--- title: "Complete Book 0" book: "M.A. MENG 104" category: "General" publisher: "Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd." type: "Educational Material" --- According to Latest Syllabus Read For Sure Success In University Examination RATAN TEXT BOOK NINETEENTH CENTURY FICTION M.A.English (Sem-I) Dr. Ashma Khan Published by Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd. 2nd Floor, Centre Plaza, Parinay Kunj, Lajpat Kunj Marg, Agra-282002 Copyright Authors & Publishers Published by Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd. 2nd Floor, Centre Plaza, Parinay Kunj, Lajpat Kunj Marg, Agra-282002 ISBN :978-81-69604-26-0 Price 364.00 only Printed at : KIDS INTERNATIONAL PVT. LTD. C-60, 61, 62, 63, EPIP, Shastripuram, Agra - 282007 Ph. : +91 9719004921 Unit-1 A Brief Introduction to the Bronte Sisters Structure 1.1    Introduction 1.2    Learning Objectives 1.3    Bronte Sisters Self-Check Exercise-I 1.4    Summary 1.5    Glossary 1.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise 1.7    References/Suggested Readings 1.8    Terminal Questions 1.1    Introduction The Brontë sisters—Charlotte, Emily, and Anne—are towering figures in English literature, known for their ground breaking novels that continue to captivate and inspire readers and scholars alike. Born in the early 19th century in Thornton, Yorkshire, the sisters faced a series of personal tragedies that deeply influenced their writing. Their works, characterized by passionate storytelling and profound exploration of the human condition, have earned a lasting place in literary history. This chapter delves into their lives, literary achievements, and the enduring legacy of their contributions to the world of literature. 1.2    Learning Objectives Dear students this Unit will make you aware of the Bronte sisters of the Nineteenth Century. The section will give a comprehensive view of the Bronte sisters importance in the Nineteenth century. 1.3    Life and Career A.    Early Lives and Family Background Charlotte Brontë was born on April 21, 1816, followed by Emily on July 30, 1818, and Anne on January 17, 1820. They had two other sisters, Maria and Elizabeth, who died young, and a brother, Branwell. Their father, Patrick Brontë, was an Anglican clergyman appointed as the rector of Haworth, a village on the Yorkshire moors. After the death of their mother in 1821, their Aunt Elizabeth moved in to help care for the family. The children’s education was a priority for Patrick, who believed that proper education was crucial for their future prospects. The Brontë siblings often entertained themselves with storytelling and imaginative games, laying the foundation for their future literary endeavors. B.    Literary Beginnings and Personal Struggles The Brontë sisters' literary journey began early, inspired by their isolated upbringing and vivid imaginations. They were first published under pseudonyms—Currer (Charlotte), Ellis (Emily), and Acton (Anne) Bell—in a volume of poetry in 1846. Although it sold only two copies, the sisters did not abandon their literary ambitions. By 1845, the family was reUnited in Haworth, where they faced the deteriorating health and addictions of their brother Branwell. This period saw the creation of some of their most significant works. C.    Major Works and Themes Charlotte’s "Jane Eyre," published in 1847, quickly became one of the year’s bestsellers, known for its strong, complex heroine and exploration of social and gender issues. Anne’s "Agnes Grey" (1847) and "The Tenant of Wildfell Hall" (1848) addressed themes of women’s independence and the impact of alcoholism, reflecting her personal experiences. Emily’s Wuthering Heights (1847), initially met with mixed reviews, is now hailed as one of the greatest novels in English literature. Set on the Yorkshire moors, it portrays the intense and troubled relationship between Heathcliff and the Earnshaw family, challenging Victorian norms with its raw depiction of mental and physical cruelty, including domestic violence. D.    Emily Brontë’s Legacy Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights stands out for its innovative narrative structure and dark, gothic elements. Her intense emotional and artistic attachment to the Yorkshire moors is evident in her work, blending Romanticism and gothic fiction. Emily’s poetry, much of it inspired by the fictional kingdom of Gondal she created with Anne, showcases her spiritual and mystical inclinations. Despite her reclusive nature and brief life, Emily’s legacy as a mystical and profound literary figure endures. E.    Later Years and Charlotte’s Continued Success After Emily’s death in 1848 and Anne’s in 1849, Charlotte remained the sole surviving Brontë sister. She continued to write, producing "Shirley" (1849) and "Villette" (1853), both of which further solidified her literary reputation. Charlotte’s marriage to Arthur Nicholls in 1854 and her subsequent death in 1855 marked the end of the Brontë literary era. However, her contributions, along with those of her sisters, had already made a significant impact on English literature. F.    Lasting Legacy and Influence The Brontë sisters ushered in a new period of literary expression, blending gothic elements with Romanticism and exploring themes of passion, morality, and social constraints. Their works challenged the status quo and opened up new possibilities for female writers. The emotional depth and innovative narrative techniques in their novels have inspired countless adaptations and continue to resonate with modern readers. Their ability to weave personal experiences with imaginative storytelling has ensured their place as seminal figures in literary history. Self-Check Exercise-I Q 1 How did the early deaths of Maria and Elizabeth Brontë influence the surviving siblings' writing and familial dynamics? Q 2 In what ways did Aunt Elizabeth Branwell's strict Calvinist beliefs impact the Brontë sisters' upbringing and later literary themes? Q 3 What were the specific educational experiences of Charlotte, Emily, and Anne Brontë, and how did these experiences shape their writing careers? Q 4 How did Branwell Brontë's struggles with addiction and eventual death affect the psychological and creative states of his sisters? Q 5 What were the circumstances and impacts of Charlotte Brontë's visits to Brussels on her personal and professional life? 1.4    Summary The Brontë sisters' lives and works reflect a unique blend of personal hardship, creative genius, and literary innovation. Despite their short lives, they produced some of the most enduring and influential novels in English literature. Their legacy, marked by a profound understanding of human nature and a fearless exploration of social issues, continues to captivate and inspire readers and scholars around the world. The Brontës not only shaped the gothic novel but also paved the way for future generations of writers, ensuring their place among the greats of English literature. 1.5    Glossary •    Addicted: Having a physical or mental dependence on a substance. •    Anglican: Relating to the Church of England. •    Anecdotes: Short, interesting stories about real incidents or people. •    Bereavements: The state of losing a loved one through death. •    Calvinist: Adhering to the Protestant theological system of John Calvin, emphasizing predestination and the sovereignty of God. •    Charity: An organization set up to provide help and raise money for those in need. •    Clergyman: A male priest, minister, or religious leader, especially a Christian one. •    Concession: Something that is granted in response to demands. •    Curate: A member of the clergy engaged as an assistant to a vicar, rector, or parish priest. •    Depiction: The action of describing or portraying something, especially in art or literature. •    Entranced: Filled with wonder and delight. •    Evangelical: Of or according to the teaching of the gospel or the Christian religion. •    Fortitude: Courage in pain or adversity. •    Governess: A woman employed to teach children in a private household. •    Heroic: Having the characteristics of a hero or heroine; very brave. •    Imaginary: Existing only in the imagination. •    Isolation: The process or fact of isolating or being isolated. •    Mainstream: The ideas, attitudes, or activities that are regarded as normal or conventional. •    Manuscript: A handwritten or typed document, especially a writer's first version of a book before it is published. •    Moors: Open, uncultivated land with poor soil covered mainly with heather, characteristic of certain upland areas. 1.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-Check Exercise-I Ans 1. The early deaths of Maria and Elizabeth Brontë had a profound influence on the surviving Brontë siblings. Maria and Elizabeth both died of tuberculosis after experiencing harsh conditions at the Clergy Daughters' School at Cowan Bridge. Their deaths led to a deep sense of loss and trauma within the family, which heavily influenced the remaining siblings' writing and personal dynamics.Writing Influence: The traumatic experiences at Cowan Bridge, combined with the loss of their elder sisters, found their way into the Brontë sisters' literary works. Charlotte, in particular, used the experiences as inspiration for Lowood School in "Jane Eyre," portraying it as a place of severe hardship and suffering, much like the actual school they attended. Familial Dynamics: The deaths brought the remaining siblings closer together, fostering a strong bond and a sense of shared isolation. They spent more time together, creating complex imaginary worlds like Angria and Gondal, which helped them cope with their grief and loneliness. This closeknit environment also fostered a collaborative yet competitive spirit among them, driving each to refine their storytelling and literary skills. Ans 2. Aunt Elizabeth Branwell's strict Calvinist beliefs played a significant role in the upbringing of the Brontë sisters and influenced some of the themes in their later literary works.Upbringing: Aunt Branwell's strictness and religious fervor instilled a sense of discipline and moral rigor in the Brontë children. Her influence was especially felt in their education and daily routines, emphasizing piety, duty, and selfdiscipline.Literary Themes: The Calvinist backdrop is evident in the moral and spiritual struggles depicted in the Brontës' novels. For example, themes of sin, redemption, and the individual's relationship with God are prominent in their works. Charlotte's "Jane Eyre" and Anne's "The Tenant of Wildfell Hall" explore the consequences of moral choices and the quest for spiritual and personal redemption. Emily's Wuthering Heights delves into the darker aspects of human nature, with a stark portrayal of sin and retribution. Ans 3. The Brontë sisters had varied educational experiences that significantly shaped their writing careers. Charlotte Brontë: Charlotte attended several schools, including the Clergy Daughters' School at Cowan Bridge, Roe Head School, and later studied in Brussels. Her negative experiences at Cowan Bridge influenced her depiction of Lowood School in "Jane Eyre." Her time in Brussels, where she studied languages and literature, broadened her intellectual horizons and inspired her novel "Villette," which draws heavily on her experiences in Belgium. Emily Brontë: Emily also attended the Clergy