be manual, mechanical or electronic. Let us now discuss the steps for Design and Installation of MIS. The following steps are necessary for installing MIS:

1.    Analysis and determination of system’s requirements.

2.    Design of MIS.

3.    Procurement of necessary material.

4.    Installation.

5.    Operation and Follow up.
We must keep in mind that all these five steps are interrelated. The system is improved through the interaction of these steps.
Analysis of System’s Requirements
It analysis in-depth the system’s requirements. Such an analysis will require answers to questions like;

-    What are the objectives of the organization ?

-    What are the activities to be carried out ?

-    What type of evaluation is required to assess the impact of its activities ?

-    Who will collect the data ?

-    How will the data be collected ?

-    Where, how and by whom -will the data be processed ?

-    How accurate and reliable should such data be ?

-    What will be the frequency and timeliness of the report ?

-    Who will use the information generated and how it will be used?

6.6    Design of Information System
The next step is the actual design of an information system covering all its five elements already mentioned, in such a manner that it fulfils with minimum cost and in the required form, the information requirements of the administrator. The following points may be kept in mind :

(a)    The data generated at various levels should correspond to that actually needed for ‘management at that level.

(b)    The necessary links between the various sub-systems of the management information system should beprovided.

(c)    An appropriate method for the processing and analysis of basic data should be designed. The workers may be trained to understand the meaning and the value of the data, so that they can play an active role rather that passive transmitters of data.
Procurement of Necessary Material
The third step is the production of necessary material and the provision of required facilities so that the system could be put into operation, e.g., for a manually operated system the formats have to be produced. Installation
The information system should be set up keeping in mind to retain as far as possible the existing procedures and system. It may replace the other components which require change slowly.
Operation and Follow-up
The output of the system is examined against the objectives for which the system was designed. It should be the endeavour to continuously improve upon the system taking into account the changed situation.

6.7    CRITICALAPPRAISAL
There is no centralized department in the administrative organizations to collect, analyse, interpret, store and retrieve information. Confusion between ‘Statistical Data’ and ‘Information’ still prevails, with the result that many statistical services fail to provide public administrators with the information they need for sound decision-making, planning and evaluation. In most of the organizations, the data collected from the field is either not of the required type or is not presented in a form or in time to be really useful to administrators. The principles of Data Collection should be:
Detailed Reports-Operating level
Summary Reports-Higher level
Analytical Reports-Top level
Besides, the data is collected without a clear understanding about the use that such information will be put. The routine collection of data which is neither reliable nor timely serves no purpose. The defects can be weeded out if we can design a scientific Information System or Management Information System (MIS). MIS is an analytical tool which facilitates more informal and better decision to be made and it helps to identify problem areas and to take timely remedial measures It is in no case a substitute for management decisions but it is management’s most important tool for decision-making. Morton says :
“Good management information system is no cure for bad management. Bad information always leads to bad management, but good information does not in itself ensure good management. Information is only a tool of management. The ability toput information to work is what determines a successful manager.”
MIS should be designed to ensure smooth and proper flow of information into the desired channels. The information must be made available to the management at the required time and in right quantity and quality. It is also to be borne in mind that supplying unnecessary or unwanted information is also a sign of inefficiency of the system. Information Services should be recast according to the priorities of the administrative system and should be aimed /strictly at problem solving. Besides, there is always a communication gap between the statisticians (so-called information specialists) and the management people. There is a need of understanding between these two wings, otherwise, information generated would serve no practical purpose.
The reasons for the failure to fully utilize management information system can be laid on management’s own doorstep. These reasons include the following :

1.    Management is conceptually unprepared for the revolution in information technology.

2.    Management does not plan adequately. The planning is mostly parochial rather than corporate-wide in scope

3.    There is not enough fresh thinking and too much reliance on canned approaches.

4.    The wrong people are selected to plan and install the system. The wrong people include specialists who fail to appreciate the business or management who fails to become sufficiently involved.

5.    There is an overemphasis on hardware and an under-emphasis on the design of comprehensive system.
A useful MIS must have a reasonable cost compared to its worth. The economics of information system requires constant balance between the value of the information carried in the system and the cost of designing and operating it. An MIS cannot act or think for management but can shape thoughts and assist in the evaluation of situations.

6.8    Summary
In a recent Issue of World Health. It has a rightly said that the importance of informatics to development has been recognised and expressed in many different fashions; The overall message, however, is that informatics technology is an all-embracing technology and one which will affect strategic and operational issues. It is not a sector of development but has become a key tool and strategy to development no country can afford not to join the information revolution, nor can it avoid its all-pervasive impact. As to the question of whether developing countries should embrace informatics, he categorically states that having recourse to the most advanced technology is not a luxury for the poorest countries. His view is that they are the ones that most need to own such technology, since they can then shape its development and ensure its social relevance and cultural coherance.
Top executive today, have to manage the ever increasing rate of change and large scale and complex organizations. In the managerial world of increasing complexity both in magnitude as in direction, information becomes the key to management effectiveness. Therefore, we must give priority in designing and installing MIS to suit the requirements of specific organizations. The success of MIS would depend upon “First. the quality of leadership that corporate executives provide. Next   the planning and control tools that management has built into the computer system programme. Third .....the role operating management plays. Finally caliber of the computer and systems staff.

6.9    Self Check Exercise

a.    Critically examine the MIS.

b.    Aspects of MIS.

6.10    Glossary:
MIS           : It is a combination of planned procedures, suitably designed forms, an appropriate
organisation structure, who are capable of utilising the facts which are produced in a suitable forms.
Good MIS : Accuracy and less time, Economic Value, Managerial View etc.

6.11    Answer to Self Check Exercise

a.    6.7

b.    6.5

6.12    Suggesting Reading

1.    L.M. Parsad, “Organisational Behaviour”

2.    S.L. Goel “Personnel Administrations and Management”

6.13    Terminal Questions

1.    Discuss the meaning and aspects of MIS in the organisation.

2.    Discuss the need of MIS in an organisation. What are the essentials of a Good Information System.
*****
CHAPTER-7ADMINISTRATIVE IMPROVEMENT- O AND M APPROACH, OBJECTIVE, FUNCTION AND ESSENTIALS
Structure

7.0 Learning Objectives

7.1    Introduction

7.2    Objectives of O and M

7.3    Functions of O and M

7.4    Essentials of O and M

7.5    O and M in India

7.6    Critical Appraisal

7.7    Summary

7.0 Leaning Objectives: After learning this lesson the students will be able to know

-    The concept of O and M

-    The functions O and M

-    The characteristics of O and M

-    The position of O and M in India

-    The critical evaluation of O and M

7.1    Introduction
Work Study is government is generally known as O & M. In Indian and other Common Wealth Countries, the two alphabets stand for organisation and methods. In U.S.A., it signifies Organization and Management. The latter sense includes the entire process of management, viz Planning organization, coordination, directing, staging and controlling. As such O & M are used in the wider sense. When two alphabets are read together, it is known as OM. OM stands for God or perfection. It means to ensure the perfection of instruments of Public Administration or weeding out unwanted organizations and methods. Management improvement is a challenge that must be faced by all developing countries including India. The gap between the developed and developing countries is sometimes thought to be a gap in managerial development; but whether this gap is the cause of underdevelopment of the result or not is a question that has still to be answered. The primary concern, however, is that the gap must be bridged.
The O & M aims at making the surgical operation with a view to simplification and improvement of office methods and procedures. In the words of S.B. Bapat, the founder of O & M in India: “in simple terms it means paying intelligent and critical attention not only to what is done but also to how it is done and at what cost, in what time, labour and money;- paying attention to the design of the machine and its working processes and not merely to its and product.
In the words of the British Select Committee on Estimates (1947). “The purpose of O & M in the Civil Service is to secure maximum efficiency in the operation of the Government’s executive machinery, by the expert application of scientific methods of organization, to reduce cost and labour.

7.2    Objectives
In the words of Milward, “the usual functions of O & M are the examination of the structure of the organization under review and the studying of administrative and clerical procedures and methods, office mechanisation and equipment, office layout and working conditions. Work study deals with systematic activities concerned with the investigation, recording, measurement and improvement of the following work factors : what the operator does ; the machine and equipment used and the materials and the working conditions. Operations Research is the scientific approach to, an analysis of problems in an organization to provide management with information for obtaining its most effective overall operation.”
The objectives of O & M entail all aspects which can help in making organizations and systems of public administration scientific. We may mention some of the important objectives which must be ensured through O & M.

1.    Administrative reform must ensure the adjustment of the administrative structure to socio economic changes.

2.    Administrative services must be studied continuously in the search for greater efficiency and economy of publicexpenditure.

3.  To restructure the administrative system in a way that would permit a well co-ordinated development
effort.

4.  To suggest means for increasing the efficiency, economy and capability of the administrative machinery
at different levels.

5.    To suggest means for effective co-ordination among various units and making them more capable.

6.    To suggest means for bringing about better co-ordination among existing training programmes and for making them more useful and egecove.

7.    To suggest means whereby the people might obtain redress for grievances against the public administration.

8.  To eliminate any institutionalized corruption from each substratum.

9.    To facilitate easy, standardized access to the ‘window of administration’, for the general public, when they come in contact with the public autholitles.

10.    Development of better administrative laws and regulations to replace laws based on outmoded ideas and concepts.

11.    Improvement of organizational plans to clarify objectives, improve structures and define responsibilities and relationships.

12.    Simplification of procedures and work methods.

13.    Development of improved investigative and disciplinary practices to check abuses of public taws, misuse of government resources and violation of government ethics.

14.    Formulating proposals for office accommodation and their proper layout.

15.    To install methods, systems and Procedures in an organization that will not only increase efficiency but also reduce costs at all levels.

16.    To adopt a programme of work simplification at all levels within an organization.

17.    To enhance vitality of an organization and increase its capacity to face challenges posed by external forces.
Management improvement is a continuous process, and it cannot be achieved overnight. The main responsibility for effecting improvements in administration lies with the administrators themselves; but as administrators are over burdened with day-to-day routine work and have less time to study operations some kind of agency is needed to supplement and strengthen them in improvement work. To quote Milward again : “It exists not only as a management tool - as an agent of the top management - but also as a service for managers, auditors or others who need it because they have not themselves the time or the necessary expertise. This dual purpose of agent and service makes the position difficult. Income companies it is all agent, in others an service, but somehow path roles need to be combined. There are widely differing views not only about the content of O & M, but also concerning its relationships with omer techniques concerned with improving effectiveness and efficiency.

7.3    FUNCTIONS
Let us discuss the important functions of O&M.

1.    Training
To provide practical and academic training for government official in order to raise the standard of administration, prepare officials for more responsible tasks and stimulate efficiency and economy in government. This is achieved by means of (in service training, both full-time and part-time, through the media of classroom lecture and discussion sessions, field-work conferences, workshops, projects or administrative management and programmes for executive development.

2.    Research
It is the primary function of O & M to conduct studies on current and emerging administrative problems in public administration for the purpose of administrative improvement.

3.    Consultation
To produce manuals and other documents on administrative operations required for in - service training; to issue publications on administrative problems, to hold professional conferences, round table discussions etc. to promote the exchange of information on significant development in public administration in India and ahorad; to maintain a library to technical information, up-to -date literature on pubile administration, government reports on public administration for the purpose of reference and research.

4.    Investigation
It is the function of O & M department to carry out investigation either at its own initiative or on the invitation of other department or Offices.
FUNCTIONS OF THE CENTRAL O & M UNITS.
The cordral management analysis unit should be engaged preferably in activities that have a multiplier effect on the entire service and should refrain, as much as possible, from activities that could be carried out successfully by individual units in the agencies, in fact, the basic role of central unit in relation to the departmental unit should be to provide functional authority and to stimulate sound development.
By 1967, the assessment by the Public Administration Section of E.C.A. revealed the following situation pertaining to African countries which are true in the context of Asian countries as well including India.
“Many administrative problems face the developing countries of Africa, but there are at least four aspects of the administration which need to be put on sound lines before planning and plan implementation, as well as the other business of government can be assured of any measure of success. Budget, accounting and other financial procedures must be regulated to ensure that government money is applied effectively to end foreseen in well conceived budgets; with a minimum of waste, leakage and misapplication. Recruitment practices must be reformed, personnel administration must be improved and adequate programmes of training must be designed and implemented to ensure that suitable persons, adequately trained, are available when needed and utilized when available. Purchasing and stores procedures must be designed and improved to ensure maximum value to the country for every dollar spent on equipment and supplies. The machinery of government, organizational structure of ministries and practices and procedures on all aspects of government work must be designed as to maximize the effectiveness of the administration. These are some of the urgent tasks of which the governments of the region are to address themselves, if the, ether vital development resources are to be applied at the right points and with the maximum impact.
The functions of O & M within the Management Services Unit is divided into the following :

(a)    Organizational and Management Analysis
Analysis and review of organizational structure, including defining of responsibilities and inter relationship; and improvement of administrative and management procedures and practices.

(b)    Staff Utilization and Job Analysis
Staff utilization reviews, including staff complement and gradings, job analysis and evaluation, review of personnel functions in ministries, and administrations of staff suggestion schemes; and

(c)    Office Services and ProceduralAnalysis
Simplification of work systems, procedures and methods; systems analysis and mechanization studies of electrical work, including work and method study and performances standard utilization and standardization of office equipment and furniture, office layout and office space standards; control and design of forms; etc.
Appealby evisaged a broad role for the O & M unit. He said that “I recommend that the Government of India give-consideration to the establishment of is central office charged with responsibility for giving both extensive and intensive leadership in respect of structure, management and procedures. At one level of highly technical and scientific sort, it would give attention to work management and the like; at another level it would be charged with general governmental structural studies and proposals. I should hope that at this level also it would have character of responsibility for the enhancement of democratic manner and method, within the bureaucracy and between the bureaucracy and the public.”

7.4 ESSENTIAL OF O & M
If an O & M department is to play an affective role, its organization may have the following features:

1.    Top management must not only be convinced of the need of the programme but must be actively associated with it. They, must initiate it and must land active continuing support ‘so that managers at departmental and lower levels feel enthusiastic about it.

2.    Outside O & M consultants may be employed initially to make a broader survey or identify problems and suggest guidelines. After they have done that, the managers should be involved in its implementation and further development.

3.    Besides an organization and methods analysis should posses the following :

a.    He must possess an analytical, creative and inquiative mind.

b.    He must be specially trained in the tools and techniques of work simplification.

c.    He should posses a pleasant personality and be able to persuade people.

d.    He must possess common sense. Imagination, enthusiasm, objectivity and a sense of honour.

e.    He must be ready to face resistance to his ideas and dispel it with fact, patience and consideration. The aim should be to develop acceptance through co-operation.
An ILO Publication on Work Study mentions the following essential qualities in Work Study O & M analysis.

-    Sincerity and honesty - The work study man must be sincere and he must be honest, only in this way will be gain the confidence and respect of those with whom he has to deal.

-    Enthusiasm - He must be really keen on his job, believe in the importance of what he is doing and be able to transmit his enthusiasm to the people around him.

-    Interest in and sympathy with the people.
He must be able to get along with people at all levels. To get along with people it is necessary to be interested in them and able to see their point of view.

-    Tact - Tact in dealing with people comes from understanding people and not wishing to hurt their feelings by unkind or thoughtless words, even when these may be justified. Without fact, no work study man is going to get very far.

-    Good appearance- He must be neat and tidy and look efficient. This will inspire confidence in him among the people with whom he has to work.
Self confidence. This can come with good training and experience of applying work study successfully. The work study man must be able to stand up to top management, foreman trade union officials or workers in defence of his opinions and findings, and do so in such a way that he will win respect and not give offence. 7.5 O and M in India
The importance of creating a permanent organization to improve the functioning of administration was emphasized by Mr. A.D. Gorwala in 1947, the late Mr. N. Gopalaswamy’Ayyanagar in Committee in 1943, and many other Commissions appointed from time to time. Paul Appelby conducted a survey of the Public Administration in India in 1953. Most of these Committees and Survey recommended the creation of some machinery (O and M) to ensure dynamic administration to suit the changing conditions. The Central O and M Division in India was created in March 1954 and it was located in the Cabinet Secretariat. But each Ministry Department set up their internal O and M cells. A decade’s existence of O and M Division could not make much impact as its top leadership (Director) went on changing frequently.. Besides, this Division had not been able to co ordinate its activities with similar functional agencies e.g. the special Reorganization Unit in the Finance Ministry and the Committee on Plan Projects in the Planning Commission.
A Department of Administrative Reforms was set up on March 25, 1964 in- the Ministry of Home Affairs to which was transferred the 0 and M Division located earlier in the Department undertook was to appoint the Administrative reform Commission to “give consideration to the need for ensdring the highest standards of efficiency and integrity in the Public Services and for making Public Administration a fit instrument for carrying out social and economic policies-of the Government-and achieving social and economic goals of development, as also one which is responsible to the people.” The Commission submitted the reports on the following aspects which provided valuable Insights into the working of the administrative machinery at all levels and concerning major fields.

(a)    the machinery of the Government of India and its procedures of work;

(b)    The machinery for planning at all levels;

(c)    Centre State Relationships;

(d)    Financial Administration;

(e)    Personnel Administration

(f)    Economic Administration:

(g)    Administration at the State Level;

(h)    District Administrations

(i)    Agricultural Administration ; and

(j)    Problems of redress of citizens grievances.
In 1970, the Department was transferred to the newly created Department of Personnel and Administrative reforms in the Ministry of Home Affairs. It has its two wings - Personnel and Administrative Reforms. The Administrative reforms wing is responsible for suggesting improvement in administration with a view to increase work satisfaction and suggest measures for the improvement in the quality of working in every field of administration.
The Department is also the apex body of government in the field of administrative reforms. Its main functions in this area are:

(i)    Advising the government of policy matters donceming; administrative reforms.

(ii)    Providing management consultancy service to the organization of the central government, the state governments public sector and local bodies;

(iii)    Promotion and development of the management efforts in the government; and

(iv)    Imparting management education and disseminating information on administrative practices and modern management techniques.
For discharging these functions the department carries on a continuous dialogue with the various ministries at the centre and also with the state administrations to identify new areas of reforms and to keep in touch with the progress of the steps already taken in this direction it also works as a clearing house regarding reforms reassures both at the Centre and in the States.
The Administrative reforms Wing is headed by an Additional Secretary. It has five divisions out to which four are consultancy divisions while the fifth is a primarily concerned with co-ordinating and promoting the management services effort in government. The methods of work relating to administrative reforms are
study and research-oriented Personnel for this work are selected from different services/departments for their diverse administrative experience and academic/professional qualifications as also their aptitude for study and research work.
The Department carries out the following types of activities.

(a)    Management Studies;

(b)    Measures for Achieving Administrative improvements;

(c)    Management Services;
(d)Management Education;
(e)Management in Government;

(f)    Research and Administrative intelligence; and

(g)    Other activities, e.g., Appointment of Commissions, Study Groups, task Force, etc.

7.6 CRITICALAPPRAISAL
Inspite of the intellectual heritage, we could not improve our- administrative set up-even after more than four decades of independence. Let us examine briefly some factors which stand in the way.

1.    Lack of Application of O and M among Civil Servants :
The Line Managers and Supervisors are usually suspicious of the activities of the O and M analyst. Their perception of the O and M analyst is one who has come there to load them with more work and reduce their wage rate. Maturely, they are likely to oppose him. Modern organizations must adapt themselves continuously to changing situations. Such transformations can be gradual and almost constant provided the organization’s officials who, from direct experience, are aware of the need for change, are permitted to introduce innovations on their own initiative or persuade the commission authorities to do so.
The Staff Survey Project described by Arthur Naftalin, Minnesota’s Commissioner of Administration and Director of Self Survey experiment is very illuminating : “Instead of summoning, ‘outside experts’..., we have put out administrators, technicians, employees and legislators to work (without additional pay) on what is intended to be a top to bottom analysis of all aspects of general management, personnel operation procedures, and long-term needs and outlook,” The underlying idea behind ‘Do it Yourself is that every member of an organization should look to his work critically and creatively so as to make efforts at improvements.
We may mention that successful changes, in general, appear to be’ those which operate as follows.

(a)    Spread throughout the organization to include and affect many people;

(b)    Produce positive changes in staff attitudes;

(c)    Prompt people to behave more effectively in solving problems;

(d)    Result in improved-performance by the organization.

(e)    Encourage the whole range of discipline and workers to interact positively; and

(f)    Oblige top decision-makers system radically to focus on the important, as distinct from the trival.

2.    Lack of Personnel specialized to O and d M Work.
We have very few persons trained in the art and science of O and M. Most of the persons trained are half-baked. They understand only theoretical principles but fail to apply them or modify them according to the needs of a given situation.

3.    Budgetary Limitations
Budgetary limitations directly affect both the-physical and human integration within O and M units. The government must give a priority to this activity to ensure better result.

4.    Absence of Retaionitzanon of the Aime of Government.
The governments must define its objectives in concrete terms. The O and M units can help in advising the restructuring of the machinery of government to pursue those objectives. If objectives are not clear, the functioning of O and M would be like grouping in the dark.
It would seem that the ineffectiveness of administrative reform measures in Latin America has, from the beginning, been largely due to the tendency to substitute the means for the ends. It is the ends, however, that deserve priority, among... other things as a prerequisite of rationalizing the means. The same is true of all developing countries.
As one author points out:
“Development administration is not administrative development. It is that aspect of PublicAdministration which focus on government-influenced change towards progressive political, economic and social objectives.... Development administration thus encompasses the organization of new agencies such as planning organization and development corporations; the reorientation or established agencies such as departments of gricultures; the delegation of administrative powers to development agencies; and the creation of a cadre of administrators who can provide leadership in stimulating and supporting programmes of social and ecortomic’ improvement it has the purpose of making change attractive and possible. ”

5.    Restricted Coverage
The activities of O and M are restricted only at the head quarters of the Union and State Governments. These must percolate to the field to ensure optimization of results. The efficiency of administrative machinery depends upon the good service provided by its field offices.

6.    Absence of Humanlatic Approach in Public Administration
It is not only the managerial techniques which are important to improve administrative performance but also human attitudes. No doubt, perfection of procedures is very important but it is only a mechanical approach to administration. What is, therefore, needed is a reform in the human attitudes and behaviours of those who administer? The officials whether in the higher or tower ladder of administration should develop a sense of responsibility and moral consolentiousness and “the capacity to move with millions”. Pt. Nehru once remarked.
“. Administration like most things is, in the final analysis, a human problem, to deal with human beings, not with some statistical data. Statistical data help in understanding. But, there is the danger that pure administrators at the top-not so much at the bottom, because they come into contact with human beings - may come to regard human beings a mere abstraction. There is that danger at time in oom types of society, whether it is what might be called Capitalist Society or Communist Society The administrator may think in abstract of the people he deals with, come to conclusions which are justifiable apparently, but which miss the human element. After all, whatever department of government you deal with, it is ultimately a problem of human beings, and the Administration is meant to achieve something and not to exist in some kind afan ivory tower,’ following certain rules of procedure, and looking Narcissus like, looking on itself with complete satisfaction. The test after all is the human beings and their welfare.

7.    Exchange of information
Inspite of the existence of the department of Personnel and Administrative Reforms, we had still not gone far to ensure exchange of information between the Union and State intense. The remarks made by Prof. A. Avasthi in1963 hold good even today. “Attention may also be drawn to the fact that at ,present there is no forum for exchange of O and M experience among different states. There are all-India Conference of high officers of almost all departments. But so far O and M officers from different states have not met in such a conference not there exists any other institutional arrangement for the purpose. Such a conference would help in the pooling of experience and exchange of ideas in the field of O and M”.

8.    Lack of Professionalization
The results tend to be better when the staff is more “professional” (joint qualities of broad knowledge and experience) as opposed to technical. The structure of O and M units should be person-oriented rather than system-oriented in order to free the innovative capacity needed for management analysis.

9.    Lack of Regards for Public Sentiments and Urgency
Administration is manned by and meant for human beings. Thatolors, there is a need to instill basic human concepts among civil servants besides mechanical efficiency so that they may treat the people ocrdially and equitably.
“The administrator, whether he is low down or high, up in the scale, most give the impression, even if that impression is not cent per cent correct, that he is working through the public will and carrying it out. Of course, this cannot always be done; the administrator cannot carry out every body’s sill, but the rust give the broad impmssion that he is functioning in accordance with the public will, always thinking of public grievances trying to remedy them and consulting the people.”
Sometimes O and M analysis are often limited in perspective, and may go overboard on the most modern technology with due consideration of how they may influence overall effectiveness and economy.

10.    Use of Jargons
There are semantic barriers which increase resistance. The terminology used by O and M analysis is generally beyond the comprehension of the people within an organization. Since line managers and supervisors do not understand, they become passive towards it. War must use simple and intelligible vocabulary.

7.7    Summary
No administrative system can ever be absolutely perfect and in order to achieve some sort of perfection, it has, to engage itself with the help of O and M cells in devising ways and means for improvement which have to be adopted in the light of a nation’s basic policies and programmes. We may-keep the above, mentioned factors which impede the growth of the efforts of O and M to inject the required changes in the organization, process and the philosophy of administration. The ultimate success of the measures suggested by O and M cells depends to a great extent upon the effective implementation of the ‘measures suggested. The Third Five Year Plan has rightly commented ;
“Nevertheless, without a connected attempt to make the administration much more action- oriented than at present, these may not yield enough results.”

7.8    Self Check Exercise

a.    Function of O and M.

b.    Essentials of O and M.

c.    O and M means in India.

7.9 Glossary O and M
Research
Investigation
O and M in India

work study in Government is called O and M.
it is the primary function of O and M to conduct studies on current issues.
it is the function of O and M department to carry out investigation in the organization.
A.D. Gorwala in 1947 emphasised the permanent organisation to improve the functioning of the Administration.

7.10    Answer to Self Check Exercise
To see

a)    7.3

b)    7.4

c)    7.5

7.11    Suggesting Reading

1.    L.M. Parsad, “Organisational Behaviour”

2.    S.L. Goel “Personnel Administrations and Management”

7.12    Terminal Questions:

1.    What is O and M? What are its functions?

2.    Discuss the essentials of O and M in the organisation.

3.    Critically examine the O and M in India.
*****
CHAPTER-8ETHICAL AND MORAL TECHNIQUES
Structure

8.0 Learning Objectives

8.1    Introduction

8.2    How to encourage Morality

1.    Faith and determination among the top personnel.

2.    Building Morale and Motivation among the members.

3.    Encouraging Efficiency through participative management.

4.    Emphasis on implementation through Hardwork.

5.    Commitment to the ideals of the organisation.

6.    Effective involvement of the public in the affairs of the organisation.

7.    Need to build character of the society.

8.    Strengthening the morale fibres of the society through Education.

9.    Need to encourage the study and practice of the religion.

8.3    Summary

8.4    Self Check Exercises

8.5    Glossary

8.6    Answer to Self Check Exercises

8.7    Suggesting Reading

8.8    Terminal Questions

8.0 Learning Objectives: After going through this lesson the students will be able to know:

-    Concept of Ethics and Moral in the organisation.

-    The techniques to encourage morality.

-    Strengthening the moral of the society through education.

-    Commitment to the ideals of the organisation.

8.1    Introduction
In the earlier chapters, we have discussed the nature and scope of management Techniques followed by some of the important techniques in great detail. In this chapter, we want to focus on the Ecology of Management Techniques, i.e., the environment under which these techniques can help us in improving productivity/efficiency. In recent years, there has been a great emphasis on theory and practice of these techniques to improve the deteriorating efficiency within the machinery of government. What has been the impact of this sustained effort ? What have we achieved if we measure their performance by the simple yardstick of cost-benefit analysis ? Why has there been a constant resistance to make use of these techniques? Have we tried to adopt or adapt these techniques to suit our environment ? Have we tried to create congenial environment to ensure the best results from these techniques.
Before introducing these techniques, we must ensure a code of ethics and conduct among the personnel in an organization without which the impact of these techniques would produce no result.
Bertram M. Gross, an eminent Professor of Urban Affairs, Hunter College, City University of New York, has remarked : “One of the most important characteristic of a genuine profession - in addition to a recognized body of knowledge or skill and some organized provision for training, recruitment or certification-is a code of ethics. Professional codes of ethics, recognize the special power that may be exercised by someone with expert skill and knowledge. They are designed to protect clients against the abuse of such power by the ‘professional-whether he be a doctor who penetrates bodily secrets of clients or a lawyer who learns the details of their private affairs.”
Large scale bureaucratic management, particularly when equipped with the most refined calculation techniques, can develop-to use Erich Fromm’s words-a spirit, “inhospitable to life,, joy, independence, love, compassion, meaningful human relations, real intimacy and sharing between people.” If the public administrators, managers and political leaders in developing countries cannot develop non-bureaucratic methods and institutions, “the result will be increasing loneliness, boredom, aggressiveness, competition, consumption-from cars to sex, liquor and drugs-and cruelty as the result of a lack of compassion.”
We can thus say that there is a need to develop both human and modern technology to improve efficiency. We must, however, give priority to human development.
As stated in a UN Report : “There were two aspects to development-technical and human. Organizations had usually been more sensitive to possibilities offered to them by the achievements of modern technology than to the refinements of human behaviour as revealed by the sciet ces of Sociology and Psychology. On the other hand, lessons drawn from experience showed that technical innovations driving from the engineering sciences encountered considerable resistance unless supported by corresponding changes in human attitudes and behaviour. In an era of rapid change, the improvement-of management in its human aspect had become a critical issue. It was important to make full use of the findings of social sciences which endeavoured to be instrumental in giving guidance in behaviour of individuals and groups in varying circumstances. Organisations should, therefore, be conceived as complex, socio-technical systems whose management required both technical skills and insight into the motives of human behaviour.”
“It is widely agreed that manipulation and lack of integrity produce strong negative side-effects and reduce organizational effectiveness. With this important value commitment the organization may shift their styles and climate from one of direction, control and surveillance to one of providing help, support and instruction. Mutuality and collaboration between the leaders and the led, self-control and mutual support are essential for creating an organic organization. Let the newcomers strive to set up organized society with social democracy and high human values settings up ideal societal or public management institutions and if such timely warnings are not accepted, social upsurges are bound to develop in a mild or a violent form.” 8.2 How to Encouraging Morality