Daughters' School and briefly attended Roe Head School. Her intense homesickness and subsequent return home highlighted her deep connection to the Yorkshire moors, which became the vivid setting for "Wuthering Heights." Her brief stint in Brussels influenced her perspective but reinforced her preference for the solitude of home.Anne Brontë: Anne attended Roe Head School and later became a governess. Her experiences as a governess, marked by her observations of the mistreatment and moral shortcomings of the upper classes, informed her novels "Agnes Grey" and "The Tenant of Wildfell Hall," both of which critique the social and moral issues of the time. Ans 4. Branwell Brontë's struggles with addiction and his eventual death had a profound impact on his sisters, both psychologically and creatively. Psychological Impact: Branwell's descent into alcoholism and drug addiction brought significant distress and shame to the family. His erratic behavior and the burden of caring for him took a toll on the sisters, leading to feelings of helplessness and despair. His death in 1848, shortly after Emily's illness began, marked the beginning of a tragic period for the family.Creative Impact: Branwell's struggles and death influenced the themes of suffering, addiction, and moral decay in the Brontë sisters' works. Emily's Wuthering Heights portrays intense emotional and psychological conflicts, while Anne's "The Tenant of Wildfell Hall" offers a stark depiction of alcoholism and its destructive effects. Charlotte's later works, such as "Villette," also reflect deeper psychological complexity and darker themes. Ans 5. Charlotte Brontë's visits to Brussels had significant impacts on both her personal and professional life. Circumstances: Charlotte and Emily went to Brussels in 1842 to improve their French and German at the Pensionnat Heger. They returned home later that year due to their aunt's death. Charlotte returned to Brussels alone in 1843 to teach English at the same school. Personal Impact: In Brussels, Charlotte developed strong, unreciprocated feelings for her teacher, Constantin Heger. This unfulfilled passion caused her emotional turmoil, which she later channeled into her writing. Her letters to Heger reveal her intense emotional state during this period. Professional Impact: The experiences in Brussels provided rich material for Charlotte's novels. "The Professor" and "Villette" are both set in Belgium and explore themes of love, isolation, and cultural displacement. The disciplined academic environment and exposure to different cultures enhanced her literary style and depth, contributing to the psychological realism and narrative complexity in her later works. 1.7    References/Suggested Readings •    Alexander, Christine. Charlotte Brontë at Roe Head. By Charlotte Brontë. Jane Eyre. 2nd ed.New York, NY: Norton & Company, 1987. 407427. Print. •    Davies, Stevie. Introduction. By Anne Brontë. The Tenant of Wildfell Hall. London, England:Penguin, 1996. viixxix. Print. •    Eddy, Steve. The Brontës: A Beginner's Guide. London, England: Hodder & Stoughton, 2003. 179. Print.Gottlieb, Stephen. "Periods of English Literature." 12 Jan 2000. Web. 3 Feb 2010. •    Parton, James. "The Brontë Sisters." Female Ancestors. Web. 3 Feb 2010. . •    Sellars, Jane. Charlotte Brontë. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, Inc. , 1997. 9112. Print. 1.8    Terminal Questions Q1. Highlight the influence of Early Deaths on the Brontë Siblings' Writing and Familial Dynamics? Q2. Discuss the writing style of Bronte Sisters. Unit-2 Wuthering Heights: An Introduction to the Background of Novel Structure 2.1    Introduction 2.2    Learning Objectives 2.3    Nineteenth Century and Wuthering Heights Self-Check Exercise-I 2.4    Summary 2.5    Glossary 2.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise 2.7    References/Suggested Readings 2.8    Terminal Questions 2.1    Introduction Wuthering Heights is the only novel by English writer Emily Brontë, originally published in 1847 under her pen name "Ellis Bell". It concerns two noble families living on the West Yorkshire moors, the Earnshaws and the Lintons, and their troubled relationship with the Earnshaws' stepson Heathcliff. The novel was influenced by Romanticism and Gothic fiction. Wuthering Heights is now considered one of the greatest novels written in the English language, but contemporary reviews have been mixed. It was controversial for its portrayal of mental and physical cruelty, including domestic violence, and for its challenges to Victorian morality, religion and the class system. Publisher Thomas Newby accepted Anne Brontë's Wuthering Heights and Agnes Gray before the success of their sister Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre, but they were published later. After Emily's death, Charlotte edited a second edition of Wuthering Heights, which appeared in 1850. 2.2    Learning Objectives Dear students, the current Unit will inform you about how Wuthering Heights is situated within a historical and social framework. The socio-economic, political, and cultural landscape of mid-nineteenth century England holds great significance as it offers us a backdrop for the analytical examination of the output of a culture at a specific time and location. This does not imply that the novel holds relevance solely within its historical setting; rather, those who read thoughtfully and perceive will be able to challenge many of the values and beliefs of that era. This Unit also familiarizes us with numerous issues that will be addressed in the subsequent Units. 2.3    Ninteenth Cetury The final quarter of the eighteenth century and the initial half of the nineteenth century represented an era of significant social, economic, and cultural transformation in England. These seventy-five years witnessed the strengthening of England as the foremost imperial power. The British empire grew worldwide to such a degree that the people of Britain began to think that the sun would always shine on it. This time was also characterized by swift industrialization and the emergence of full-scale capitalism, along with its ongoing cycle of economic expansion and persistent, intense class struggles. A.    Dates and Positioning Wuthering Heights starts with the year 1801. Dates hold significance as they situate events and individuals within a framework of history. In works of fiction, dates contribute to making the narrative appear authentic. Dates gain added importance when events and characters, whether real or imagined, require deeper analysis beyond their historical context. The fact that this novel remains valuable for reading and analysis after one hundred and fifty years since it was published cannot be overlooked. From a biographical standpoint, the historical background that shapes Emily Bronte’s life should not be disregarded. Critics have noted the contrast and disparity between the portrayals of Emily Bronte as the remarkable woman, the Romantic genius, the writer, and as Emily Bronte, the self-sufficient and generally obedient daughter of an Anglo-Catholic clergyman. In various respects, Emily Bronte represented a conventional woman of the nineteenth century; reserved, homecentered, and obscured from historical record. It is through the expression of her distinctively creative intellect and her sharp, perceptive awareness of the historical importance of her era that, in the novel, Emily Bronte manages to transcend the limitations of the 'conventional' Victorian and foresee the evolving types of familial and social existence that were beginning to take shape. Let us make a list of some of the dates that are important for the study of Wuthering Heights. 1757:       Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of Sublime and Beautiful by Edmund Burke. 1757:       Hindley Earnshaw is born. 1762:       Edgar Linton is born 1764:        Heathcliff is born. 1765 late:    Isabella is born 1765 summer:     Catherine is born 1767:       James Hargreves creates the spinning Jenney, which signifies the start of significant transformations in the production, marketing, and sourcing of raw materials in the textile sector. Liverpool and Manchester serve as the two primary industrial cities and textile hubs. 1771:       Healthcliff comes to Wuthering Heights as a child. He is seven years old and Hindley is fourteen years old. 1773:       Death of Mrs. Earnshaw 1776:       Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith and American War of Independence 1777:       Death of Mr. Earnshaw 1778 June: Hareton is born 1780 Autumn:      Death of Mr. Linton 1784, Sept.: Linton Heathcliff is born 1784Sept.:  Death of Hindley 1784, March 20:Cathy is born 1784, March 20:Death of Catherine | 1789: | Songs of Innocence. William Blake. | |---|---| | 1789: | The French Revolution. The beginning of the Republic and the rise of Napoleon. | | 1791: | Boswell’s The life of Samuel Johnson published. | | 1792: | Rights of Man. Tom Paine. Banned. | | 1797 June: | Death of Isabella | | 1798: | Lyrical Ballads. William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. In 1800, The second edition was released, which included the renowned Preface that became the guide to Romantic poetry. Principle of Population, Robert Malthus. | | 1801, Sept.: 1801, Aug: | Death of Edgar Linton Cathy marries Linton Heathcliff | | 1802, May: | Death of Heathcliff | | 1803, Jan.: | Cathy marries Hareton | | 1805 Oct.: | the Battle of Trafalgar. Britain’s navel superiority established. 1814 : Mansfield Park Jane Austen. | 1818, 30 June:     Emily Bronte was born at her father’s parsonage at Thornton, | | Bradford. She was the fifth child and Anne was her younger sister, born on 17 Jan. 1820. | |---|---| | 1818: | Frankenstein. Mary Shelly. | | 1818-20: | John Keats wrote the important Odes. | | 1819-24: | Don Juan. Lord Byron. | | 1820: | Prometheus Unbound. Percy Bysshe Shelley. | | 1829: | Steam Engine named Rocket built by Robert Stevenson reaches a prize-winning speed of 29 kms per hour. | | 1832: | The first Reform Bill... | | 1833: | Abolition of slavery in England. This was soon followed by the Factory Act which prohibited the employment of children under nine in spinning and weaving factories. | | 1837: | King William IV was succeeded by his niece, Victoria as the queen of England | | 1837-39: | Oliver Twist. Charles Dickens. | | 1838: | The Beginning of the Chartist Movemnet. | | 1845: | Famine in Ireland .Anti Corn Law agitation. Repeal of Corn Law by Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel in 1846. | | 1845, Aug: | Branwell’s “(Emily’s brother) visit to Liverpool and Emily begins to write Wuthering Heights in the autumn and winter of the year. | | 1847 Dec.: | Wuthering Heights published along with Anne Bronte’s Agnes Grey by | T.C.Newby, London. The sisters used pseudonyms. Emily called herself Ellis Bell and Charlotte, Acton Bell. 1848:       The Communist Manifesto. Karl Marx. 1848 Dec.:  Death of Emily Bronte. 1850:       In Memorium. Lord Alfred Tennyson. 