1.    Faith and Determination among the Top Personnel in Efficient Performance
The most important factor for the success of any organization is its leadership-political and administrative. Leadership is an important means of converting or processing programme inputs into output such as goods and services. That is why, it has been rightly said that “Put a good man in a bad set up, he will push through.
Put a bad man in a good set up he will make the mesh of the whole situation.” No technique can help those administrators who have faith in their work and its best performance.
Water R. Sharp has also mentioned the importance of these personnel in the organisation. He says, “Even poorly devised machinery may be made to work if it is manned with-trained, intelligent imaginative and devoted staffs. On the other hand, the best planned organization may produce unsatisfactory results, if it is operated by mediocre or disgruntled people.”
So, we must find out such administrators who possess the following qualifications ; competence, missionary-zeal, the capacity to motivate other people, the capacity to communicate with others, the ability to get along with colleagues and the people, cultural adaptability, the capacity to organize and manage, the capacity to inspire confidence in others, patience and dignity. Besides, they must have faith in the ideal of their work, be willing to accept hardships and prepare to work in a spirit of service. Their ambition and enthusiasms should not be dampened by local conditions, which may not provide them with the necessary facilities. Unfortunately, the sense of dedication has been the crassest casualty of the prevailing atmosphere of cynicism bred by increasing propensity towards expediency.
Public services must also develop the normative linkages, i.e., they must develop professional standards which’ should help them in their best performances. Standards are contagious. They spread throughout an organisation, a group, or a society. If an organisation or group cherishes high standards, the behaviour of the individual who enters it is inevitably influenced. They should not develop an excessive sense of self-importance or arrogance. As has been said in Gita, “We should purse the path of excellence without fear or favour and work ceaselessly to achieve the objectives”. Senator Paul Douglas said about his country when the country was passing through a period of despondency and disillusion. His remarks quoted below should be imbibed, by the public services. To quote him ;
“it is fortunate that there are in government large number of men and women who lead devoted lives of public service. They work extremely hard for far less pay than they could get in private industry. They never sell out the public interest but instead defend it with great difficulties. They do all this moreover, without receiving appreciable praise. They are generally either little known or actually ignored by the public. Sometimes, they are bitterely attacked by interests which are seeking to obtain unfair privileges or which are swayed by unfounded prejudices. These men and women are indeed unsung heroes, who deserve far more recognition than they receive.” Swami Vivekanada has put beautifully the ideals of service which must be practised by the publicservices;
“It is great privilege
for all of us to be allowed
to do anything for the world;
in helping the world
we really help ourselves.”
To quote Einstein, “A hundred times every day I remind myself that my inner and outer life are based on the labours of other men, living and dead, and that I must exert myself in order to give in the same measure as I have received and am still receiving.”
The future of the public services is in the hands of its members who must strive for creativity, academic excellence, and the pursuit of excellence of service in their professional activities. Faith in the top administrators about the work would generate sufficient energy to get the co-operation of the entire staff in an organization as faith is contagious. Staff members would try to make use of the management techniques to promote efficiency in such congenial environment. In this way we would be able to create a climate of creativity and optimum performance. Such a situation would have its chain effect. Good organization building has to create around it a bracing atmosphere, a prideful traditions of integrity, excellence and fellow-hip. Human beings breathe an ethos around them almost unconsciously, and these traditions make for that ethos.”
An attitude of dedication to the goals of an organization should be an indispensable trait of the top leaders. This is their primary source of self-confidence to operate and function effectively and efficiently to build self-confidence in themselves and in turn in the public. It is not just performing development-linked administrative duties; it is taking action and encouraging people to take action required to bring about structural change and growth in the economy. This needs to be supplemented by his belief in the organizational goals. In such a situation. Management Techniques can generate and help in promoting efficiency.

2.    Building Morale and Motivation among the Members of an Organization
The most important task of an organization must be to give abundant and constant evidence of its belief that personnel in an organization are key to development. This requires proper motivation of y the employees. Motivation is of utmost importance as it constitutes the base for the management function of planning and organising. The personnel of a department must devote considerable time and effort in planning for and achieving high levels of motivation and morale. It has been noticed that the performance of the personnel either as individuals or members of a group is less as compared to their capabilities in terms of skills, abilities and capacities. Finer, for example, states that demonstrated performance generally never exceeds more than fifty per cent of the individual’s ability to perform.’ Most individuals tend to balance their efforts around an assessment of relative costs (time and energy) and benefits. A climate of creativity must be developed and maintained by management. Maier and Hayes say that “the optimal climate for creativity. . . is whatever human conditions is optimal for individual freedom and self-expression in social setting.” It is the duty of the officers of such units to make the employees feel that their work and their association with a given organisation represent a vehicle which will accelerate the achievement of personal goals as well as the achievement of goals of the organisation. This would require the active participation of the employees in the decision-making process of the organisation. “Participation is. an individual’s mental and emotional involvement in a group situation that encourages him to contribute to group goals and to share responsibility for them.
The concept of management based oh motivation views the employees as ;

a)    A Unit of Energy that seeks to spend itself and in the process, both possesses and exercise the choice of how to spend this energy; that is to say, whether to conserve it.

b)    An Organism Possessing the Dynamic Ability to Grow and Adjust and Select
Quantitatively- In other words, man has the power to extract from his environment the nourishment he needs to build himself more both physically and mentally. Because the environment. can be conditioned, growth may be accelerated or slowed down.

c)    Purposeful-Therefore that induces him to expend his energy to become more perfectly what he wants to become. This drive may be conscious or unconscious....

d)    Unique-Each human being has his own personality and each has the capacity to direct his energies. Thus, capacity magnifies the effect of the experience upon his ultimate development... Each... is. ..always in the process of becoming more and more different from his fellows.’’
It is, therefore, important that management always view the employee-either as an individual, or as a member of group, or both as

a, unit of energy wanting to produce; having the dynamic ability to grow and adjust; being purposeful; and possessing unique capabilities to respond to experience. It is also apparent that side by side with these characteristics must be placed the fact that man cannot be separated from environment and that his knowledge, attitudes and values largely derive from it.
In order to make the organization effective, we have to discard the dead machanistic theory of organization and in its place shall have to adopt a dynamic and creative social theory of public management based upon human motivation. The British Civil Service has been praised for its efficient service. Lord Hewart calls it the best Civil Service in the world. W.G. Well, praises the “tradition of honour and devotion to duty that animated the Civil Service in England”. What is the secret of this success ? Obviously, it is “the tradition of honesty and devotion to duty”, i.e., the high morale built up by the services, themselves. According to Dr. L.D. White, morale reflects, “as socio- psychological situation, a state of mind in which men and women voluntarily seek to develop and apply their full powers to the task upon which they are engaged, by the reason of intellectual or moral satisfaction which they drive from their own self-realisation, their achievements in their chosen field, and their pride in the service.’’? It is a self-stimulating incentive created within the minds and hearts of the workers. A whole-some morale stimulates loyalty, generates co-operation and encourages team work. All these are essential for the achievement of the objectives of any organization.
Morale has an individual as well as a group or institutional aspect. In its individual form, morale is built upon the opportunities to acquire distinction, prestige and personal power; the right to be considered successful and to be respected; and an opportunity for personal self-development. In its latter form, “It sustains an attractive personal association, the easy adaptation of conditions in the organization to habitual methods and attitudes of employees, an opportunity for enlarged participation in the organization and a condition of communion which is a sense of belonging to a group or an enterprise to which one is loyal and dedicated.” The former provides him an incentive to efficient work by satisfying his hierarchy of needs; while the latter creates in the employees of an organization an esprit de corps which makes them identify the aims and objectives of the organization as their own and are thus the highest stimulant to higher achievement.

3.    Encouraging Efficiency through Participative Management/Team Work
A harmonious employer-employee relationship is essential for the effective functioning of an organization. Since organizations consist, of groups of human beings, each of whom is activated by varying motives, no administration can fulfill its obligations if it is not supported whole heartedly by the employees at all levels. The harmony should be just like that of musical instruments in an orchestra. Mutual respect and understanding go a long way in promoting the objectives of the organizations. It is vital that in the running of an organization a correct and proper relationship should exist between the employer and the employees. In
young organisations that have failed if the causes are analysed, it could be traced to this factor, that is, lack of effort or dedication from those employed to do a job. It is not only that the employer should safeguard the interests of the employees, but the employees should also possess positive attitude and identify themselves with the objectives of the organisation.
An employee’s participation would build his morale that ultimately increases his productivity. The ILO document mentions that the individual’s work “is not just a cog in very big wheel, but that his personal effort is essential for the achievement of the overall production plan.”^ Thus, an employee is a partner in the enterprise in which he is investing not his money but his life. The employees are human beings not “differing materially from those in the chair of management.
Besides, the research theory in Social and Organizational Psychology has also suggested that participation in group decision-making enhances members’ satisfaction and removes tension between employees and management. Micheal R. Cooper and Micheal T. Wood have shown that satisfaction was affected by participation. Satisfaction was greater where participation was complete than where it was partial.”^
Let us understand the psychological reasons for participative management with the help of extracts from the scholars of organisational psychology. This would help the management to manage their personnel efficiency.
McGregor, categorised the traditional motivational assumptions as theory X, a string of self- consistent notions about human nature. Firstly, the theory X assumes that the ordinary man is selfish, lazy and stimulated by only economic rewards. Secondly, the average man is not interested in work unless goaded by the superior. Thirdly, the individual and organisational goals are contradictory and tend to clash against each other. Fourthly, the average man is devoid of self-discipline and self- control. Finally, he tends to submit himself to the control and direction of others and avoids responsibility.
McGregor, however, points out that Man’s motivation is far too complex and varied to be explained away wholly by the aforementioned assumptions. In line with other thinkers of social psychology school, McGregor describes his alternative model of motivation as theory Y. The assumptions of theory Y may be stated as :

1.    The average man is not really against doing work.

2.    The ordinary man can show self-control and self-direction, depending upon the involvement in the work he is doing.

3.    The average man craves self-actualisation and it is the responsibility of the management to provide genuine conditions for satisfying his creative abilities and yearnings.

4.    The ordinary man; under suitable conditions, would willingly shoulder responsibility.

5.    The average man is capable of making significant contributions to the solution of many administrative problems but his potentialities are not fully utilised.
McGregor’s assumptions in Theory Y roughly correspond to what Maslow and Argyris have stated about human motivation. The running theme of all these thinkers has been to show that adequate attention has not been paid, so far, to the actual potentialities, creativity and responsible behaviour which the ordinary man is endowed. That way, McGregor has successfully discarded the assumptions of classical school of
thought. Douglas McGregor has rightly given his preference for Theory Y which helps in true organisational building and development. He states.
“Theory X leads naturally to an emphasis on the tactics of control-to procedures and techniques for telling people what to do, for determining whether they are doing it, and for administering reward and punishments. Since an underlying assumption is that people must be made to do what is necessary for the success of the enterprise, attention is naturally directed to the techniques of direction and control. Theory Y, on the other hand, leads to a pre-occupation with the nature of relationship, with creating an environment which will encourage commitment to organisational objectives and which will provide opportunities for the maximum exercise of initiative, ingenuity and self-direction in achieving them.’’
Elton Mayo and his colleagues who pioneered the ‘Human Relations’ school also recognised and emphasised the use of techniques as given in Theory Y. They outlined the following principles, which may be followed by top personnel to develop and maintain sound organisational health.

i.    The need for recognition of the ’human’ element and the well being and motivation of the working teams.

ii.    Good supervision is exercised with proper understanding of the subordinates.

iii.    It is important to have proper communication and consultation between the managers and the workers. This creates a sense of participation and involvement among the employees. There should be means, of keeping the management informed of what the employees associations are thinking, feeling, hoping and equally of keeping the employees informed of what the management is thinking, or proposing to do.

iv.    The Hawthorne experiments showed that economic incentive is far less powerful than the personal or socialincentives.

v.  The flow of work and arrangements of operations should give full play to the informal organisation of
the workers.
In Chris Argyris view, an organisation following these principles would be able to achieve efficiency as well as keep their employees satisfied. He says :
“Every individual has ‘psychological energy’ to expend. Exerting that energy in a way that helps him fulfill his own social and egoistic needs is what motivates an individual. Therefore, provided a company is structured in such a way that an individual is able to meet these self: fulfillment needs, the psychological energy will be used in the company’s interests. If the reverse is the case, the psychological energy can easily be used to thwart the company’s aims.”
Thus, we can say that the top personnel must encourage participative management among personnel to raise their morale. Such a situation will be conducive for the growth and development of personnel and they, in turn, would do their best to provide decent services. In such a situation, the energy and initiative among the personnel would be self-eenerating. Besides, all their idle potential energy would be changed into kinetic energy which can be utilised for the promotion of the objectives of an organisation.
There is a need to practise ‘Management by Objectives’ to ensure fruitful participation. Management by Objectives shifts, the focus to goals, to the purpose of the activity rather than the activity itself. It is a process whereby the superior and subordinate personnel of an organization jointly identify its common goals and ensure performance.
The trend of management today should be to make use of authority in collaboration with colleagues-developing team-work. Team-work is a plan which makes possible utilisation of all levels of personnel to achieve maximum output. Personnel in an organization form a team in each organization. Of necessity, each team is made up of varied elements, but each official should be committed to bend all his efforts towards creating a homogenous working group.
It is realized that greater participation in the affairs of the organization is not a simple matter and for it to be effective, not only will it be necessary to create appropriate machinery and procedures but chances will also have to be brought about in the management attitudes and skills of staff in upper echelons of administration. The polarisation of differences of view of the management and the employees can only be avoided by using the medium of staff organizations for the better ventilation of their grievances and the expression of their needs and problems. We must encourage the process of integration in management as it would lay the solid foundations for harmonious relationships and lessen staff problems. Mary Parker Follet also recommends this method as “by domination only one side gets what it wants; by compromise neither side gets what it wants. By integration we find a way by which both sides may get what they want.”

4.    Infusing Ethics into Politics to End Political Degeneration and Corruption
The country is passing through a terrible crisis these days. The aggravation of material greed has, as a reaction, set ablaze the fire of corruption at all levels especially among the political elite. Through the dominant influence of the present material civilization and the ideal of enjoyment fostered by it, even the basic framework and moral fibre of the country has been affected by an internal demoralisation. The heart trembles at the sight of the moral degradation practised today in the name of politics. There is no limit to the fraud and hypocrisy that are being practised in the name of politics.
Mr. Prem Bhatia, Editor-in-Chief of The Tribune rightly mentioned that today’s political scene is influenced by shortcuts, i.e., the urge to reap the maximum benefits from the minimum of efforts. He commented ; “A large number of politicians had chosen the shortest path to power. They had bribed, cajoled and built their way to the top. The patronage of office was used by them to consolidate their positions. This had inevitably led to the spread of the ‘short-cut system’ in spheres other than politics.”
Most of the problems in Public Administration are emanating from political corruption and interference. The credibility gap between the political and administrative leadership is on the increase. Most of the commissions, committees and the daily press have been emphasizing the gravity of the situation. No organization can progress until and unless its political leaders are above board. One of the founding fathers of the Indian Constitution, Mr. H.V. Kamath regrets that the total devaluation of moral values and ethical ideals in public life and administration today has given rise to the present day rat race for position, power and pelf by any means more by crook than by hook.^® What can be done to ensure confidence of the staff and the people in the integrity of the political elite. The answer is plain and simple, i.e., the political elite must demonstrate integrity and instill faith among their subordinates about their fairness and impartiality. Faith is a contagious
disease and once it is developed, it would bend the various levels of the administration into a cohesive structure. No management techniques can be applied in an organization polluted by political interference and corruption. All the decisions in such an organization are affected by the whims of political elite rather than the needs of the organization. Thus, there is a need to train political elites to encourage them to pursue ethical ways so that they can fulfill the pledges made to the people to lead a good standard of living.

5.    Emphasis on Implementation through Hardwork Rather than Being Engaged Merely in Paper Planning
Words, written or spoken are of no use unless put into action. The emphasis should be more on performance rather than paper planning. Khalid Gibran has rightly said, that “Believing is a time thing, but placing those beliefs into execution is a test of strength. Many are those who talk like the roar of the sea, but their lives are shallow and stagnant, like the rotting marshes. Many are those who lift their heads ‘above the mountain tops, but their spirit remain dormant to the obscurity of the caverns.
The Tribune Editorial has rightly commented that “Man’s future was in his own hands and assisted by science he could be trusted to shape it to his own liking. The disappearance of this belief has left our minds a waste land, empty of hope, lacking in ideals, devoid of aspirations. In a world, scepticism, apathy and disillusion go wider and cut deeper than they have ever done before.
Swami Vivekananda has also mentioned that we must act decisively to regenerate the potentialities of ourcountry:
“What our country now wants, are muscles of iron and nerves of steel, gigantic wills which nothing can resist, which can penetrate into the mysteries and the secrets of the universe, and will accomplish their purpose in any fashion, even if it meant going down to the bottom of the ocean and meeting death face to face, that is what we want, and that can only be created, established and strengthened, by understanding and realizing the ideal of the Advaita, that ideal of the oneness of all.. None can regenerate this land of ours without the practical application and effective operation of this ideal of the oneness of things. The truths of the Upanishads are before you. Take them up, live upto thee and the salvation of India will be at hand.”
He further adds;
“Let us all work hard, my brethren; this is no time for sleep. On our work depends the coming of the .India of the future. She is there ready waiting. She is only sleeping. Arise and awake, and see her seated here, on her enternal throne, rejuvenated more glorious than she ever was, this Motherland of ours.
Thus, the future of this budding developing democracy depends upon the attitudes of its political ‘and administrative elite. There is no substitute for hard-work which would be reflected in better life of the people.

6.    Commitment to the Ideals of theOrganization
No organization can develop until and unless the personnel working in the organization are committed to achieve its ideals. Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru while addressing the Fourth Annual General Body Meeting of the Indian Institute of Public Administration said:
“In a period of dynamic growth, however, we want as civil servants-persons who are not, if I may use the word without any disrespect, merely head clerks but people with minds, people with vision, people with desire to achieve, who have some initiative for doing a job and who can think how to do it. But, the
person who is to be completely neutral is a head clerk and no more. He would do his work efficiently as a head clerk, no doubt but nothing more. Can a person be neutral, I ask you, about basic things which we stand for, our state stands for, our plans stands for, e.g., a socialist pattern of society ?”
A certain degree of informed zeal and identification with tasks entrusted to a functionary with a view to ensure higher levels of performance are the hallmark of excellence in public service. In the words of Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru :
“No administrator, I suppose, or anyone else for the matter of that, can really do first class work without a sense of function, without some measures of a crusading spirit: ‘I am doing this, I have to achieve this, as a part of a great movement in a big cause.’ That gives a sense of function, not the sense of the individual, narrow approach of doing a job in an office for a salary or wage, something connected with your life’s outlook or anything, perhaps being interested, as people inevitably are, on one’s personal preferment in that particular work.”
The Prime Minister, Mrs. Indira Gandhi addressing the Officer-trainees at the Lai Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration, stressed the need for them to equip and acquaint themselves as instruments of national unit. She observed :
“You have to get out of the exclusive or elitist attitude and atmosphere. You have to be prepared to assist and not obstruct change. You have to rise above narrow loyalties of caste, of province and think of the good of the country as a whole. You have to think of refusing to promote sectional interest and always put any loyalty or atiy interest in the perspective of what is good for India as a whole. You have to develop your professional competence and conscience and you have to know that you can never stop learning.’’
In “The Administrator” Robert M. Hutchines writes (quoted in M.R. Pinto, valaes in Public Services IJPA, January-March, 1989);
“The rewards of the administrator may not be public memorials, religious rites and a pleasant journey to the Islands of the Blest. For those things he should care not at all. His satisfaction will come, even if he fails, from having seen and attempted one of the most difficult works of the mind and one of the most challenging humantasks.
Thus, all organisations can function and achieve excellence provided all its members strive to pursue the goals of the organization earnestly, sincerely, whole-heartedly and with dedication.

7.    Effective Involvement of the Public in the Affairs of the Organization
Merle Fainsod remarks : “The most favourable setting for progress in development administration exists where a politically influential and dynamic modernizing elite strongly desires development and can successfully project this attitude into both the bureaucracy and the population at large.
Many well intentioned and technically sound programmes aimed at solving problems have been frustrated by lack of popular acceptance and community participation. “It has been observed that such programmes are either not actively associated or passively ignored because they do not ‘belong’ to the population they are designed to help; they are rather seen by the population as imposed external programmes that belong to the government and consequently deserve and require little, if any, of the population’s attention, action, or other response.”
Public relations is the establishment of climate of understanding. It means interpreting the programme of an organization to the public and vice versa. The purpose of public relations is not only to supply information, but also to encourage an understanding and co-operation between the citizens and the public servants. It is the duty of every member of the organization to maintain public relations.
At present, we find a great deal of alienation between the people and the organization. This has undermined the legitimacy, effectiveness and credibility of the public administration in our country. We need to promote harmony and mutual trust among the people and public administration. The objectives of public relations should be to increase prestige and goodwill and protect the life of the organization by safeguarding it against unwarranted attacks as well as to remove the genuine complaints and grievances of the people.
To improve, understanding between the citizens and the personnel, public relations need to be developed in an effective manner to create favourable community opinion towards public services. This would create confidence in the minds of the people towards the competence, fairness, honesty, impartially and sincerity of the public services.

8.    Need of Building Character of the Society as a whole through the Re-Orientation of Educational System and the Use of Mass-Media
The success of any government depends upon the effective collaboration of its citizens. All the books on civics would emphasize civic consciousness for the progress of the country. This is possible only if our educational system and mass-media are re-oriented to character building among the people. People’s character is the ultimate source which can ‘supply kinetic energy for modernization and development. Swami Vivekananda rightly says:
“The national ideals of India are renunciation and service : intensify her in those channels, and the rest will take care of itself.
He further adds:
“What the World wants is character.”

9.    Need for Designing Indigenous Salution to Solve the Existing and Potential Problems
All the techniques to Improve productivity/efficiency in administration are good but we must choose those techniques which are suitable to our requirements. We must adapt the existing techniques to suit our programmes. We must examine the utility and scope of these techniques before introducing them. We have examined many organizations where these techniques have become a liability rather than an asset.
Nobel Laureate Jan Tinbergen has rightly said ;
“The poor countries should reject the aim of initiating western patterns of life. Development is not a linear process and the aim of development is not to ‘catch up’, economically, socially, politically or culturally. Many aspects of western life have become wasteful and senseless and do not contribute to people’s real happiness. For poor nations to attempt to imitate the rich may only mean that they trade one set of problems for another and in doing so discard or destroy much that is valuable in terms of their human resources and values.”

10.    Strengthening the Moral Fibres of the Society through Education
It has been rightly said by the Education Commission (Kothari Commission) that the destiny of a nation depends upon the quantity and quality of students coming out of schools and colleges. Illiteracy is a great obstruction in the path of development and education, is the backbone of democracy. The Director General of UNESCO has described illiteracy as “the most monstrous of all the many instances of wasted human potential—which still at the present time keeps more than one- third of the human race in a state of hopelessness, below the level of modern civilization.
Thus, it is imperative to increase the literacy rate to bring about all-round development. Education helps an individual to develop his potential to the full, to increase his productivity and to become a useful and responsible member of the society.
Without the understanding, active co-operation and involvement of all members of the community and a knowledge and motivation on their part of how to obtain the most from the public services provided, much of the time, money and effort invested in the services provided to the people can be lost. Thus, there is a great need to infuse civic consciousness, patriotism and discipline among the citizens through education, adult education, and functional literacy. President Sanjiva Reddy while inaugurating the Silver Jubilee Celebration of Kurukshetra University on January 11, 1980 Has rightly said that India is in need of a new educational system which will look upon the child as a bud that opens up petal by petal and which needs the sunlight of the ideals of truth, beauty and goodness. Only such citizens would be able to contribute to national prosperity in whatever field they may be engaged as it has been rightly said that not gold but only men can make a nation great and strong.

11.    Need to Encourage the Study and Practice of True Religion
There is a need of infusing the ideology of Positive Religion among politicians and public services through encouraging the study and propagation of the true ideals of religion, i.e., ideals of truth, ^service and sacrifice, is can be supplemented through circulation of the extracts from the lives of great men who practised the principles of true religion in their lives and are the living embodiment of true religion. This will cement the different sections of the people into cohesive unity and remove all differences based on caste, colour, creed, sex and lead to emotional integration. Mahatma Gandhi has rightly said, “No man can live without religion” and he further says, “There are some who in the egoism of their reason declare that they have nothing to do with religion. But that is like a man saying that he breathes, but that he has no nose”. Again he says, “My devotion to truth has drawn me into the field of politics; and I can say without the slightest hesitation, and yet in humility; that those who say that religion, has nothing to do with politics do not know what religion means.” It is obvious that he is using it in a sense-probably moral and ethical more than any other-different from that of the critics of religion. According to Prof. John Dewey “any activity pursued on behalf of an ideal end against obstacles, and inspite of threats of personal loss, because of conviction of its general and enduring value, is religious in quality.” Nehru admits that true religion means inner craving and spiritual growth of human beings. A truly religious man seeks for truth at all costs with single-minded sincerity and is prepared to make any sacrifice for it. Thus, there is a need to encourage the study and practice of true religion. Thus, we can say that mechanical efficiency is not enough. What we need to develop is the human approach. As Graham Wallas says : “In the case of government officers, most of those who have had dealings with them would say that need to be humanised. The official should be a man, should be known as a man and should be expected to behave as a man.

8.3    Summary
The people inhabiting the developing world expect their government to pull them out of the morass of distressing under-development. Besides, timely action backed by a strong will and determination at all decision-making and operational levels can change the complexion of our socio-economic scene.
Public Administration in the developing countries has the potential and can be optimised. The need is to enforce its reputation, prestige, credibility and viability. Public services properly recruited, rightly trained, properly motivated and given the congenial environment, can help in fulfillment of the ideals of the country. Thus, the public service would have to work hard with dedication to achieve the results.

8.4    Glossary
Morale        : It is an individual, as well as group or institutional aspect.
Motivation : The important task of the organisation is to provide motivation of your employees.
It will enhance productivity in the organisation.
Self Check ExerciseAnswer to Self Check Exercise8.5    Suggesting Reading:

1.    L.M. Parsad, “Organisational Behaviour”

2.    S.L. Goel “Personnel Administrations and Management”

8.6    Terminal Questions:

1.    How motivation and Morale can be build in an organisation?

2.    How efficiency and productivity can be increased? Give your suggestions.
*****
CHAPTER-9MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVE (MBO)
Structure

9.0 Learning Objectives

9.1    Introduction

9.2    MBO Defined

9.3    Element of System

9.4    MBO as an approach to Management Development

9.5    MBO and Organisation Development

9.6    MBO and Management Information System

9.7    MBO Budget

9.8    Benefits of MBO programme

9.9    Summary

9.10    Self Check Exercise

9.11 Glossary

9.12    Answer to Self Check Exercise

9.13    Suggesting Reading

9.14    Terminal Questions

9.0 Learning Objectives: After going through this lesson the students will be able to know

-    The concept of MBO

-    MBO as an approach to Management Development

-    MBO as an agent of OD

-    Importance of MBO programme

9.1    Introduction
Economic life without productive work directed towards some purpose is meaningless are dull, it is the nature of man to engage in purposeful activity. It provides him with satisfaction, especially when directed toward a common good. This common good may be manifested as perpetual ^of an enterprises, customer satisfaction, or employee security. Managing by objectives follows men’s inherent tendencies, to change disorder to order, unfinished to finished, disorganisation to organisation. The work situation becomes an opportunity for a person to exercise these tendencies. What makes MBO work is that la satisfies man’s desire to accomplish, providing an opportunity and the process to select what is to be accomplished how it is to be accomplished and when Achievement in the work situation must not be a mere possibility but rather a certainly if economic life is to be meaningful and fulfilling.
Peter Drucker is often credited with inventing management by objectives. He himself has never claimed the distinction, but a perusal of the literature would lead one to proper conclusion that Drucker was first to publish the concept and first, to use the term. The history of MBO is clouded because it is a concept and no concept or philosophy ever springs up fully grown without a long period of germination.

9.2    MBO defined :
Management by objective is : “a dynamic system which seeks to Integrate the company’s need to clarify and achieve its profit and growth goals with the managers need to contributes and develop himself. It is a demanding and rewarding style of managing a business. “It is’ a demanding and rewarding style of managing a business. When MBO is operating successfully in an organisation there will be a continuous process of review and measurement, summarised in the key factors listed below:

1)    Critical review and restatement of the company’s strategic and tactical plans.

2)    Definition with each manager of key results and performance that he must achieve, in line with unit and company objectives. Manager will be expected to contribute and commit themselves to these objectives.

3)    Agreement with each manager for a job improvement plan which makes a measurable and realistic contribution to the limit and company plans for better performance.

4)    Provision of conditions which make possible the achievement of key result and improvement plans notably:

·    An organisation structure which allows a manager freedom and flexibility in operation.

·    Manag ement control information in a form and at a frequency which makes or more effective self-control and better and quicker decision.