1859:        On Liberty. John Stuart Mill. 1859:        Origin of Species. Charles Darwin. The dates and events listed about span a little over hundred years. Only some of the notable events which l are directly or indirectly related to the text are listed.. The dates specifically connected with the story of Wuthering Heights have been intentionally arranged chronologically along with the dates of major events and happenings of the time to felicitate a meaningful juxtaposition. Though the novel was written in year 1845, the story is placed in the last quarter of the eighteenth century. In 1801, Lockwood becomes a tenant of Heathcliff and stays at Thrushcross Grange. Nelly Dean, the then house-keeper of Thrushcross Grange, recapitulates to Lockwood the history of Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange and begins her tale from the arrival of Heathcliff at Wuthering Heights thirty years before (1871). Nelly Dean’s story hardly touches upon the social world outside the periphery of Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange. She concentrates on the lives of just the people who live in these two houses in a tightly defined domestic system. But as our chart will show, many important historical events were taking place at that time, and find no mention in Nelly Dean’s recapitulation. Maybe it is because Nelly herself had no experience of the outer world as she spends her entire life within the confines of Wuthering Heights and Thurshcross Grange. But is there no connection between these historical events and the story of Wuthering Heights? How isolated are the inmates of Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange from the social history of during the time period of the novel’s setting? These are some questions we will have to answer as we go along. B.    Industrial Revolution Industrialization signaled the end of the domestic system of manufacture and introduced the factory system which displaced the rural population to centers of urban growth which was generally cities with factories. This was inevitably accompanied by the growth of slum, squalor, poverty and disease. Cholera, typhoid and tuberculosis were rampant and many people, mostly poor workers died of these dread diseases. Medicine and health care systems were non –existent and post – natal deaths were quite frequent. Frances , Catherine and Isabella, Edgar and Lintion Heathcliff all died due to illness. Emily Bronte died at the age of only thirty suffering from tuberculosis. By the end of the eighteenth Century economic principal of lasses faire as advocated by Adam Smith in his book Wealth of Nations, (1776) was being seriously questioned by thinkers like in Tom Paine (author of Rights of Man, 1798). Poor wages and dismal working conditions characterized the early factory system. Men, women and even children worked in hazardous conditions as part of a system of production in which the profits went to the captains of industry,. This unequal distribution of wealth added to the growing dissatisfactions amongst the poor workers resulting in conflict between the ‘heavens’ and the have nots’. This period of English history is marked by violent food riots, protest and demonstrations by the working class. E.P. Thompsom in his book The Making Of the English Working Class (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd. 1963), traces the history of the working class movements during this early phase of industrialization. If you wish to go into this aspect, you may like to read this book. It is a fairly long book but will provide very useful background material. The Luddite Riots, the struggles and agitation around the First Reform Bill, the growth of Trade Unionism and the fight for improved working conditions in the factories was followed by the agitation against the Poor Law of 1834, and finally culminated in the Chartist movement form1838 to 1848. The year that Emily Bronte died, 1848, Karl Marx published The Communist Manifesto, a seminal text in which the working class leadership and intelligentsia found a sound theoretical basis for their struggle. The introduction of machines and the cultivation of cash crops resulted in surplus labour in the agrarian sector. People began to migrate from the villages to the cites. By the last quarter of the eighteenth century many Irishmen had left their peasant homes and immigrated to England and sought work in the mills and factories in cities like Manchester and immigrated and Liverpool. They formed the poorest section of the slum dwellers. Emily Bronte’s father, Patrick O’Brunty or O’Prunty, was born in 1777 as the son of a poor peasant in Country Down, a pilturesque area in Northern Ireland. He too migrated to England, but unlike the others, he did not become a low paid worker but by 1802 was at Cambridge University from where he received a degree. He joined the clergy and rose rapidly from a migrant Irish peasant to arespectable Anglican celergyman. In 1820, a few months after the birth of his youngest daughter, Anne, Mr. Bronte shifted his residence to Howarth, a big village near Keighley, in the industrial district of Yorkshire .there was nothing so completely removed from the stir of society’ than Howarth. It was located near one of the most rapidly growing industrial areas of England. In fact West Riding was the centre of many of working class movements and uprisings.Though connected with the church, Mr. Bronte was not apolitical. He had strong political views which he often discussed with his intellectually alive children. He got himself actually involved in the riots and lock-outs by assisting the locked-out workers of his parish. Emily and her sister Charlotte did not spend their entire lives in Haworth, they went to school at miles away from Hallifax, one of the biggest Chartist torch light rallies took place. Queen Victoria, by the official proclamation in 1938, declared all such torch meetings as illegal, participation in which meant punishment. in which meant punishment. Emily and Charlotte also went to Bradford, Keighly and Leeds. It is true that Emily did not write about the social and political climate of her time directly, but it certainly does not mean that she was not aware of the changes that were happening around her or that these events were not a part of her social world. C.    Social Implications In real term, industrialism meant an economics shift from the feudal agrarian way of life to the faster paced industrial world of factories and machines, mass production and quick profits. Industrialism also meant the rise of individualism. While trade and production increased and the nation became richer, the national prosperity concealed the wretched condition of the poor. There emerged a class of neo rich entrepreneurs ,who had made quick money quick money through industrial production and posed a serious political and economic challenge to the traditional citadels of aristocratic power. Louis Cazamian identifies the polarization of the old aristocracy with the new bourgeoisie as: A deep antagonism, indeed, divided this new and thriving class from the old order. The vehement aggression of these sons who rejected their heritage wounded the peaceful, patriarchal spirit of agricultural England, slumbering in self –satisfied terpor. In the old society everyone knew his place. The great families governed the country;the squires and justices of the peace administered their own localities…. But the demands of the new bourgeoisie and enfranchisement to this society where, hitherto,material and moral ties had chained the individual to his ancestors station in his own locality….Men would have to cut themselves off fromtheir native society and become free and independent, relying on the strength of their intelligence or wealth, if they had any, and their muscular strength if they had not … The fallen were trodden underfoot; so munch the worse for them. Each for himself and the law of "England forall” was the slogan of industrialism. These individuals were filled with pride as they reflected on the considerable wealth they had accumulated through their own efforts. They were also angered by the absurd barriers that still obstructed personal freedom. The remnants of feudalism, remnants of outdated institutions, Acts of Settlements, Statutes of Apprentices, and protectionist corn laws all served as numerous hurdles to be overcome in the pursuit of progress or the quest for wealth. The notion that an individual's success depended on their capacity to struggle and thrive in a competitive environment formed the essence of the moral foundation of this demographic engaged in intense competition for material gain. Consequently, with a shift in power dynamics, a new array of social, moral, and ethical principles emerged to supplant the former order. In 1814, Jane Austen, the offspring of a Tory clergyman, illustrated the clash between the old and the new social structures in Mansfield Park. Mansfield Park, situated in the picturesque rural landscape of England, is the residence of Sir Thomas Bertram, a member of the native gentry and an upper-class landholder. Fanny, hailing from a lower middleclass background, initially stands apart from Mansfield Park, but gradually she not only becomes a vital component of it but also intrinsically embodies the genuine spiritual and moral values of Mansfield Park—values of tradition, continuity, and order. In the narrative, the older feudal value system prevails and endures symbolically through the union of Fanny and Edmund, despite a significant threat posed by outsiders. Propriety, regularity, harmony, and, above all, peace and tranquility define Mansfield Park, and in Austen’s realm, there is no place for the kind of deviance practiced by the Crawfords and Mr. Yeats. The security and stability afforded by the hierarchical structure of a feudal system is only jeopardized when Sir Thomas Bertram travels to Antigua for business purposes. (This must be understood in the context of England's colonial and imperial expansion during that era. The political manifestation of economic and social polarization was evident in the priorities of the two primary political factions in England, the Whigs and the Tories. The Tories were conservatives who supported the landed class and the feudal economy, while the Whigs championed industry and its modern methods and leaders. ) D.    Romanticism and Revolt The backdrop of Wuthering Heights is provided by the American War of Independence (1776) and the French Revolution (1789), although it appears that these significant historical events have no influence on the storyline of the novel. The ideological discussions that motivated the Romantic Movement’s quest for idealism and heroism stemmed from these revolutions. In many respects, Romanticism arose as a response to industrialism. It expressed a desire to return to a realm of innocent beauty that seemed to have been lost to the demands of machinery, with individual liberty being a central theme of much of this discourse. A person’s creative power was found in his or her assertion of imagination and intuition, which were meant to be liberated from the constraints of mechanical reasoning and oppressive rationality. The revolutionary Romantics redefined heroism by seeking the heroic within the everyday and the mundane rather than in the exceptional. Their radical perspective led them to reassess the hero’s role in society, scrutinizing his social responsibilities and relationships. The industrial revolution, along with the French and American revolutions, can be viewed as movements that liberated the individual from the moral, ethical, and cultural frameworks of the feudal order, empowering him to establish a new identity. The individual became accountable solely to himself and to women, as indicated by the emergence of women with their own independent identities in the works of Jane Austen, Charlotte Brontë, Mrs. Gaskell, and later Hardy and George Eliot. Unlike Mansfield Park, Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights is set against the stark landscape of desolate heaths and moorlands. The intensity of nature is palpably raw and often hostile. This setting serves as a perfect backdrop for a drama to unfold, in which order, harmony, and security are depicted as edges of a fragile world under threat from formidable forces beyond the understanding of its inhabitants. One lovely summer morning, Mr. Earnshaw kisses his children, promises them gifts, and departs for Liverpool. The divide is created. After three days, he returns with a so-called ‘gift from God,’ a filthy, ragged, black-haired child. The stir of the society from which Wuthering Heights appears to be detached makes its symbolic entrance through Heathcliff. In Heathcliff and Catherine, we see rebellion against order and property, while Edgar represents a brave effort to adhere to established value systems. The rebellion of Heathcliff and Catherine against the prevailing social conventions should be viewed within the context of individual assertiveness in the industrial era, coinciding with the decline of the grand feudal age and its hierarchical power structures. Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange serve as symbols of the authority and power of the old system, which Heathcliff and Catherine challenge. Those unable to adapt to the demands of the new age ultimately perish, while only the resilient survive. It is within Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange that the forces of challenge and subversion arise. According to Eagleton, this aspect of the narrative transcends society. Eagleton asserts that this serves as the novel’s source of both strength and weakness. Its strength resides in its potential for subversion and its revolutionary rejection of a contemporary society that is exploitative and unjust. Its weakness, however, stems from the author’s inability to realize that Heathcliff and Catherine cannot be united in the actual world; they are only united when they transcend earthly existence, which occurs in death. Self-Check Exercise-I Q 1 When does the story of Wuthering Heights begin? Q 2 Why are dates important in History? Q 3 In which period did England appear as the most powerful imperial nation? Q 4 What does industrialism imply? Q 5 When was American war of Independence fought? Q 6 Mention the year of French revolution. 2.4    Summary Though the occurrences in the novel appear to take place in an isolated and remote setting and the characters, especially the Byronic Heathcliff, express profound emotions, Wuthering Heights is undoubtedly rooted in a historical context. Given that this was the sole novel penned by the author, early biographical accounts painted a picture of her as a solitary figure, a quiet yet passionate and brooding character. A more thorough examination of her life reveals that Emily Bronte was not truly disconnected from the society surrounding her and was quite cognizant of the economic changes that conflicted with one another and disrupted the traditional social structure. The emphasis was placed on the potential of the autonomous individual. The historical backdrop sets the stage for analyzing the characters as individuals ensnared in a transforming society and their reactions to it. It also enables us to assess Emily Bronte as a mid-nineteenth-century woman writer who was establishing her own intellectual stance. 2.5    Glossary •    Agrarian: relating to cultivated land or the cultivation of land •    Apolitical: not interested or involved in politics •    Despotic: of or typical of a despot; tyrannicalFelicitate •    Polarization: division into two sharply contrasting groups or sets of opinions or beliefs •    Rampant: flourishing or spreading unchecked •    Seminal: strongly influencing later developments •  Vehement: showing strong feeling 2.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-Check Exercise-I Ans 1. 1801 Ans 2. Dates are important in history because they provide a chronological framework that helps us understand the sequence and context of historical events, allowing for a clearer comprehension of cause-and-effect relationships. They enable historians to organize and compare events across different periods and regions, facilitating a more accurate and comprehensive analysis of historical developments. Additionally, dates help in commemorating significant milestones and anniversaries, preserving collective memory and cultural heritage. Ans 3. The final quarter of the eighteenth century and the initial half of the nineteenth century represented a time of significant social, economic, and cultural transformation in England. These seventy-five years witnessed the establishment of England as the preeminent imperial power. Ans 4. In practical terms, industrialism signified an economic transition from the feudal agricultural lifestyle to the more rapid industrial realm of factories and machinery, large-scale production and swift profits. Industrialism also indicated the emergence of individualism. As trade and production expanded and the nation grew wealthier, the national affluence masked the miserable situation of the impoverished. Ans 5. 1776 Ans 6. 1789 2.7    References/Suggested Readings •    An Introduction to English Novel’ by Arnold Kettle •    ‘Casebook Series on Wuthering Heights” by Mirian Allote 2.8    Terminal Questions Q 1 How has Industrial Revolution shaped the various social groups and their relationships? Q 2 Define the term ‘Romanticism’. Q 3 Emily Bronte challenged many of the prejudices. Discuss. Unit-3 Narration and Narrative Technique in Wuthering Heights Structure 3.1    Introduction 3.2    Learning objectives 3.3    Wuthering Heights: Narration and Narrative Technique Self-Check Exercise1 3.4    Summary 3.5    Glossary 3.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise 3.7    References/Suggested Readings 3.8    Terminal Questions 3.1    Introduction We must keep in mind that Wuthering Heights was composed during a time that placed significant emphasis on meaning, sense, order, civilization, and progress. This might explain why initial critics of the novel reached unilateral interpretations of it. The realism in the novel was perceived as a superficial layer over what was fundamentally romantic and spiritual in character. However, in truth, it was exactly those qualities of mid-Victorian society—meaning, sense, order, civilization, and progress—that were being undermined by Catherine-Heathcliff. 3.2    Learning Objective The story of ‘Wuthering Heights’ has provoked diverse reactions and responses from both its readers and critics. The writing clearly indicates that Emily Bronte was exploring and developing different relationships with narrative methods and the various topics that engaged her to enhance her work with several layers and interpretations. The purpose of this lesson is to introduce you to the text, narrative methods, and diverse interpretations to comprehend how these elements contribute to the overall impact of the novel. 3.3    Wuthering Heights A.    The storyline of the Novel It is challenging, if not unfeasible, to summarize a novel such as Wuthering Heights. The reasons are easily identifiable. For one reason, Wuthering Heights functions on dual levels—poetic and realistic—each intertwined and connected; each amplifies and detracts from the other simultaneously so that if the essential plot points are stripped from the poetic imagination, language and imagery that provide them depth, the novel does not seem like a product of a specific locality with a local atmosphere and tone. Yet, with its untamed landscape, primal fervor, supernatural occurrences, and its Byronically ‘satanic’ protagonist, it can also be viewed as establishing a bond between the main characters of Wuthering Heights, Heathcliff and Catherine. Whose reality largely stems from the poetic imagination cannot be conveyed through any attempts at summarization. Such an undertaking might create the impression that the novel is melodramatic, that it is a chaotic mix of romantic trivialities, but this is not what Wuthering Heights represents. The various elements—realistic, melodramatic, spiritual, and romantic—through a peculiar process of transformation, brought forth by the poetic imagination, are converted into a mystery as puzzling and inscrutable as Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Wuthering Heights stands as one of the timeless creations of imaginative brilliance. Monumental in its fierce, ungoverned energy, with a haunting and emotionally charged beauty underpinning all its terror: making us understand, as no other tale in the English language does, the importance of “Infinite Passion And the pain of finite hearts that yearn. ” The finite hearts brimming with infinite passion belong to Catherine and Heathcliff, who are hardly human at all. They challenge all psychological norms: they are the elemental forces of nature, embodied passions. Yet such fierce intensity of emotion has been invested in their creation that we must accept them at their creator’s behest. Like Conrad (in his works Lord Jim and Chance), Emily Bronte starts towards the conclusion of the tale. The novel begins with a date of 1801. A Mr. Lockwood, who has recently taken up residence at Thrushcross Grange, is documenting his initial visit to his landlord Mr. Heathcliff, who resides at Wuthering Heights. He recounts his surly reception by the grim, robust, gypsy-like Heathcliff. He also describes the brutal isolation of the old farmhouse, a savagery paralleled by that of the dogs that menace the visitor. Mr. Lockwood, however, finds himself intrigued by Heathcliff and decides to pay him a second visit. During this visit, he encounters Heathcliff’s distant and proud daughter-in-law, Catherine, as well as a rude, disheveled young man named Hareton Earnshaw, both of whom Heathcliff treats with bitter disdain and contempt. It starts to snow heavily, and Lockwood, who is reluctantly forced to spend the night, is shown to a bedroom by the housekeeper, who clarifies that it is not typically used. There, Lockwood discovers several books inscribed with the name “Catherine Earnshaw” and dated twenty-five years prior. In the blank sections of these books, the first Catherine had maintained a diary. It narrates how, as children, Catherine and Heathcliff, after many hours of joyless Calvinistic preaching by Joseph, the Earnshaw’s servant, had hurled their religious tomes at him, as well as the harsh treatment inflicted upon them, particularly on Heathcliff, by Catherine’s brother, Hindley. When Lockwood finally drifts off to sleep, he is beset by a nightmare in which he perceives the knocking of a branch against the window. When he extends his hand out of the window to grab the branch, he instead touches “the fingers of a little ice-cold hand,” while a child’s voice cries out that she is a waif, lost on the moors for twenty years, and pleads to be let in. Lockwood’s screams awaken Heathcliff, who arrives in the room, visibly distressed as Lockwood comes out of his nightmare. As Lockwood exits the room and pauses for a moment in the hallway outside, he hears Heathcliff yelling at the window. Once Heathcliff regains his composure, he leads Lockwood back across the snow-covered moors to Thrushcross Grange. This brilliantly crafted initial section of the novel immediately establishes the nature of the residents of Wuthering Heights, their relationships with one another, and the peculiar atmosphere that envelops them, all seen through the curiosity of an outsider with a practical, even pedantic perspective, resulting in the details of the moor and its flora, the exterior appearance of the house, along with its internal structure and furnishings, being vividly portrayed, as though observed for the first time. The tangible quality of Lockwood’s nightmare prevents the notion of an actual haunting from being only another instance of Gothic eeriness. Everything feels so ‘real’, including the bizarre behaviors of the Wuthering Heights residents, that it does not require too significant a leap of imagination from the reader to accept the potentiality of the supernatural, as Lockwood does when he informs Heathcliff after his nightmare that the room is “swarming with ghosts and goblins! You have reason in shutting it up, I assure you. ” Additionally, it has been established that this narrative does not adhere to a standard chronological sequence. The events from twenty-five years prior documented in the diary are perceived as equally relevant to the present regarding Wuthering Heights as those involving Lockwood himself in 1801; indeed, they are even more pertinent, considering Lockwood is merely the bustling outsider from the world of clocks and calendars intruding into a realm in which time is static, or more accurately, moves in a continuously cyclical manner. Furthermore, the reader is encouraged to sense that the Catherine who torments Lockwood’s nightmares and fills Heathcliff's waking moments is as ‘real’ as they are. It is crucial that this impression is communicated early on because the primary focus of the relationship between Catherine and Heathcliff, which constitutes the core of the novel, is that while it is distinctly and concretely established, it nonetheless exists in a realm entirely separate from that of ordinary time. When he returns to Thrushcross Grange, Lockwood requests Nelly Dean, the housekeeper who remained when the house was rented, to recount the story of his peculiar neighbors. Her storytelling, with occasional interruptions from Lockwood, constitutes the majority of the novel. She starts her tale at a time preceding the entries recorded in the diary. Lockwood had perused at Wuthering Heights. During that period, the Earnshaw has returned from a trip to Liverpool with a filthy, darkfaced waif whom he discovered starving in the slums. Mr. Earnshaw names the boy Heathcliff (after a son who had passed away in infancy), which functions as both his surname and first name, and instructs his son Hindley and his daughter Catherine (or Cathy) that they must regard him as their brother. Cathy quickly warms to the newcomer, whereas Hindley, envious of the affection bestowed upon Heathcliff by their father (particularly following Mrs. Earnshaw's death), bullies him mercilessly whenever he gets the chance. After Mr. Earnshaw's passing, Hindley, now married, inherits Wuthering Heights, terminates the education that Heathcliff had been receiving alongside Cathy from the local curate, and forces him to work as a farm laborer, seizing every opportunity to torment, demean, and humiliate him. However, Cathy refuses to abandon her companionship with Heathcliff, and despite severe punishments from both Hindley and the self-righteous, Bible-thumping servant Joseph, they continue their long excursions over the moors. During one of these excursions, Cathy and Heathcliff sneak up to the illuminated windows of Thrushcross Grange, the residence of the wealthy and refined Lintons, and peer in at the pampered Linton children, who, upon hearing noise outside their window, awaken the household. While escaping, Cathy is attacked by the Linton’s bulldog. She is taken inside to have her injured ankle treated, while Heathcliff is dismissively sent away. Cathy spends five weeks at Thrushcross Grange, and upon her return to Wuthering Heights, she has been transformed into a refined young lady. Hindley and his wife entertain the Lintons, while Heathcliff, though still strongly supported by Cathy, is more firmly excluded from the family than ever. A year goes by, and Hindley’s wife gives birth to a son named Hareton, but she dies shortly after, leading Hindley to drink excessively. Simultaneously, Edgar Linton begins to court Cathy. Eventually, she confides in Nelly that he has proposed and that she has accepted because it would now ‘degrade’ her to marry Heathcliff. At the same time, she fervently assures Nelly that she will not marry Edgar Linton unless he consents to her continuing her friendship with Heathcliff, and she attempts to articulate the difference between her feelings for him and those for Edgar: “My love for Linton is like the foliage in the woods: time will change it, I’m well aware, as winter changes the trees. My love for Heathcliff resembles the eternal rocks beneath: a source of little visible delight but necessary. Nelly, I am Heathcliff! He’s always, always in my mind: not as a pleasure any more than I am always a pleasure to myself, but as my own being. ” This passage is perhaps the essence of the entire novel, as it conveys the distinctive nature of the love between Cathy and Heathcliff, which is fundamentally non-corporeal, transcending and elevating above the limitations of time and space, thereby linking back to the seemingly supernatural occurrences of the opening section and forward to the inevitable climax. When he returns to Thrushcross Grange, Lockwood requests Nelly Dean, the housekeeper who remained when the house was rented, to recount the story of his peculiar neighbors. Her storytelling, with occasional interruptions from Lockwood, constitutes the majority of the novel. She starts her tale at a time preceding the entries recorded in the diary. Lockwood had perused at Wuthering Heights. During that period, the Earnshaw has returned from a trip to Liverpool with a filthy, darkfaced waif whom he discovered starving in the slums. Mr. Earnshaw names the boy Heathcliff (after a son who had passed away in infancy), which functions as both his surname and first name, and instructs his son Hindley and his daughter Catherine (or Cathy) that they must regard him as their brother. Cathy quickly warms to the newcomer, whereas Hindley, envious of the affection bestowed upon Heathcliff by their father (particularly following Mrs. Earnshaw's death), bullies him mercilessly whenever he gets the chance. After Mr. Earnshaw's passing, Hindley, now married, inherits Wuthering Heights, terminates the education that Heathcliff had been receiving alongside Cathy from the local curate, and forces him to work as a farm laborer, seizing every opportunity to torment, demean, and humiliate him. However, Cathy refuses to abandon her companionship with Heathcliff, and despite severe punishments from both Hindley and the self-righteous, Bible-thumping servant Joseph, they continue their long excursions over the moors. During one of these excursions, Cathy and Heathcliff sneak up to the illuminated windows of Thrushcross Grange, the residence of the wealthy and refined Lintons, and peer in at the pampered Linton children, who, upon hearing noise outside their window, awaken the household. While escaping, Cathy is attacked by the Linton’s bulldog. She is taken inside to have her injured ankle treated, while Heathcliff is dismissively sent away. Cathy spends five weeks at Thrushcross Grange, and upon her return to Wuthering Heights, she has been transformed into a refined young lady. Hindley and his wife entertain the Lintons, while Heathcliff, though still strongly supported by Cathy, is more firmly excluded from the family than ever. A year goes by, and Hindley’s wife gives birth to a son named Hareton, but she dies shortly after, leading Hindley to drink excessively. Simultaneously, Edgar Linton begins to court Cathy. Eventually, she confides in Nelly that he has proposed and that she has accepted because it would now ‘degrade’ her to marry Heathcliff. At the same time, she fervently assures Nelly that she will not marry Edgar Linton unless he consents to her continuing her friendship with Heathcliff, and she attempts to articulate the difference between her feelings for him and those for Edgar: “My love for Linton is like the foliage in the woods: time will change it, I’m well aware, as winter changes the trees. My love for Heathcliff resembles the eternal rocks beneath: a source of little visible delight but necessary. Nelly, I am Heathcliff! He’s always, always in my mind: not as a pleasure any more than I am always a pleasure to myself, but as my own being. ” This passage is perhaps the essence of the entire novel, as it conveys the distinctive nature of the love between Cathy and Heathcliff, which is fundamentally non-corporeal, transcending and elevating above the limitations of time and space, thereby linking back to the seemingly supernatural occurrences of the opening section and forward to the inevitable climax. It is only now, after all these violent occurrences have concluded and Heathcliff's revenge is almost fulfilled, that the first Catherine reenters the narrative. Heathcliff shares with Nelly that immediately following Catherine's death, he was visited by her spirit, and ever since, he has been yearning in vain for another visit—cursing her wholly for her cruelty in failing to manifest to him. When the young Catherine comes back to Wuthering Heights, she dedicates herself to caring for her husband, while Heathcliff obstinately forbids any of the household from assisting or calling for a doctor before Linton passes away; Heathcliff compels him to create a will bequeathing Thrushcross Grange and Edgar Linton's estate to him. Young Catherine, embittered and without funds, but still rebellious, remains at Wuthering Heights to endure the same harsh treatment from her father-in-law that he dispenses to his other dependents. The narrative now shifts back to Mr. Lockwood. He travels to Wuthering Heights to inform Heathcliff that he will soon relinquish his tenancy of Thrushcross Grange. Before departing, Lockwood overhears Heathcliff mumbling that, despite himself, he feels an emerging affection for Hareton due to his resemblance to the deceased Catherine. Another specific date is now mentioned, the year 1802, as Lockwood has returned to the moors on a group shooting trip and visits Wuthering Heights. Upon his arrival, he is taken aback to overhear young Catherine instructing her cousin Hareton through the open window. Nelly resumes her narration, transporting the story back to the moment when Lockwood had left for London. To Nelly's astonishment, she has been called to Wuthering Heights to keep young Cathy company. She observes the gradual evolution of the relationship between Cathy and Hareton and shudders at the implications it might hold for Heathcliff. However, he too is slowly transforming. He has become strangely distracted and aloof. Although he still experiences bouts of rage, these occurrences tend to diminish, and his desire to impose his vengeance on the second generation—Hareton and young Cathy—has inexplicably waned. For one