5)    Use of systematic performance reviews measures and discuss progress made towards results, and potential reviews which identify men with their potential for advancement.

6)    The development of plans for management training so that managers can be helped to overcome their weakness, build on their strength and accept responsibility for self-development.

7)    Improvement of motivation by the provision of effective plans for management payment selection and succession.
The following exhibit shows. MBO as part of the total business process.
The objective of MBO is to change behaviour and attitudes towards getting the job done. In other words, it is result oriented; it is performance that counts. It is management system and philosophy that stresses goals rather than methods. It provides responsibility and accountability and self-fulfillment. It meets these needs by providing opportunities for participating in goal-setting process.
Common Elements in MBO System
The major common elements in MBO systems are:
Objectives established for positions.
Use of joint objective setting
Linking of objectives
Emphasis an measurement and control
Establishment of a review and recycle system.
High involvement of superior.
High staff supports in many stage.
That is, clear objectives are set for managerial positions, most often jointly by superior and subordinate (attempts are made to link objectives with those of other relevant positions, a great emphasis is put on qualifications, measurement and control and regular review 18 made, usually biannually. The superior initiates a great deal except in the early stages, when a high degree of staff support is common.
MBO is based squarely on setting objectives for managerial positions. These at higher level may be called goats”, “targets” or taime” but the basic idea a ine same to decide what the manager in the positions is required to achieve. Most but not all MBO systems require numerical and time bounded statements of objectives, A few allow “Subjective” statements for staff positions. For any particular position there may be one or over ten objectives. Most systems suggest from Four to eight objectives.
While not always emphasised in basic text some form of linking of objectives is a part of all MBO systems. This means, in its simplest form that if marketing has at objectives of selling 100,000. units, producing as an objectives of producing 100,000 units web linking as this is virtually automatic, and if it does not occur, then very loud feedback is usually obtained. More sophisticated linking can take place among staff and line not so much over quantity, but in the timing of parts of plans. Which must fit together.
While few systems go as far as to say if you can’t measures it, forget it all do emphasise the necessity of being able to measure results and of being able to control them. If an objective cannot tie measured its attainment cannot be known. If an objective cannot be subject to control, it is simply a prediction and not an objective, MBO implementation are often held up because of poor measurement and control systems.
All MBO system have some form of review of progress towards objectives; Some action is taken and then new objectives are set for next period. The typical cycle goes something like.
Objective set for year 1.
First Progress check.
Second Progress check
Objective set for year 2
This review is always between the superior and subordinate.

9.3    Elements .in MBO Systems :
In theory all MBO programmes are essentially In actual practice, however/many major differences as a parent in the U.K. MBO lays very great emphasis on what is called “Corporate Planning” or “strategy” and on the internal MBO adviser. A programme to introduce it here may take twelve months before it gets out of the board room. In U.S.A. while corporate planning is often the focus of MBO, individual motivation is seen as a prime condition and appraisal is still an important focus of attention. In Canada a lead has been taken in MBO by the Federal Government. This is in other such administrative settings elsewhere, has tended to emphasise appraisal rather than strategy or motivation. The programme tends to be introduced by personnel department as substitute for standard merit rating forms.
So, while having similarities, MBO do vary from one another in the emphasis they give to:

-    Corporate planning

-    Manager planning

-    Appraised Link

-    Reward link

-    Position analysis made

-    Motivation element

-    Participation element

-    Emphasis on Future
Corporate planning : is MBO an expression of the five-year plan at manager level or is it a contract between who individuals or is it both ? Should MBO start anywhere out at the top? Is MBO a very form of executive committee making sure their needs are met, or a way of ensuring a manger’s needs are met? If he needs conflict, which takes precedence ?
Can an individual really participate in MBO if the company also wants to develop high integrated plan ? These kinds of question reflect a central difference among MBO systems while things are not quite so black and white, the degree of emphasis on corporate planning or the individual?
Manager planning : MBO systems differ in the extent to which a manager is expected to make a plan to achieve the objective agreed. Effective MBO stressed a manager planning a great deal. An objective without a plan is either a dream or simply a prediction specifying what would happen any way with much effort Stating an objective can be easy, making a plan to ensure it is quite another thing. The plan, managers create is their business, not that of their superior, the objective is agreed with the superior, the plan is designed and implemented by the managers.
Appraisal link : No matter how the particulars of MBO are designed. If it is implemented by the personnel department it becomes an appraisal scheme.
Reward link : MBO systems differ sharply in the emphasis they give to the link between performance and rewards such as salary, promotion or greater responsibility. Most suggest that the discussion of performance should be separated from the salary review. Some actually go so far to suggest that what goes on between a superior and subordinate concoming the degree of attainment of an objective should not be considered during salary review.
Position analysis made : Some MBO programmes start with what amounts to a complete description of the job. About eight to twelve hours are spent with each manager in working out just what his job is. Other system ignore this or give it very little emphasis, The assumption is, and it may be good one, that before embarking on an MBO programme, firm should have a clean idea of the function of each position.
Motivation element : If properly introduced, MBO has a high motivational content, especially if objectives are mutually set with superiors, if the superior is seen more as a coach and idea as a judge, and if those who consistently perform well are ultimately rewarded. Some top managers mistakenly see MBO primarily as a control and appraisal tool, it certainly is both of these but this is not the central idea.
Participation : MBO cannot be clearly related to participative management as “participative management as” has such a wide range of meaning. Participative management to have any meaning, must allow workers to redesign their jobs, change salary differentials in their departments and propose modifications in the responsibilities of their superior without all this the participation is a fiction.
Emphasis on Future : Effectiveness has its past, its present and its future. MBO can be designed around any one or any combination of these three time orientations. The past emphasis “Appraisal”. The present emphasis coaching while; the future emphasises outputs in the true sense, Elements of appraisal and coaching are still part of MBO but the better emphasis is on teaming from the past and harnessing the resources of the present to become effective in the future.

9.4    MBO as an Approach to Manager Development:
Although MBO is first and foremost a way of managing, its concepts are closely related to contemporary principles of manager growth and development. These principles state that development should be an interactive process involving the superior and subordinate manager, the Job and the work environment. MBO blends these elements while enabling the individual goals, Essentially, the goal of both MBO and manager development is improved managerial performance.
Strategies for change may be formal or informal training of project assignments under management development; goal setting, feedback, and coaching under Mbo and team building problem solving, Feedback and action such under OD.

9.5    MBO and Organisational Development:
Helping managers to manage by objectives and linking individual objectives with organisation goal have been cited as key goals of an organisation. Development effort! thus, establishment and implementation of*goals and objectives and measurement of performance based on results or goal achievement would appear to be closely linked with the OD process.
Whether, goals related specifically to organisation change or whether such change becomes necessary in the process of meeting goals, OD and MBO are likely to overlap. An organisation which is implementing either system successfully is likely to be also implementing the other. Accordingly, goal setting becomes functional as part of an organisation development process, It has a direct relationship to meaningful goals, as well as less obvious impact on helpful systems and achievements, MBO becomes a necessary adjunct to CD so that integration of individual and organisation goals may he accompilahed.

9.6    MBO and Management Information Systems :
The total managerial system function in organisation by means of information systems which provide data for the ongoing decision making which is fundamental to effective organisation behaviour. An information decision system is the meats ov wrtich management carries out its day-to- day functions at technical or-operational organisational and institutional levels.
Decision making is likely to be affected by organisation development effort which seek to locate decision centres at sources of knowledge concerning specific problems.. Data from the information systems contributes to internal input which, when combined with input from the environment of the organisation, helps to shape strategic goals.
Barrett has noted that MBO needs theepronger information system to function effectively. A First component is environment search designed to alert managers to changes taking place in environmental pressures impacting on the organisation. Barrett comments, “Ail today’s challenge and opportunities comes from such changes. They provide the roofs from which meaningful new objectives are growth. “A Second component is feedback concerning process, which is necessary to re-plan, reorganize, and take corrective action to assure validity of objectives and achievement of those objective proven to be and achievement of 67
those objective proven to be valid. The third component suggested of an MBO information system would provide managers with organizational state data information about morale, stuffing and financial resources openness of communication and managerial skills and knowledge. This component is essential to control and planning particularly to the budgetary process which provides both future plans and fiscal control.

9.7    Budget MBO
The budget system can be linked with MBO, given sometimes for the unrevealing of problems. Such problems relate to the translation of general budget requirements into operational terms, and participation of subordinate manager in the budget process, in term of MBO process, budgeting becomes the determination and assignment of resources required to reach objectives resources include human effort, materials and facilities. The usefulness of budgeting stems from provision and visibility in planning, as in development of action plan to achieve objectives Cost benefit analysis before selecting a course of action provides for validation of objectives; costs at resources required for completion of each programme step can be summarised to verify overall estimates of cost. These estimates can also becomes an indicator of performance and thus a device contributing to self control and review.

9.8    Benefits of MBO Programme
Management by objectives is an important performance tool it has certain advantages.

1)    MBO helps and increase employee motivation because it relates overall goals to the individuals’ goals; and helps to increase an employee’s understanding of where it is heading.

2)    Managers are more likely to complete with themselves than with other managers. This kind of evaluation can reduce internal conflicts that often arise when managers compete with each other to obtain scarce resources.

3)    MBO results in “means ends” cham. Management at succeedingly lower levels in the organisation establish targets which are integrated with those at the higher level. Thus, if can help insure that everyone’s activity as ultimately aimed toward organisations goals.

4)    MBO reduce role conflict and ambiguity Role conflict exists when a person is faced with ‘Conflicting demands from two or more supervisors; and role ambiguity exists when a person is uncertain as to how he will be evaluated, or what he has to achieve. Since MBO aims at providing clear targets and their order or priority, it reduces both these situations.

5)    MBO provides more objectives appraisal criteria the targets that emerge from MBO process provide a sound set of criteria for evaluating the managers performance.

6)    MBO forces and aids in planning. By forcing top management to establish a strategy and goals for the entire organisation; and by requiring other managers to set their targets and plan how to reach them.

7)    MBO defined problems better early. Frequent performance review session make this possible.

8)    MBO identifies performance deficiencies and enables the management and employee to set individualised self-improvement goals and thus proves effective in training and development of people.

9)    MBO helps the individual manager to develop personal leadership, especially the skills of listening planning, counseling motivating and evaluating.

9.9    Summary
In theory, all MBO programmes are essential, but in practice, major difference lay emphasis on corporate planning or strategy and on the internal MBO advisor. A programme to introduce it here may take twelve months before it gets out of the board room. The programme tends to be introduced by Personnel department as substitute for standard merit rating forms.

9.10    Self Check Exercise

a.    MBO Concept. Elements of MBO system.

b.    MBO approach to manager development and organisation development.

9.11    Glossary:
MBO             : it is a dynamic system which seeks to integrate the company’s need to clarify and
achieve its profit goals with the managers needs to contribute and develop himself.
Peter Ducker : is credited with inventing Management By Objective.

9.12    Answer to Self check exercise
To see

a. 9.2, 9.3      b. 9.4, 9.59.13    Suggesting Reading:

1.    L.M. Parsad, “Organisational Behaviour”

2.    S.L. Goel “Personnel Administrations and Management”

9.14    Terminal Question

1.    Discuss how MBO programmes are beneficial to organisatioal growth.

2.    Discuss the common features of any MBO programme.
*****
CHAPTER-10O.D. TECHNIQUES IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Structure

10.0 Learning Objectives

10.1    Introduction

10.2    What is O.D. Nature

10.3    O.D. is form of Applied Behavioural Science

10.4    Characteristics of Organisation Development

10.5    Need for Organisation Development

10.6    O.D. Process

10.7    O.D. Techniques

10.8    Summary

10.9    Self Check Exercise

10.10    Glossary

10.11    Answer to Self check exercise

10.12    Suggesting Reading

10.13    Terminal Questions

10.0 Learning Objectives: After learning this lesson the students will be able to know

-    What is O.D. and its nature

-    Various characteristics ofO.D.

-    Need and importance of O.D.

-    O.D. process in the organisation

-    O.D. Techniques and its application

10.1    Introduction
A beginning on systematic lines was started in 1946. When an inter-Group Relation workshop was held at the State Teachers College in New Britain Connenctiant. The team for the action research comprised of Kud Lewin. Kenneth Bene, Leyland Bradford and Ronald Uppitt. The experience gained was most interesting and rewarding to the participants comprising the members and group leader. This led to the emergency National Training Laboratory in Group Development. The laboratory which was established by Benne. Bradford and Uppitt organised a three week session in summer 1947 at the Gould Academy in Bathet Marine.
The three week programme constituted Basic Skill Training Group which was later known as T-Groups. These groups met for the major part of each day-under the guidance of a trainer and the observer. The laboratory (1947) was sponsored by the Research centre for Group Dynamics (MIT). The National EducationAssociation Teachers College of Columbia University Ucia Springfield College and Cornell University.
The decade 1950 saw greater development in T-Group training It was linked to the total “organization focus of Douglas McGregor. Herbert ‘Shepard Robert Biak and others”. In 1957 Douglas McGregor was the first bishavioural scientist to apply the laboratory training skills to the complex organisation like Union Carbide. Later McGregor in collaboration with John Paul Jones arid Birney Menson Jr. joined the group Which was known as “Organisation Development Group/” The history of organisation development it rich with the contributions of behavioural scientists and practitioners many of whom are well known and the’ contributions of many people in client organisations. Organisation development has emerged largely from applied behavioural sciences and has three major steps: the invention of the T-group and innovations in the application of laboratory training insights to complex organisations, the invention as survey feedback technology and the emergence of action research. Key figures in this early history interacted with each other and across these storms and wave influenced by concepts and experiences from a wide variety of disciplines and settings. These disciplines and settings included clinical and social psychology, family group therapy, military psychology and psychiatry the theater, general sematics: systems theory, mathematics and physics, philosophy, psychodrama, nondirective counselling survey methodology, experimental and action research personnel and industrial relations and general management theory.
The history of OD is emergent in that a rapidly increasing number of behavioural scientists and practitioners in organisations are building on the ‘research and insights of the past as well as discovering the utility of some of the earlier insights. These efforts are noon expanding and include a wide range of organisations, type of institutions occupational categories and geographical locations around the world.

10.2    Nature of OD - What is OD ?
Essentially OD is a long-range attempt to improve an organisations ability to cope with :

(i)    change is its external environment, and

(ii)    to improve its internal problem-solving abilities.
In other words, OD is designed on integrate the needs, goals and adjectives of the organisation with the needs of the individual in order to encourage his involvement and help his growth and development on the job.