reason, they increasingly remind him of the deceased Catherine and their childhood bond. Additionally, he is finding it more challenging to adjust to the earthly realm altogether. One morning, he returns to Wuthering Heights after wandering the moors all night, with a "strange joyful glitter" in his eyes. He believes he has finally encountered Catherine again and yearns for a deeper connection. Over the next four days, he intentionally allows himself to starve. Upon his death, he informs Nelly that he wishes to be interred between Catherine and her husband (as he has previously arranged with the Sexton), but he requests no religious minister at his funeral; “I tell you I have nearly attained my heaven; and that of others is altogether unvalued and uncoveted by me! ”. He isolates himself in Cathy’s former room, and the following morning Nelly discovers him deceased. Heathcliff is interred in accordance with his desires, while young Catherine and Hareton make arrangements for their wedding and relocation to Thrushcross Grange. Everyday, earthly life reestablishes itself; however, the local residents believe that the spirits of Catherine and Heathcliff still linger on the moors. As E. M. Forster has remarked regarding the two lovers: Their separation instigates the action; their union posthumously concludes it. It's no surprise they "walk"; what alternative could such beings have? Even during their lifetimes, their love and animosity were greater than themselves. From the preceding summary, it is evident that Wuthering Heights narrates the tale of Catherine and Heathcliff. Furthermore, it is a narrative that unfolds in four parts. The initial segment, concluding with the visit to Thrushcross Grange, depicts the development of a unique bond between Catherine and Heathcliff and their collective defiance against Hindley and his rule in Wuthering Heights. The second part uncovers Catherine's betrayal of Heathcliff, culminating in her demise. The third section focuses on Heathcliff's vengeance, while the final part, shorter than the others, describes the transformation that occurs within Heathcliff and his passing. Even in the last two segments, after her death, the connection with Catherine remains the prevailing theme, underpinning everything else that transpires. The summary also indicates that the realm of Wuthering Heights is unusual and grotesque; it is rife with savagery, inhumanity, fervent passion, Gothic terror, and melodramatic brutality. It is certainly challenging to concur with Nelly Dean’s viewpoint when she asserts to Lockwood that, here we are just like anywhere else, once you become acquainted with us. In Wuthering Heights, horrific, realistic cruelties correspond with the emotional torments inflicted on one another by both children and adults. Here are a few instances: When they are young, Hindley strikes Heathcliff down with a heavy iron weight and kicks him under a pony’s hooves; of Heathcliff himself, we later learn from Cathy how he ensnared a lapwing’s nest so that the parent birds could not access it and how they later discovered it in winter filled with tiny skeletons; he boasts of his desire to toss old Joseph off the highest gable of the Heights and paint the facade of the house with Hindley’s blood; he throws a tureen of boiling applesauce directly into Edgar Linton’s face; when he elopes with Isabella, the first action he takes is to beat her dog. When Hindley becomes a father, Nelly must conceal Hareton in a closet to protect him from drunken brutality. Later Isabella observes Hareton as a child suspending a litter of puppies from a chair. We witness Heathcliff slicing into the flesh of Hindley’s arm, kicking and trampling on his fallen foe, and battering his head repeatedly against flagstones; later he grabs a dinner knife and hurls it at his wife's head. He handles his dying son with utter cruelty and when he deceives young Catherine into the house, strikes her on the head and warns that he will kick her if she defies him. Observing the two of them, he confides in Nelly, “Had they been born when laws were less strict, and tastes less dainty, I should treat myself to a slow vivisection of those as an evening’s amusement. ” The sense of brutality is intensified by the fact that in the novel, men are frequently compared to animals—wolves, mad dogs, reptiles. However, the savagery in Wuthering Heights is not solely physical, akin to that of beasts; it is paralleled by psychological torment so that all basic notions of kindness and justice are violated. Add to this the diabolical monstrosities of Heathcliff following his return to Wuthering Heights from his self-imposed exile, and we have the realm of Wuthering Heights—dark, grim, sometimes melodramatic, often violent, and even sadistic. Here are some examples of psychological violence. Nelly acknowledges that young Hindley’s treatment of Heathcliff “was enough to make a fiend of a saint. ” Catherine compels Isabella to listen as she mocks her about the poor girl's obsession with Heathcliff; she belittles her loving gentle husband in Heathcliff’s presence, labeling his restraint as cowardice, and then attempts to gain his sympathy by performing a fit of hysteria, “dashing her head against the arm of the sofa and grinding her teeth, so that you might fancy she would crash them to splinters. ” This is melodramatic to the utmost, to say the least. Edgar himself forsakes his sister to her fate and denies her any assistance. B.    Narrative Technique One method of comprehending the narrative technique in Wuthering Heights is to view it as the concept of a Chinese box. A tale within a tale that can be revealed by peeling away one layer at a time. A chamber within a chamber that the reader continually enters, where the chambers are not only tangible places but also realms of thought. Observe how Lockwood approaches Wuthering Heights. Initially, he is outdoors in the harsh cold and unwelcoming surroundings. Next, he steps into the living room of Wuthering Heights where the ambiance is inviting but his welcome is unkind. Subsequently, he ventures further into the house and finds himself in Catherine’s bedroom where he uncovers her diary. The diary serves as the gateway to our access not just to the past but also to Catherine’s psyche. This journey deeper into the house is complemented by Lockwood’s exploration of the history of Wuthering Heights which culminates with his encounter with Catherine’s ghost. Back at Thrushcross Grange, in more pleasant settings, Lockwood’s descent into the past continues with Nelly’s recounting. This technique introduces an element of suspense and enigma to the narration and allows for significant dramatic alterations in time and space. Simultaneously, the past and present intertwine in the manner Nelly and Lockwood perceive and evaluate the events they observe. The situational ironies of the story can therefore be accentuated. This expedition into an internal, enclosed, and shadowy realm resembles familiar narrative forms of gothic tales in which the mind reflects inwardly and the darker aspects of the psyche are laid bare. However, unlike their gothic forerunners, the narrators of Wuthering Heights are taken aback by what they discover and undergo due to the moral and societal norms they embody. J. Hillis Miller, in the essay “Wuthering Heights: Repetition and the ‘Uncanny,’” highlights a sequence of witnesses/narrators, starting from Emily Bronte, moving through the pseudonyms Ellis Bell, Lockwood, Nelly Dean, Heathcliff, and Catherine, who contribute to this intricate narrative. Engaging with the novel feels like navigating ‘inside of the inside’ or occasionally the reverse. Just like the novel features numerous narrators, it also involves several listeners. Nelly serves as the confidante for both Catherine and Heathcliff. At various points, both have sought to share their innermost thoughts with Nelly. A letter from Isabella relays the tale of Isabella’s unfortunate marriage. Lockwood acts as Nelly’s audience. Ellis Bell is aware of Lockwood’s narrative. Ultimately, the reader’s consciousness (which includes us) encompasses the awareness of all the other characters, including that of Ellis Bell. According to Miller, the reader is fated to revive the spectral history of Wuthering Heights. Various voices address the reader, with none appearing to fully understand the significance of the occurrences. The reader senses something that feels familiar yet cannot fully grasp or articulate it. This aspect infuses the text with its eerie, perplexing quality. Experiencing the discomfort of not understanding one’s surroundings is unsettling. Traditionally, readers expect narratives that maintain patterns of Unity regarding time, place, and events in the classical Aristotelian context. Unity aids in establishing the narrative and allows the reader to interpret moral and ethical significance within the text. Are we not constantly questioning ‘what is the moral of the story’? Both the reader and the narrators aspire to uncover some sense of Unity in meaning. Nelly and Lockwood are perpetually analyzing what they observe. Through their interpretations, they ascribe meanings shaped by their personal perspectives and moral obligations. Early critical interpretations of Wuthering Heights largely accepted the Nelly-Lockwood inclination to elucidate the central enigma and ascribe distinct meanings to the relationships depicted in the novel. Critics from the Liberal Humanist perspective, such as F. R. Leavis, who placed Wuthering Heights within ‘the Great Tradition of English novels,’ aimed to uncover obvious aesthetic and moral values in the work. There are universal ‘human truths’ that the novel is believed to uphold. From this standpoint, the Nelly-Lockwood narration is regarded as a dull and mundane recapping of a relationship that is, at its core, raw, pure, wild, intuitive, and natural—something transcendent and beyond rational comprehension. Universal frameworks were pursued and enforced.One method of grasping the narrative technique in Wuthering Heights is to view it as the structure of a Chinese box. A tale within a tale that can be revealed by peeling back one layer after another. A chamber within a chamber that the reader continually enters, where the chambers represent both physical locations and mental realms. Observe how Lockwood arrives at Wuthering Heights. Initially, he is outside in the frigid cold and unwelcoming surroundings. Then he steps into the living area of Wuthering Heights, where the atmosphere is cozy but his greeting is unfriendly. Eventually, he ventures deeper into the house and finds himself in Catherine’s bedroom, where he uncovers her diary. The diary serves as the gateway not only to the past but also into Catherine’s thoughts. This movement within the house is paralleled by Lockwood’s journey into the history of Wuthering Heights, culminating in his encounter with Catherine’s ghost. Back at Thrushcross Grange, in more pleasant surroundings, Lockwood’s transition into the past continues through Nelly’s retelling. This method introduces an element of suspense and enigma to the narrative and allows for significant shifts in time and space. Simultaneously, the past and present are intertwined in the way Nelly and Lockwood reflect on and assess the occurrences they observe. The situational ironies of the story can thus be emphasized. This journey into an