10.3    OD is Form of Applied Behavioural Science :
An CD programme applies the scientific and practice principles from several behavioural sciences, social psyonology, social anthropology, sociology, economics and political science. The OD practitioner is neither magician nor charlatan; he is simply translating what is known about people and organisations as found in behavioural science knowledge into applicable programme of action in fact this section could be titled ‘demythologizing organisation development” because we wish to show that OD is not mysterious and magical spell cast upon an organisation by the incantations of a behavioural scientist “change agent”.
Organisation development is both a result of applied behavioural science and a form of applied behavioural science; perhaps more accurately, it is a programme of applying behavioural science; to orgnisation the following figure shows some of the inputs to applied behavioural science. The two bottom inputs, behavioural science research and behavioural science theory, are intended to represent contributions from “pure or basic science, the two top inputs practice research and practice theory, are intended to represent contributions from “applied” science.
OD is a long-range effort of the organisation to secure the problem-solving Capacity. It means, in other words, the organisation seeks to acquire the capacity to diagnose the problem and to take suitable action to remove it in the midst of opportunities and challenges of its environments.
Culture
By culture, the Writers means “prevailino patterns of activities, interactions norms, sentiments, attitudes, values and products. Products Imply technology. The term “Culture” further includes the methods and procedures of decision making, role playing etc. Within the framework of value system and attitudes, people have to be attained to work in a team which have been stated as the organisation culture of collaborative management. In this culture each one has to work as a link in the chin having inter dependence among other members of organisation, it is in this culture that there is an integration between organisation’s adjective and individual’s goal by developing a reward system which supports achievement of organisation’s mission as well as an individual’s efforts towards personal development and achievement.
Change Agent
Change is effected by the change agent. The use by the behavioural scientist who may be called as change agent “catalyst or “facilitator Is an indispensable component of Organsational Development. The change agent is the pace setter and the instrument to bring about change.
Action Research
An action research programme is based on the diagnostic approach. Some of the tools and techniques which have been successfully used In OD are laboratory training, team building. Job enrichment, organisational confrontation meetings, improving inter-departmental relationship, and including internal growth and change. 10.4 Characteristics of Organisation Development
The characteristics of organisation development may be discussed in the light of the conceptual analyses of Organisation Development. Warron G. Bennis has given two approaches to Organisation Development to comprehend the concept of OD. This comprehension will help analysing the characteristics of OD. Let us therefore, discuss these approaches and then discuss the characteristics. These approaches are (i) Traditional and (ii) Modern.
The development of human resources or management of change may be tackled traditionally taking the following into account:

(i)    exposition andpropagation,

(ii)    elite corps,

(iii)    human relationstraining

(iv)    staff,

(v)    scholarly consultations,

(vi)    circulation of Ideas

(vii)    development research, and

(viii)    action research
The characteristics of OD may be summarised as follows :

(1)    Focus on the whole organisation
OD implies a total change, a comprehensive change.” This change has to be planned for keeping in view the economic, social and technological factors. OD incorporates a comprehensive programme to enforce needed change in all me components of organisation in such a manner that it is capable of facing any eventuality consequent to multidimensional change in national and intimations, settings which pose new challenges to the organisation to achieve its objective of growth and development within the framework of broader social objectives.

(2)    Use of System Approach
Since the totality or integrated approach is the genesis of organisation development, it will be useful to consider the use of system approaches.
Every organisation is comprising the interdependent sub-system. They are :

(i)    Structural Design;

(ii)    Work Flow ;and

(iii)    Human Behaviour
Structures design includes (a) R & D (b) Engineering (c) manufacturing (d) Marketing etc.
Work flow includes (a) information flow, (b) material flow, (c) order flow, etc.
The human behaviour to apt is include (a) individuals, (b) groups, (c) inter-group relationship, (d) organisation relationship.

(3)    Use of Change Agent
The use of change agent is also considered necessary. Change are mostly outsiders but they may also be those in power. Change agents occasionally outside consultants are appointed by managers to advise, oversee or even initiate change.
The change agents, the above statement reveals, may be outsiders as well as insiders. Among the outsiders consultants may be the primary change agents. The external change agents more often may not function on their own. They may have to work in association with in house change agent - the management and Personnel Directors. In this why management, i.e., different department heads, may also work as change agents to bring about the required development. The personnel Directors apart from working as e departmental head and its change agent also acts as a coordinator between the internal and external change agents.

(4)    Problem-Solving
Problem-solving is the real task of change agents. Apart from suggesting overall improvements in the organisation, their main task relates to solving specific problems at work. Whether it to be the problem of quality, cost, machine break downs or production, marketing or finance, it has to be identified, specific terms and action plan implemented in such a manner that the problem is removed and the efficiency of organisation is improved. To be more specific, the emphasis is on problem solving rather than discussing it as in the classroom, it is action research which is effected in the process of finding solution to the problems in relation to on-going activities. The action research may provide feedback to guard against similar problems coming up before the organisation.

(5)    Experimental Learning
There is less emphasis on the onising as issue in organisational development as pointed out earlier. Whatever modification is required to effected in work behaviour of an individual it has to be processed through training environment. In other words, training is imparted in the actual working conditions where the participants learn by experience. His supervisor/trainers will provide necessary instructions on the projects on which he has been put if a worker wants to acquire efficiency on a particular machine, he will be put to experimental learning and then given the job independently.

(6)    Group Processes
OD relies on group processes. In group, there may be group discussion on the issues which are common to ogranisation. Wherever any group exists there may be confrontations, etc. Conflict and even inter-group conflict may be solved in an atmosphere of open communication system to enable the conflicting individuals or groups to discuss things on merit, thrash out the issues and arrive at the solution, which is acceptable by others as rational and appropriate. The interaction should be free and frank and should not be taken personal because most problems pertain to organisation individuals should be amenable to reasoning and prepared to accept things on merit. This inter-action will help to clarify much of the misunderstandings which provide basis for interpersonal conflicts.

10.5 Need For Organisation Development.
The need for organisation development may be discussed under two heads :

(1)    Reasons for the use of OD and

(2)    Goals to be achieved.

(1)    Reasons for the Use of OD
The basic reason for adopting OD techniques by organisations is to improve the overall organisational effectiveness. In other words the organisational effectiveness is adversely affected by the following factors:

i.    Inter-unit conflict

ii.    Problems of management of change

iii.    Inefficient organisational structure, and

iv.    Lack of team work
OD depends on the success with which the organisation manager change. The method of change is through or cup decision-making and group solving approaches similarly on the discussion approach and laboratory training approach and also utilised to effect change.

(2)    Goals to be Achieved.
The often reasons for OD is to achieve the desired goals. The effectiveness of the organisation may be increased by taking the following steps:

i.    Creating a sense of ownership of the organisation among members of the group.

ii.    Planning & implementing design Which are drawn systematically.

iii.    Facilitating more systematic problem-solving on the job.

iv.    Conflict among people ought to be handled openly rather than in directly or unilaterally.

v.    Quality of decision can improve where decisions are made on the basis of competence rather than organizational role or status.

vi.    A programme of performance appraised and follow-up should be devised to facilitate the goal of organizational effectiveness.
OD is a Data-based Approach to Planned Change :
A data-based model, the action research model, underlines sound OD programmes and is a significance facet of the nature of organisation development. The data-based nature of organisation development has some features that distinguish it from other-data-based change activities. First, strong emphasis is placed on the value of data in the OD process, perhaps stronger than that is most change programmes. Second, in QQ programmes, specific kinds of data are preferred over other. For example, data about the organisations human and social process would usually be used more than technical data, financial data, market information, and the like. Third, In OD programmes the data usually “belong to and are used by the people who generated them. Fourth, the contradictory data or the discrepancy are viewed as “suggests” rather than as nuisances in OD programmes. Fifth, in OD programmes, feeling toward ‘Facts’ tend to shift from viewing facts as either “good” or “bad” to looking at the consequences or functionality of the facts. Sixth, point is that in OD programmes data tend to be used as aids to problem solving rather than as “clubs” to enforce certain behaviours. As a final note the data used in the OD process item from the stated needs and problems of the system, members, that is, they are data to supply answers to Central needs of the organisation and its members.
OD is Experience Based
The experience- based nature of the CD process derives from an underlying belief of most OD practitioners that people team how to do things by doing them. And they loam about organisational dynamics by experiencing them and reflecting on the experience. These beliefs are based on tenets of the laboratory training movement. People learn about the need to manage conflict when they experience the deleterious effects of conflict, people team to make decision by making some and then evaluating them. When people are enganged in real experiences, they are engaged with their minds, emotions, separation and their whole beings. Then are no artificial separation ingenerated, say, by memorizing something so that at some future time one may act in a certain way.

10.6 OD Process
OD is a multi-dimensional subject which oversees the organisation as a whole. The entire process may take about one year and even more to complete the working depending on the nature and size of organisation. The OD will include the following steps.

1)    Identification of the Problem

2)    Survey Design for Data Collection.

3)    Analysis of Feedback Data

4)    Problem Solving and Action Planning

5)    Team-Building

6)    Inter-Group Development

7)    Performance Appraisal and Follow -up

1.    Identification of the Problem
The management consultant, either in service or on contractual assignment, will study in detail the problem of the organisation and suggest an OD programme in consultation with top management. The consultant may adopt the technique of opinion survey by consaving with the people working in different departments of the organisation.

2.    Survey Design for Data Connection
The consultants may design a survey programme to collect reliable data by personally contacting people in the organisation to comprehend organisational climate, behavioural problems and the stresses and strains on job effectiveness. In order to get a tree and frank response from the employees, the consultants may prefers to contact them at the work place either individually or even collusively in groups.

3.    Analysis of Feedback Data.
The data, so collected will provide the requisite feed back to consultants to suggest an appropriate OD programme for the organisation. Before actually using the data, it will be appropriate if the data la properly processed and presented for purpose of discussion among the members of the groups including those who were interviewed. This will provide an opportunity to those interviewed to know if their views were properly recorded and presented. In the event of any difference between what was stated and what was recorded, they may point out the deviation which may be rectified. Further, such a discussion will also benefit the consultants to change to be suggested by them.

4.    Problem Solving and Action Planning
The data so collected is used by the group to suggest a suitable action plan to solve the problems besides improving overall efficiency of their organisation. Plans are specific and concrete, they give all possible details regarding what action to be completed By whom and within what time so that all possibilities of misunderstanding, loopholes and then channels of wastages are plugged.

5.    Team-Building
Every action plan requires systematic and whole-hearted contribution of each member of the group including superiors and subordinates.

6.    Inter-Group Development
Once the groups start functioning as a team it means the group have developed a scientific outlook and scienthe behaviour pattern which are based on premises or rational human behaviour. After this step it becomes much easier to forge inter-group harmony and in turn inter-group development wm- permeate the whole organisation which will be helpful to accelerate the process of organizational development.

7.    Performance Appraisal and Follow-up
The OD programme suggested by the consultants is actually implemented. The consultants help the organisation to make a performance appraisal of the programme implemented. This appraisal may provide the basis to improve the existing position further so as to develop additional programmes to obtain the desired results.

10.7 OD TECHNIQUES
OD techniques may be divided under two broad heads : (i) Laboratory and (ii) Non-Laboratory. Among laboratory techniques mention may be made of:

(a)    Sensitivity training or “T” Group Training, and

(b)    The Managerial Grid.
Among the non-laboratory techniques mention may be made of the following :

(a)    Survey feedback

(b)    Process consultation

(c)    Third party peace-making.

(d)    Team building; and

(e)    Others Techno-Structure Intervention
Following objectives have been given by Leyland Bradford, Tack - R Gibb and Kenneth Benn.

(1)    To make trainers sensitive to emotional reactions and expression in themselves and others.

(2)    The participants sharpen their ability to perceive and to learn the implementation of their actions in the process of drawing their attention in their own or others feelings.

(3)    To stimulate and develop personal values and goals which are commensurate to social goals-and scientific methods of personal decision making.

(4)  To develop scientific attitude to-lacking future situations.
T-Group programme improves the communication skill of the participants. It helps the trainee to learn through listing. Sensitivity training helps the participants to work as a team in addition to acquiring the skills of a leader if needed.
The Managerial Grid : The grid is the framework of 81 squares which styles of behaviour can be plotted op the X-axis is plotted the ‘Concern for production’ and on Y-axis the ‘Concern for people.’ The grid has been designed by Robert R. Binke and Jene Boygley Moutor. A cranger has to have two things in his mind ; (i) work and (ii) people who do the work.
Team Building : Team Building is an effective OD Techniques which has been discussed earlier also, it requires members to;

(i)    learn thoroughly about himself.

(ii)    know and to respect the sentiments of Others

(iii)    learn the principle of mutually and reciprocity in his behaviours with others; and group objects.

(iv)    learn to subordinate personal objects to groups objects
In short, the synoptic view of OD intervention techniques as summarised by W. Helser are given below:

1.    Team-Building

2.    MBO

3.    System Analysis

10.8    Summary
An OD programme applies to scientific and practice principles from several behavioural sciences, social psychology, social anthropology, sociology, economics and political science. The OD practitioners is simply translating what is known about people and organisation as found in behaviour science knowledge into applicable programmes of action of fact this section couldn’t be titled, OD, because we wish to show that OD
is not mysterious and magical spell cast upon an organisation by the incarnations of a behavioural scientists change agent.

10.9    Self Check Exercise

a.    O.D. Concept, characteristics of O.D.

b.    Need for O.D., O.D. Techniques

c.    O.D. Process in the organisation

10.10    Glossary
O.D.                : It is a long range attempt to improve on organisation’s ability with; change in
environment, to improve internal problem solving abilities.
O.D. Elements : Focus on the whole organisation, Focus on structural design, Focus on human behaviour, and a change agent, Problem solving agent and it is overall a Group process.

10.11    Answer to self check exercise
To see

a. 10.2, 10.4          b. 10.5        c. 10.610.12    Suggesting Reading

1.    L.M. Parsad, “Organisational Behaviour”

2.    S.L. Goel “Personnel Administrations and Management”

10.13    Terminal Questions

1.    What is O.D.? Discuss its characteristics.

2.    Discuss the need of O.D. Programmes. What are it techniques?
*****
CHAPTER-11
JOB ANALYSIS
Structure

11.0 Learning Objectives

11.1    Introduction

11.2    Principles of Organisation

11.3    Organisational Analysis

11.4    Need for Organisational Analysis

11.5    Tools and Techniques of Organisational Analysis

11.6    Job Analysis

11.7    Job Analysis Method

11.8    Functional Job Analysis

11.9    Purpose of Job Analysis

11.10    Summary

11.11    Self Check Exercise

11.12    Glossary

11.13    Answer to self check exercise

11.14    Suggesting Reading

11.15    Terminal Questions

11.0 Learning Objectives: After learning this lesson the students will be able to know

-    The Organisation and its principles

-    The Organisational Analysis and its needs

-    Techniques of Organisational Analysis

-    The concept of Job Analysis

-    The function of Job Analysis

-    The purpose of Job Analysis

11.1    Introduction
One cannot think of man without an organisation. He is a member of one or the other organisation. What is an organisation? Organisation is a group of persons interacting with one another and pooling their efforts towards a common goal/goals, Edgar H. Schein defined an organisation as “the rational coordination of the activities of a number of people for the achievement of some common purpose or goal, through division of labour and functions and through an hierarchy or authority and responsibility.” Dale Yodes stated that organisation, “as a process as purposive and systematic assignment of functions, duties and responsibilities among members of a group or team, it defines the part that each member of an enterprise is expected to perform and the relations among those members...” In respect of organisation, we can say that:

i.    it always includes persons ?

ii.    these persons inter-act with one another in some form or the other.

iii.    these inter-actions can be described by some sort of a structure, delineating division of labour and functions and a hierarchy of authority and responsibility.

iv.    every member of the organisation has some personal objectives which are the reasons for his actions.

v.  Inter-actions among persons help achieve objective of the organisation, which may be different from,
but compatible with personal objective.

vi.    there are two types of organisations formal and informal. Formal organisation is one which has well defined structure that may describe the interrelationship of the people in the organisation and channel of communications. An informal organisation is one which develops spontaneously between and among individuals either to satisfy the purely social needs of the individuals or to bridge the gaps in the formal structure. Such organisation are loose, flexible, undefined and spontaneous. An informal organisation can exist within a formal organisation. An informal organisation can be converted into a formal one, when the structure, inter-relationships and activities are defined. On the other hand, a formal organisation can be become informal if the defined and structured relationship are not enforced and are replaced by new, unspecified and oose relationship.