internal, confined, and dark realm resembles the recognizable narrative techniques of gothic stories, where the mind reflects inward and the darker aspects of the psyche are revealed. However, in contrast to their gothic ancestors, the narrators of Wuthering Heights are taken aback by what they face and feel due to the moral and societal values they embody. J. Hillis Miller, in the essay “Wuthering Heights: Repetition and the ‘Uncanny,’” highlights a sequence of witnesses/narrators, starting from Emily Bronte, through the pseudonyms Ellis Bell, Lockwood, Nelly Dean, Heathcliff, and Catherine, who together create this intricate narrative. Engaging with the novel feels like traversing ‘inside of the inside’ or at times reversing this process. Just as the novel contains multiple narrators, it also includes numerous listeners. Nelly has served as the confidante for both Catherine and Heathcliff. They have both occasionally needed to share their thoughts with Nelly. A letter from Isabella notifies Nelly about Isabella’s unfortunate married life. Lockwood acts as Nelly’s audience. Ellis Bell is aware of Lockwood’s story. Ultimately, the reader's consciousness envelops the awareness of all other characters, including that of Ellis Bell. Miller argues that the reader is fated to bring forth the spectral history of Wuthering Heights. Various voices communicate with the reader, yet no one appears to fully grasp the significance of the events. The reader senses something recognizable but fails to comprehend it or even express it. This contributes to the text's uncanny, perplexing quality. It is quite uncomfortable to realize that one is unable to understand the circumstances occurring around oneself. Traditionally, readers have been accustomed to narratives that adhere to principles of Unity concerning time, place, and events in the classical Aristotelian framework. Unity assists in solidifying the story and enables the reader to interpret moral and ethical significance within the text. Do we not often inquire, ‘so what is the moral of the story’? Both the reader and the narrators seek to uncover some form of Unity of meaning. Nelly and Lockwood are incessantly interpreting their observations. In doing so, they assign meanings influenced by their personal understanding and moral values. Many early critical readings of Wuthering Heights embraced the desire of Nelly and Lockwood to elucidate the central mystery and ascribe specific meanings to the relationships in the novel. Liberal Humanist critics such as F. R. Leavis, who placed Wuthering Heights within ‘the Great Tradition of English novels,’ aim to infuse the novel with evident aesthetic and moral values. The novel upholds certain universal ‘human truths. ’ From this viewpoint, Nelly’s and Lockwood’s narration is perceived as a dull and mundane summary of a relationship that is, in its true nature, raw, pure, wild, intuitive, and natural—something that transcends and exceeds the boundaries of reason. Universal frameworks were sought and enforced. Self-Check Exercise-I Q 1 Name the main characters of the novel. Q 2 Who is Nelly? 3.4    Summary To my perspective, Emily Bronte was presenting a challenge quite extraordinary for that time period by establishing a relationship that would refuse to be constrained by the norms of her society. Initially, Nelly and Lockwood completely fail to define or categorize that relationship. The author's success is demonstrated through her narrator's shortcomings. Nelly's tale to Lockwood represents her interpretation of the genuine article. It reflects her comprehension and portrayal. Narration serves as a form of representation. However, akin to all representations, it does not equate to the genuine article but is merely an image of it, a replica. Nelly recounts her narrative for her own sake as well as for the benefit of her audience (Lockwood). Both she and Lockwood, as we have perceived, are already situated within particular social frameworks of thought and belief, which we term ideology. This ideology influences their narrative, enabling them to not only misread and misinterpret certain aspects of their story but also occasionally misrepresent facts. This indicates that ideology influences their narrative, allowing them to misinterpret and misread certain elements of their story while sometimes misrepresenting details. Essentially, this signifies that ideology forms a part of the narrative. A defining trait of ideology is that it often captures individuals, frequently without their awareness. Nelly serves as the primary narrator and has already been captured by the ideology of her era. Consequently, her narrative also ensnares Lockwood. Notice how Lockwood never questions any of Nelly’s assumptions, statements, or qualifications. Lockwood’s narration is a tool the author employs to engage her readers. If one is not vigilant, Lockwood could entice us all into accepting his narration without hesitation, just as he did with Nelly’s recounting of events. Here, the pseudonymous Ellis Bell at Grange captivates Lockwood, who subsequently has impressed Ellis Bell, the author responsible for the story's publication. This leads us to a series of intriguing inquiries. Is Emily Bronte implying that she has not been enticed by the story? Considering this is not her narrative but rather Ellis Bell’s? Has Emily Bronte succeeded in resisting the ideology of her narrators? Does Emily Bronte neither concur with Lockwood’s views nor share his kind of enthusiasm regarding the story? For her, do the events hold an entirely different significance that she would prefer not to reveal or finds challenging to articulate? 3.5    Glossary •    Ambience- the character and atmosphere of a place. •    Alchemy- a seemingly magical process of transformation, creation, or combination. •    Divulge- make known (private or sensitive information). •    Gash- a long, deep cut or wound. •    Imperishable - enduring forever. •    Non- corporeal- not comparable •    Palpable- of a feeling or atmosphere) so intense as to seem almost real •    Surly- bad-tempered and unfriendly. 3.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-Check Exercise-I Ans 1. Heathcliff, Catherine, Hareton Earnshaw, Lockwood , Hindley Ans 2. She is the narrator of the novel. 3.7    References/Suggested Readings •    ‘A Bronte Companion: Literary Assessment, Background and Reference’ by F.B. Pinion •    ‘Critics on Charollette and Emily Bronte’ by Judith O’ Neill. •    F. B. Pinion. A Bronte companion; literary Assessment. Background. and Reference. London: The MacMillan Press. 1975. •    Judith O’ Neill,ed Critics on Charlotte and Emily Bronte. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1968 (pp 9-107). •    Elizabeth Drew : The Novel : A Modern Guide to Fifteen “English Masterpieces. New York : Dell Publishing Co.· 1963. (pp. 173-190). •    Mirian Allot Casebook Series on Wuthering Heights. London : MacMillan & Co. 1970. Contains. numerous entries, edited with notes, from early reviews. English and American to modern essyas including those of Allot. Drew, Traversi, Irene Copper Willis. and Mark Schorer. •    Arnold Kettle, An Introduction to the English Novel. Vol.1 London: H. U. L. 1950. (pp. 131-145). •    Royal A Gentleman, “Introduction” in Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights, New York: The Modern· Library. 1950 (V to XVI). Useful for comments on the two narrators. Considers Heathcliff a tragic hero. •    Lord David Cecili “Emily Bronte and Wuthering Heights” in “Early Victorian Novelists”. London 1934. 3.8    Terminal Questions Q1 Nelly is a reliable narrator. Do you agree with the statement? Elucidate from the text. Q2 Give a detailed summary of the Novel while discussing important events. Unit-4 Characters and their Relationship in the Novel Wuthering Heights Structure 4.1    Introduction 4.2    Learning Objectives 4.3    Major Character Self- Check Exercise-I 4.4    Summary 4.5    Glossary 4.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise 4.7    References/Suggested Readings 4.8    Terminal questions 4.1    Introduction In her book Wuthering Heights, Emily Bronte illustrates the characters from two families: the Earnshaws and the Lintons. She employs various characterization techniques throughout the narrative. The central figures of Wuthering Heights belong to two households: the Earnshaw family, who possess Wuthering Heights, and the Linton family, who reside in the far more elegant Thrushcross Grange. At the center of this conflict is the character of Heathcliff (without a surname). The two families become entangled throughout the story, ultimately merging into one as Heathcliff gains control over both estates; overall, the Linton family is more refined and affluent compared to the Earnshaws. The way each character responds to this class inequality is a significant reflection of their personality. Catherine Earnshaw perceives the Linton family as a means to escape Wuthering Heights and elevate her own social standing; when she is with them, her demeanor shifts to be considerably kinder and gentler than when she is at the Heights. Nelly, the story’s narrator who has worked as a maid in both houses at different times, does not concentrate on the class divide. Instead, she is more captivated by the intriguing gossip each family offers and how they behave towards her and the other characters she favors. She has a preference for the Lintons, as they exhibit greater kindness. Heathcliff stands apart, as he does not truly belong to either family. His social standing is nearly nonexistent, making him unwelcome among the Lintons, and apart from Catherine and Mr. Earnshaw, he is not genuinely accepted at Wuthering Heights. Heathcliff's distinction from everyone else plays a crucial role in his characterization throughout the novel. 4.2    Learning Objectives As suggested by the lesson's title, we will explore the characters of Heathcliff and Catherine thoroughly. We will gain insight into Heathcliff as a nonconformist, a figure that generates much discussion in literary circles. He will also be examined according to Emily's Christian moral perspective. Catherine will be analyzed in connection with certain traditional and cliché representations of women that were especially significant during the Victorian period. It is believed that the core of the novel revolves around the chaotic relationship between Heathcliff and Catherine. Most analyses focus on this specific element of the novel. This will also be addressed. 