11.2    Principles of Organisation
There are some generally accepted principles of a good organisation. These principles have been formulated after an intensive study of organisational patterns and behaviour over a period of time. They can, however, serve only as guidelines, keeping in view the situation and the environment in the organisation and also the internal and external pressures exerted on any organised activity. Some authors even deny them title of principles and call them only as proverbs.
Objectives Must be Clearly Defined
Clear Objectives lead to implementation. Every organisation has a mission and the persons working in the organisation must be aware of it These should be periodically reviewed and kept well-defined.
Related Activities Should be Together
Activities may be grouped according to purpose or objectives, functions, area, location, skills or specialised knowledge, processes, clientele or contacts, as far as possible, in many cases, these factors are inter-dependent. Possible grouping may be:-

i.    according to similarity in basic purpose or objective;

ii.    functional specialisation such as accounting purchasing, etc.; and

iii.    territorial considerations
Duties and Responsibilities Should be Clearly Demarcated
It is important that an executive/administrator knows the areas of his work and the nature of his responsibilities. Clear demarcation of responsibility tends to encourage initiative and resourcefulness. Besides, if an employee knows what is expected of him he not only becomes conscious of his duties and responsibilities, he also endeavours to discharge them.
Line and Staff Functions Should be Kept Separate.
There should be a clear division of line and staff functions. Line functions are concerned with the primary objectives for which an organisation exists. It is a chain-in-command. it is vitally concerned with the policy formulation, the problem of organising and coordinating with finances, personnel and public relations and those charged with it have a direct responsibility for accomplishing the main objectives of the organisation.
Literally, staff means a stick on which one can lean for support but which can neither initiate nor decide one’s movements. It makes preparations for the executive’s decisions but does not itself decide, it does not exercise authority or command, but only counsels and assists the line functionaries. It helps the line to work more effectively in realising the primary objectives of the organisation.
Sometimes the duties of line and staff overlap resulting in misunderstanding of specific authorities and responsibilities. This can be avoided by keeping line and staff functions separate and clearly defined.
The Number of supervisory Levels Should be the Minimum Necessary
It the number of levels is large, communications is impended or retarded; unity is jeopardized; and organisation tends to become slow moving and inflexible. Levels are best evolved through a critical examination of work and its decision making requirements. It has been found that for quick and effective execution, there should be one preparatory level and not more than two or three supervisory or decision-making levels.
There Should be a Proper Span of Control
It means span of attention which a supervisor pays to his subordinates. There are limits to human capacities. No officer, should have too many or too few subordinates under his immediate supervision. When a supervisor controls the work of a large number of subordinates, he is left with no time for planning, policy formulation and coordination; he cannot give adequate guidance to the worker; the quality of work suffers; and there is little or no effective supervision. On the other hand, when a supervisor has too few persons to supervise, it may do other may result in wastage of manpower; he may do other persons’ work; he may exercise too close a supervision resulting in too much interference; and workers may resent close attention by the supervisor. The proper span of control should be decided on the basis of the following factors:

(i)    personality of the supervisor, i.e. the physical and Psychological make-up of the supervisor himself.

(ii)    nature of work;

(iii)    size of the organisation

(iv)    quality of subordinates:

(v)    geographic location; and
There Should be Unity of Command
No employee should receive definite orders on the same subject from more than one authority. Each individual in the organisation should receive definite instructions, whether functionally or administratively from one source. This is essential to ensure better and effective reporting and control, that there is no confusion and conflict and that there is no demoralizing effect on the workers.
There Should be a System of Proper Delegation of Authority
As an organisation grow, the decision making problems become complex and the need arises for proper allocation of authority. Operational challenges and problems arise at each level and must be met
efficiency and without loss of times Delegation is one of the main ways of allocation authority. Delegation of authority does not cannot transfer of final accountability, it helps in the effective use e various levels, development, of increase sense of responsibility in the workers leading to organizational development, increase in efficiency, effective control and economy in operation.
Some of the Guidelines for Proper delegation of authority are:

(i)    It should be specific and written down;

(ii)    It should be to the post and not to the person;

(iii)    there should be periodical review;

(iv)    It should have proper system of reporting (the delegating power); and

(v)    It should follow a well-defined procedures/policies.
Responsibility Should be Coupled with Authority:
Authority is the right to act take decisions without the obligation to consult others. Authority has two components; the right to command and the power to enforce. Responsibility is the accountability for all the omissions and commissions in carrying out the work. If the authority and responsibility are not properly matched, it is obviously impossible to expect harmonious relationships or to ensure accountability effectively. So each individual must have the authority commensurate with his assigned responsibility. Responsibility without authority leads to misert; and authority without responsibility can lead to tyranny.
There Should be an Effective and Sustained Pattern of Communication
The ability to organise, express and transmit ideas information, feeling etc. is a basic need of human existence. Communication is nervous system of an organisation. It is the blood stream of organisation. The essence of communication is not merely conveying information, but the ability and willingness to listen and to understand the interests and problems of people in the organisation. Effective communication should have clarity, should be timely, should be comprehensive, should be with the expectations of the recipient, and should be understandable.
Coordination
In any complex organisation, different components of the organisation have to work in coordination with each other to produce useful results. It is the adjustments of different components to each other, and of the movement and operation of component parts in time so that each make its maximum contribution and not lead to departmental jealousies and rivalries. On the other hand, coordination leads to efficiency, economy and healthy competition. Coordination is the process to ensure that all the parts of organisation pull together towards defined goals, without duplication, without gaps, without conflict and in time. In other words, it is integration of several parts of an organisation into an orderly whole to achieve the purpose of the whole organisation.
Centralisation Versus Decentralisation
It is often necessary to consider whether work should be centralised or decentralised. There are a number of potential advantages both for centralisation and decentralisation.
The Main Advantages of Centralisation are :

i.    The concentration of work may provide scope for staff economics and mechanization. Some
advantages may result in specilisation,

ii.    A tight control of efficiency, accounting and audit may be achieved at lower oost.

iii.    The total cost of administrative and managerial effort may be reduced.

iv.    Change in the work can be made more quickly.

v.    Equality of treatment is secured more easily.
The main potential advantages of decentralisation are

i.    Local circumstances can be taken into account in carrying put the work and making decisions.

ii.    Public relations may be improved, for the sense of remoteness is eliminated.

iii.    The effect of actions and decisions can be observed very quickly and corrective action taken if required.

iv.    Decisions can be taken more speedily

v.    The work may become more interesting and give greater scope for initiative.

vi.    The recruitment of staff may be easier.
When work is decentralised, particularly if it is decentralised to widely dispersed offices, visits various measures can be considered for making the arrangements effective:

(i)    The issue of interpretive statements of policy by headquarters or regional offices; visits by headquarters or regional officers, followed by conferences down the line, aimed at putting the local-official in a position to recognise the widest possible range of considerations and to settle of the issues involved on the spot.

(ii)    The issue of detailed instructions e.g., concerning the handling of cases.

(iii)    The reservation of decisions in particular type of cases to headquarters so as to enable headquarters to evaluate particular factors and determine trends.

(iv)    The standardisation of the staffing and organisation of local offices and the methods and technical processes used; the setting of quality and quantity standards and expectations of output, provision by local offices of reports, statistical data etc. which would show deviations from the standards laid down.

(v)    The establishment of an inspection force aimed at ensuring by audit or work survey that standards of accuracy, quantity and management are adequate.

(vi)    The giving of advice and direction at a central point in the organisations on questions arising locally Which cannot be settled there. The centres headquarters coordinates and harmonises policy interpretations for the country as a whole and deals with all question ,arising-locally which affect policy nationally.

(vii)    The provision of staff training at headquarters, or at regional offices.

(viii)    The reservation to headquarters of the launching, central progressing and control ofnew work, until accepted standards can be established.

11.3    Organisation Analysis
Organisation analysis means breaking up an organisation into its constituent parts, the structure of functions, duties and inter-relationship involved in an activity directed towards common goals. It is undertaken for the purpose of improving productive efficiency and according to Michael Armstrong’ mainly involved a study of the following.

i.    Objectives : To find out what they are and how clearly they are defined and understood at au levels.

ii.    Activities : To establish what work is done and what work needs to be done if all the activities required by the organisation to achieve its objectives are to be properly catered for.

iii.    Decisions : To discover where and by whom the key decisions are made and how work delegated and decentralised.

iv.    Relationship : To define what interactions and communications take place between people in the organisation so that an assessment can be made or the extent to which the though grouping of activities lines of communication and information systems facilitated effective management and co-ordination.

v.    Organisation Structure: To find out:

- how activities are grouped together;

-    the span of control of senior and middle managers (span of control is the number of subordinates reporting directly to one superior);

-    the number of levels in the management hierarchy.

vi.    Job Structure: To determine the content of individual jobs in terms of duties, responsibilities and authorities. The aim is to establish the degree to which tasks are logically and clearly allocated to job holders and to indicate whether they have been given sufficient responsibility , and authority and are quite clear about what they are expected to achieve.

vii.    Organisation Climate : To get a feel for the working atmosphere of the company with regard to teamwork and cooperation, commitment communication, creativity, conflict, resolution, participation and confidence and trust between people.

viii.    Management Style : To find out what sort of approach to management prevails in the organistion, especially at the top e.g., closed, authoritarian, open or democratic

ix.    Management: To establish the extent to which the existing organisation has been built around the personalities and strengths or weakness of the key people in it, the availability of the quality of people required to enable any necessary changes in the organisation structure to take place.

11.4    Need for Organisation Analysis
For Planning and Controlling an Activity:
Organisation analysis is required at the stage of planning as well as controlling an activity. At this planning stage it is useful for establishing sound and well defined objectives and in formulating adequate and harmoniously arranged structures of functions and individuals for achieving the prescribed objective a path, economy and efficiency. At the controlling stage, it can help management in evaluating and regulating the organisational structure to ensure that it ceaselessly serves the true overall aims of the enterprises.
Changes in the Objectives of the Enterprise :
All organisations have a purpose. They have objectives. One organisation may be concerned with the production of steel another may be engaged in preventing thefts or highway robberies. Sometimes the objectives of an organisation may be me same as those of its members e.g., in a cooperative society. But many times, the goals of an individual may be very different from those & the organisation. A manager or administrator has to somehow convert the successful achievement of organisational goals into ways and means which can be used to satisfy him employee. He has not only to see that goals of an organisation are met but he has also to ensure that this is turn, permits members of the organisation to realise their individual goals. Where the goals of an organisation and goals of individuals working in their are identical, no problem exists. Where these are different tre task can be challenging.
It is an Irony of administrative behaviour that an organisation has an inherent tendency towards instability as it is the victim of its own objective. As soon .as it makes progress towards accomplishment of its objective an organisation progressively loses its basic reason for existence. As it accomplishes its objectives it must either dissolve itself or find a new purpose. The situations are changing very fast and with fast changing situations, the organisations are also changing their objectives. Consequently, a continual analysis evaluation and evolution of organisational goals and objective is an incumbent requirement of administrative activity.
Change in the Method of Work
Even though methods of work laid down in rules and regulations of procedure may remain superficially static, they are actually under pressure for change due to modifications in the objectives, increasing demands from the public, variations in the availability of material, financial and human resources and fast developing science and technology. Any change in the methods of work will obviously have its repercussions on the organisational structure through which the activity is performed.
Change in the Qualifications and Qualities of the Personnel:
Organisations are groups of human beings and the structure has to be designed keeping in view the level of qualifications and qualities of personal available at a particular stage of social development. Any change in the internal external social environment of an organisation will necessarily create a situation in which analysis of the which analysis of the organizational structure may become necessary. Significant developments are taking place every day in the field of education and social behaviour in turn improving the qualifications and quality of personnel. Thus there is continuing need for rethinking about organisational structure at all levels.
Periodical Reviews of Organisational Structures:
In addition to ad-hoc reviews of organisational structures being conducted in the light of major changes in objectives, methods of work or qualifications and quality of personnel, periodical review of the structure, particularly at the time of considering proposals for additional staff can be helpful in detecting deficiencies or superfluities which may be affecting the effectiveness, efficiency and economy of the operation of the enterprise.

11.5    Tools and Techniques of Organisation Analysis.
As mentioned earlier, there are two types of organisation - formal and informal. It is obvious that the tools and techniques for the study of these two different types of organizations have to be different due to the 85
difference in the nature of the two types. Moreover, the respective tools and techniques to be used are likely to have different degrees of precision and effectiveness.
The tools and techniques to be used for the study of formal organisation as as follow:

(i)    Activity Lists : for analysis of the broad objectives of the organisation.

(ii)    Duty Lists : for analysing assignments of individual employees.

(iii)    Work Distribution Chart : for the study of work assignment made to individual employees within a single organisation/unit considered individually and as a group.

(iv)    Organisation Charts ) for analysis of the

(v)    Organisation Manuals) structure of the entire

(vi) Check Ust of
Principle of
Organisation

) organisation and of
) relationship among
) separate departments
(vii) Job Description for the Study of the Content and Requirements of individual Jobs.
Techniques of analysis of informal organisation are comparatively more difficult to design and operate due to complexity of factors involved. The more common used approaches are sociogram and the contractual survey.

11.6    JOB ANALYSIS
What is Job Analysis ?
A job analysis as a systematic exploration of the activities within a job. It is a basic technical procedure which is used to define the duties, responsibilities and accountabilities of a job. This analysis involves compiling a detailed description of tasks, determining the relationship of the job to technology and to other job and examining the knowledge, qualifications or employment standards accountabilities and other incumbent requirement. In recording these activities, we are simply gathering information. And while every job is multifaceted, we must confine our information gathering to specific job attributes. What are these attributes? The following figure depicts the hierarchy of information that the job analysis seeks. Figure: The Job Analysis Information Hierarchy


Task:          A task is a distinct work activity carried out for a distinct purpose. Example would include
typing a letter; preparing a lecture, or unloading a mail truck.
Duty:          A duty is a number of tasks counseling students is a duty of a college lecturer.
A general accounting clerk’s duties might include preparing the monthly income statement and distributing the weekly payroll cheques.
Position:       A position refers to one or more duties performed by one person in an organisation. There
are at least as many positions as th6re are workers in the organistation, Vacancies may create more positions than employees.
Job:           A job is a type of position within the organisation. If a large insurance company employs
sixty life insurance actuaries, then there are sixty positions, but just one life insurance actuary job.
Job family: A job family is a group of two or more jobs that either call for similar worker characteristics or contain parallel work tasks as determined by job analysis.
Occupation : An occupation is group of similar jobs found across organisations. Electrician, accountant, and service maintenance engineer are examples of occupations.
Career:         A career represents a sequence of positions, jobs, or occupations that a person has over his
or her working life.

11.7    Job Analysis Methods :
The methods that managers can use to determine job elements and the concomitant knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for successful performance include the following :

1.    Observation method : Using this method, a job analyst watches employees directly or reviews films of workers on the job. While the observation method provides first hand information, workers in many cases do not function most efficiently when they are being watched, This distortion in the job analysis may occur. This method also requires that the entire range of activities be observable, possible with some jobs, but impossible for many e.g., most managerial job.

2.    Individual Interview Method : Using this method, job incumbents are selected and extensively interview are combined into a single job analysis. This method is effective for assessing what job entails, but is very then consuming.

3.    Group-Interview Method : This method is similar to the individual interview method except that a number of job incumbents are interviewed simultaneously. Accuracy is increased in assessing jobs, but group dynamics may hinder its effectiveness.

4.    Structured Questionnaire Method : Using this method, workers are sent a structured questionnaire on which they check or rate items they perform on their job from a long list of possible task items. This technique is excellent for gathering information about jobs. However, exceptions to a job may be overlooked and feed back is often lacking.

5.    Technical Conference Method : This method utilize supervisors with extensive knowledge of the job. Here, specific characteristics of a job are obtained from the experts. Although a good data-gathering method, it often overlooks the incumbent workers perceptions about what they do on their job.

11.8    Functional Job Analysis
Functional job analysis was developed by the Department of Labour (DOL). This procedure describes what a worker does by having someone observe and interview the employee. This information is then catalogued into three general functions that exist in all jobs-data, people, and things.
Position Analysis Questionnaire
Developed by researchers at Purdue University, the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) generates job requirement information that is applicable to all types of jobs, but in contrast to the DOL approach, it presents a more Quantitative and finely tuned description of jobs.
The PAQ, allows management to scientifically and quantitatively group inter-related job elements into job dimensions. This in turn, allows job to be compared with each other and similar job to be clustered into job families. Of course, the major use of this information is to develop job description and job specifications and to conduct job evaluation.

11.9    Purpose of Job Analysis
The job analysis is the conceptual, analytical process or action from which we develop our tangible out comes : jobs description, job specifications and job Valuation.
Job Description :
A job description is a written statement of what the job holder does, how it is done, and why it is done. It should accurately portray job content, environment and conditions of employment. A common format for a job description includes the job title, the duties to be performed, the distinguishing characteristics of the job and the authority and responsibilities of the job holder when we discuss employee recruitment, selection and appraisal, we will find that the job description acts as an important resource for (1) describing the job (2) guiding newly hired employees in what they are specifically expected to do, and (3) providing a post of compression in appraising whether the actual activities of a job incumbent align with the stated duties.
Job Evaluation :
In addition to providing data for job descriptions and specifications job analysis is also valuable in providing the information that makes comparison of job possible. If an organisation is to have an equitable compensation programme, job that have similar demands in terms of skills, education and other personal characteristic should be placed in common compensation job evaluation contributes toward that end by Specifying the relative value of each job in the organisation. Job evaluation therefore, is an important part of compensation administration.

11.10    Summary
Job Analysis and organisational analysis is required at the stage of planning as well as controlling an activity. At the planning stage, it is useful for establishing sound as well as defined objectives and in formulating adequate goals for economy and efficiency. A job analysis as a systematic exploration of the activities within a job. It is a basic technical procedure which is used to define the duties, responsibilities and accountabilities of a job.

11.11    Self Check Exercise

a.    Need for organisational analysis.

b.    Job analysis methods, techniques; purpose of job analysis

11.12    Glossary
Job Evaluation           : It is an important part of compensation administration.
Job Analysis               : It is a systematic exploration of the activities within a job.
Organisational Analysis : It means breaking up an organisation into its constituent parts.

11.13    Answer to Self Check Exercise
To see
a. 11.4         b. 11.6, 11.7, 11.811.14    Suggesting Reading

1.    L.M. Parsad, “Organisational Behaviour”

2.    S.L. Goel “Personnel Administrations and Management”

11.15    Terminal Questions

1.    What is Organisational Analysis? Discuss the need of Organisational Analysis.

2.    Discuss Job Analysis. What are its Methods and Functions?
*****
CHAPTER-12EXECUTIVE DEVELOPMENT- CONCEPT, PROCESS AND TECHNIQUES OF EXECUTIVE DEVELOPMENT
Structure

12.0 Learning Objectives

12.1    Introduction

12.2    Objective of Executive Development

12.3    Importance of Executive Development

12.4    The Process

12.5    Summary

12.6    Self Check Exercise

12.7    Glossary

12.8    Answer to Self Check Exercise

12.9    Suggesting Reading

12.10    Terminal Questions

12.0 Learning Objectives: After going through this lesson the students will be able to know

-    The concept of Executive Development.

-    The importance of Executive Development.

-    The process of Executive Development.

12.1    Introduction
“While drawing a distinction between training and development, we introduced, in brief, the concept of development. Based on that concept, we can now elaborate it in more detail. The term ‘development’ implies overall development in a person. Accordingly, executive development means not only improvement in job performance, but also improvement in knowledge, personality, attitude, behaviourism of an executive, etc.
It means that executive development focuses more on the executive’s personal growth. Thus, executive development consists of all the means that improve his/her performance and behaviour. Executive development helps, understand cause and effect relationship, synthesizes from experience, visualizes relationships or thinks logically. That is why some behavioural scientists suggest that the executive development is predominantly an educational process rather than a training process.
Flippo has viewed that “executive/management development includes the process by which managers and executives acquire not only skills and competency in their present jobs but also capabilities for future managerial tasks of increasing difficulty and scope”.
According to S.B. Budhiraja, former Managing Director of Indian Oil Corporation. “Any activity designed to improve the performance of existing managers and to provide for a planned growth of managers to meet future organisational requirements is called management development”. It is now clear from the above definitions of executive/management development that it is based on certain assumptions.

12.2    Objectives of Executive Development:
The main objectives of any programme of executive development are to:

1.    Improve the performance of managers at all levels.

2.    Identify the persons in the organisation with the required potential and prepare them for higher positions in future.

3.    Ensure availability of required number of executives / managers succession who can take over in case of contingencies as and when these arise in future.

4.    Prevent obsolescence of executives by exposing them to the latest concepts and techniques in their respective areas of specialisation.

5.    Replace elderly executives who have risen from the ranks by highly competent and academically qualified professionals.

6.    Improve the thought processes and analytical abilities.

7.    Provide opportunities to executives to fulfill their career aspirations.

8.   Understand the problems of human relations and improve human relation skills.

12.3    Importance of Executive Development:
Executives, or say, managers manage/run organisations. It is managers who plan, organise, direct and control the resources and activities in every organisation. An organisation is like a vehicle of which managers are drivers. Without competent managers, other valuable resources such as men, material, machine, money, technology and others remain of not much significance for the organisation. Thus, managers are a vital cog in the success of any organisation. That’s why executive/ management development has become indispensable to modem organisations.
The importance of executive development is appreciated in more orderly manner in the succeeding paragraphs:

1.    Change in organisations has become sine quo non with rapid changes in the total environment. A manager, therefore, requires to be imparted training to abreast of and cope with on-going changes in his / her organisation. Otherwise, the manager becomes obsolete. In this context. Dale Yoder views that “without training, the executives lose their punch and drive and they die on the vine. Training and development are the only ways of overcoming the executive dropouts”.

2.    With the recognition that managers are made not born, there has been noticeable shift from owner managed to professionally managed enterprises, even in family business houses like Tata. That is also indicated by the lavish expenditure incurred on executive training by most of the enterprises these days.

3.    Given the knowledge era, labour management relations are becoming increasingly complex. In such situation, managers not only need job skills but also behavioural skills in union negotiations, collective bargaining, grievance reddresal, etc. These skills are learned through training and development programmes.

4.    The nature and number of problems change along with increase in the size and structure of enterprise from small to large. This underlines the need for developing managerial skills to handle the problems of big, giant and complex organisations.
Inaugurating the Tata Management Training Centre at Pune in 1965, Mr. J.R.D Tata extolled the importance of management training in these words.
“Trained managers are vital to the economic development of the country... This business of executive development has been one of the most crucial, essential end, at the same time, one of the most difficult elements in providing continuity and efficient management”.
As regards the importance of management development, the renowned behavioural scientist Peter Drucker opines that, “an institution that cannot produce its own managers will die. From an overall point of view, the ability of an institution to produce managers is more important than its ability to produce goods efficiently and cheaply”. In short, the importance of executive/management development in an organisation can best be put as: anything minus management development in an organisation mounts to nothing.

12.4    The process:
Like any learning programme, executive development also involves a process consisting of certain steps.
A Dasgupta has given the level-wise objectives of the executive/ management development as follows:

(a)    Top Management:

1.    To improve thought processes and analytical ability in order to uncover and examine problems and take decisions in the best interests of the country and organisation;

2.    To broaden the outlook of the executive in regard to his role, position and responsibilities in the organisation and outside;

3.   To think through problems this may confront die organisation now or in the future.

4.   To understand economic, technical and institutional forces in order to solve business problems; and

5.    To acquire knowledge about the problems of human relations.

(b)    Middle Line Management:

1.    To establish a clear picture of executive functions and responsibilities;

2.   To bring about an awareness of the broad aspects of management problems, and an acquaintance
with and appreciation of interdepartmental relations.

3.    To develop the ability to analyse problems and to take appropriate action;

4.    To develop familiarity with the managerial use of financial accounting, psychology, business statistics;

5.    To inculcate knowledge of human motivation and human relationships; and

6.    To develop responsible leadership.

(c)    Middle Functional Executives and Specialists:

1.   To increase knowledge of business fractions and operations in specific fields in marketing production,
finance, personnel;

2.   To increase proficiency in management techniques such as work study, inventory control, operations
research, quality control;

3.    To stimulate creative thinking in order to improve methods and procedures.

4.   To understand the functions performed in a company;

5.   To understand industrial relations problems; and

6.    To develop the ability to analyse problems in one’s area or functions.
These steps, also called the components of the executive development programme, have been discussed in the succeeding paragraphs.
Identifying Development Needs:
Once the launching of an executive development programme (EDP) is decided, its implementation begins with identifying the developmental needs of the organisation concern. For this, first of, all, the present and future developmental needs for executives/ managers ascertained by identifying how many and what type of executives will be required -in -the organisation at present and in future. This needs to be seen in the context of organisational qs well as individual, i.e. manager needs. While organisational needs may be identified by making organisational analysis in terms of organisation’s growth plan, strategies, competitive environment, etc., individual needs to be identified by the individual career planning and appraisal.
Appraisal of Present Managerial Talent:
The second step is an appraisal of the present managerial talent for the organisation. For this purpose, a qualitative assessment of the existing executives/managers in the organisation is made. Then, the performance of every executive is compared with the standard expected of him.
Inventory of Executive Manpower:
Based on information gathered from human resource planning, an inventory is prepared to have complete information about each executive in each position. Information on the executive’s age, education, experience, health record, psychological test results, performance appraisal data, etc. is collected and the same is maintained, on cards and replacement tables.
An analysis of such inventory shows the strengths and also discloses the deficiencies and weaknesses of the executives in certain functions relative to the future needs of the concern organisation. From this executive inventory, we can begin the fourth stpp involved in the executive development process.
Developing Development Programmes:
Having delineated strengths and weaknesses of each executive, the development programmes are tailored to fill in the deficiencies of executives. Such tailor-made programmes of development focus on individual needs such as skill development, changing attitudes, and knowledge acquisition.
Conducting Development Programmes:
At this stage, the manager actually participates in development programmes. It is worth mentioning that no single development programme can be adequate for all managers. The reason is that each manager has a unique set of physical, intellectual and emotional characteristics.
As such, there can be different development programmes to uniquely suit to the needs of an executive/ manager. These development programmes may be on-the-job or off-the-job programmes organised either by the organisation itself or by some outside agencies.
Evaluating Development Programmes:
Just as with employee training programme, executive development programme is evaluated to see changes in behaviour and executive performance. Evaluation of programme enables to appraise programme’s effectiveness, highlight its weaknesses and aids to determine whether the development should be continued or how it can be improved.
Methods:
Since no single development programme can be adequate for managers, it is undertaken in a variety of methods. Various methods/ techniques of executive/management development may be classified into two broad categories.

12.5    Summary
Executives, managers run organisations. It is managers who plan, organise, direct and control the resources and activities of an organisation. An organisation is like a vehicle to which managers are drivers. Without competent managers, other valuable resources such as man, material, technology remain nonsignificant for the organisation. Thus managers are a vital cog in the success of organisation. That is why, Executive Development/management development programmes are of paramount significance for the organisation growth and development.

12.6    Self Check Exercise

a.    Concept and objective of Executive Development.

b.    Importance and process of Executive Development programmes.

12.7    Glossary
Executive Development                     :  Executive run the organisation.
Managers                                  :  Who manages, plan, organise, direct and control
the resources and activities in every organisation.
Stages of Management in the organisation : Top management, Middle management and lower level management.

12.8    Answer to Self Check Exercise

a, 12.2
b.12.3, 12.4

12.9    Suggesting Reading

1.    S.L. Goel “Personnel Administrations and Management”

2.    L.M. Parsad, “Organisational Behaviour”

12.10    Terminal Questions
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Assignment
Attempt any four questions out of the followings:
Q.1 Discuss Time Management. What are its techniques?

Q.2    What is work-study and work management? What are its importance to the organisation?

Q.3    What is stress? What are its various causes? How stress effects the organisational effectiveness?

Q.4 What are the various approaches to stress management?

Q.5    What do you know by the Globalisation? Discuss Globalisation challenges to PublicAdministration.

Q.6 What is Management Information System (MIS)? What are the essentials of goof information system?

Q.7 Discuss O and M. What are its objectives? What are the essentials of O and M? Also discuss its functions.

Q.8 What do you know by MBO? Discuss its importance to the organisation. How MBO techniques can be applied to Public Administration?

Q. 9 Discuss Executive development programmes. What are its importance?
Q.10 What is O.D.? Discuss its characteristics. What are the need of OD programmes for the organisation? Also define its techniques.
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