4.3    Major Charcters A. Heathcliff Significantly, Heathcliff possesses a dark nature. This instantly brings to mind for most readers the metaphysical concept of dark forces, both natural and supernatural. It sets the stage for Heathcliff's connection with traditional Christian concepts of duality; God and Devil, light and darkness, good and evil. Throughout much of the narrative, Heathcliff is linked with diabolical powers, hinted at by Earnshaw during his initial introduction. He is given the name Heathcliff, which also serves as his surname. Heathcliff does not share the Earnshaw surname, making him both a part of and an outsider to the family, as well as society at large. This outsider/insider role will play a crucial part in fostering disorder and chaos, undermining the very principles and ideals that sustain society. Heathcliff conjures images of the ‘heath’, a barren, desolate terrain, and the ‘heathen’, representing the primitive, the pagan, or the pre-Christian. His name also brings to mind the rugged, tantalizingly precarious geographical aspect of the damned, always brooding and typically on a self-destructive path, placing Heathcliff in line with the tradition of the romantic rebel. However, in contrast to the typical Byronic hero who crafts a cult of ‘separateness’, Heathcliff feels no necessity to distance himself from others. The romantic hero endures suffering because he perceives society as too crude and stagnant to appreciate or even grasp his creative and emotional desires, but Heathcliff’s pain stems from real loss—the death of his beloved Catherine—and he harbors no desire to justify himself to anyone; his acute awareness of the injustices done to him suffices for him to scheme against the ruin of others. As Hindley’s lifeless body is taken from Wuthering Heights for burial, Heathcliff lifts Hareton, Hindley’s child, and positions the boy on the table. Then he whispered with distinct enthusiasm, “Now my bonny lad you are mine! And we’ll see if one tree won’t grow as crooked as another, with the same wind to twist it! ” Heathcliff’s dark complexion also raises questions about his parentage. Could it be that one of his parents is nonEuropean, possibly of African or Asian lineage? The imperial and colonial concerns of the nineteenth century regarding both these continents led to the creation of various stereotypes and frameworks utilized to interpret and understand the different societies of these continents. While Africa was labeled the ‘dark continent’, Asia and the East were referred to as the ‘Orient’. Europe and the white races were contrasted against the African and Asian races. One classical dichotomy depicted the white races as embodying the coldness of scientific intellect and reason, whereas the dark races predominantly represented warmth of emotion and passion as well as the mystery of magic and mysticism. This symbolic framework cast the West as ice, the sky, and the father, while the East was depicted as fire. In the nineteenth century, many individuals who were otherwise disturbed by colonial expansion found it impossible to master these narratives. The darkness was as impenetrable as Adela Quested would discover in the Marabar caves. Thus, from Rudyard Kipling to E. M. Forster and onward, numerous novelists and writers refer to this seemingly incomprehensible and mysterious force of the dark and warm that is primarily emblematic of the ‘Orient’. Is Heathcliff from the ‘Orient’? Coincidentally, there exists another dark tragic hero, of African descent, whose influence on the white European psyche for four centuries is as formidable as Heathcliff’s: Othello. More information can be found in the section on Heart of Darkness and A Passage to India. The typical romantic hero dominating much of contemporary romance literature is tall, dark, and handsome. He is depicted as a character that is challenging to understand and even more challenging to control and restrain, existing beyond the realm of reason and rationality. Encountering such characters is both fascinating and perilous. Nelly- Lockwood’s attitude towards Heathcliff is, in many respects, the typical and clichéd perception one might anticipate in romance novels. However, it becomes clear that Heathcliff is not the rash and unpredictable protagonist of a traditional romance tale through the contrast provided by his unnatural and intense connection with Catherine and his cold, calculated, and questionable relationship with the infatuated Isabella. Nelly’s portrayal of Heathcliff upon his return reveals his change from an unkempt and impolite young boy to a "handsome man, tall, athletic, well formed. " He possesses an intelligent appearance and his demeanor is dignified. It is understandable that Isabella, a sixteen-year-old girl living a sheltered life within the social, moral, and ethical boundaries of the landed aristocracy, would develop an "irresistible attraction" towards a mysterious outsider who happened to be a "friend" of her sister-in-law. Indeed, the circumstances are ideal for a "romance" or an "affair" to unfold. Unfortunately, the affair concludes with disastrous consequences. Heathcliff himself dismantles the archetype of the romance hero in his assessment of Isabella’s infatuation. He tells Nelly: ". . . picturing in me hero of romance, and expecting unlimited indulgences from chivalrous devotion. I can hardly regard her in the light of a rational creature, so obstinately has she persisted in forming a fabulous notion of my character, and acting on the false impressions she cherished. " This serves as a strong critique of the cult of the romance hero and its unrealistic nature. While Heathcliff may not fully embody a Byronic hero, he certainly does not fit the mold of a romance hero either, despite appearing to possess all the externally necessary traits for one. What type of hero is Heathcliff? It is evident that defining or evaluating Heathcliff within the typical moral framework of conventional society, with its standard categories of heroes and villains, is not feasible. Even the concept of the dissenting hero, as promoted by the ideology of mid-Victorian society, fails to fully encapsulate Heathcliff. It appears Emily Bronte is attempting to construct a hero devoid of any heroic attributes. The reader's empathy is drawn toward Heathcliff, who, even while being mistreated as an outcast, tells Nelly, “Nelly, Make me decent, I am going to be good. ” The challenge lies in the fact that Heathcliff cannot be categorized as a hero or villain in moral terms. The notions of good and evil, virtue and vice, the noble and the damned seem inadequate to describe Heathcliff. Thus, Heathcliff emerges as a character who confronts not only social exploitation and injustice but also the moral universe that society upholds and which the readers share. B.    Catherine The term domestic holds particular importance when discussing women's roles. The role of women in the family has traditionally been viewed as domestic by patriarchal society. In the Victorian era, a time when industry was significantly changing social dynamics, it became essential to redefine women's roles in society. A skilled and educated workforce was needed not only to fulfill the new requirements of an industrializing society but also to manage the Empire's affairs, which resulted in a remarkable expansion of education during the Victorian Age. Education became a crucial requirement for upward social mobility in a society where wealth was transitioning from landowners to the 'captains of industry. ' The middle classes started to invest in education, sending their children to schools and colleges. Women gained opportunities for education and were able to engage in social activities and literary endeavors. In the context of supply and demand economics, low wages in the labor market forced women to leave their homes in search of employment. The increase in child labor also arose from similar circumstances. The upper middle classes could afford private tutors and employed educated Brontë sisters Charlotte, Emily, and Anne, all of whom worked training their children. The educated Brontë sisters Charlotte, Emily, and Anne worked as governesses during their lives. The city served as the backdrop for the drama of personal economic success and failure in an atmosphere of fierce and relentless competition. The Brontë brother, Branwell, was one of the failures, which made the sisters highly observant and philosophical regarding what the city and its demands signified for the quality of human life. The male-oriented Victorian society attempted to reconcile the emerging roles of women with the traditionally assigned domestic role of being fundamentally a homemaker, dutifully fulfilling the roles of daughter, sister, wife, and mother. There also existed a clearly defined role for women as lovers, which encompassed a broad range; at one extreme was the modest, bashful, elusive beauty who was captivated by handsome men, and at the other was the lively, seductive, enticing, and assertive beauty who captivated men. The literature of the era presents us with many of these easily identifiable stereotypes. As a compromise and in an ideal scenario, the eligible, wealthy Victorian bachelor would have preferred to seek a spouse who was educated and schooled in the manners of high society ('being a lady') but was also submissive enough to manage the household and children as a devoted and proficient wife. It is not surprising to recognize that numerous schools for women existed to provide specialized training for young prospective brides in the customs and etiquette of high society. The fact that this education was superficial and frequently merely an imposition compelled by patriarchal society is a concern voiced by many women writers of the period. It may have been observed that while socioeconomic issues form the foundation of many of Dickens's novels, the concerns regarding women and their social standing are artistically explored in the intricate novels of Jane Austen, Charlotte and Emily Brontë, and later, George Eliot. In the novel Wuthering Heights, it is clear that the authority is held by the family patriarch. Whether it involves the Earnshaws or the Lintons, social power resides with the head of the family, which he imposes on the other family members. Such a unilateral exertion of power is accepted as the legal and moral prerogative of the patriarch to discipline those in the household. Catherine’s wildness and her refusal to be tamed represent a rebellion against this authoritarian structure. She does not confront her father or husband openly, yet her spirit rejects the codes of discipline that are meant to be followed unquestioningly. Since Heathcliff is an outsider and no humane attempt is made to 'domesticate' him, his wildness cannot be compared to Catherine’s; Catherine’s wildness stems from the unbalanced sexual dynamic, increasingly her life is dictated and controlled with more authority as ratified by patriarchal society. The reason for Catherine’s unrestrained affection for Heathcliff, even as she fulfills the role of a dependable woman and the wife of a gentleman in Wuthering Heights, can be traced back to childhood bonds and memories of the various adventures she and Heathcliff orchestrated together. When Catherine declares, ‘I am Heathcliff,’ it is not simply that she has abandoned her femininity and transformed into a man, nor should it be interpreted exclusively in spiritual terms as a unification of souls. Rather, I would propose that through that declaration, Catherine displaces the power dynamics that position men as superior and asserts her equal standing. The notion that being a ‘lady’ is evidently a matter of economic status is acknowledged by Catherine, as marrying Edgar indeed transforms her into the ‘lady’ of Thrushcross Grange. She clarifies this to Nelly Nelly, I realize now that I am a selfish wretch; but did it never occur to you that if Heathcliff and I married, we would be beggars, whereas, if I wed Linton I can help Heathcliff to ascend, and free him from my brother’s control. Nelly acts as a sounding board, as though she were Catherine’s conscience. Catherine has come to understand that her ‘love’ for Heathcliff cannot thrive in a bourgeois society. This signifies that ‘love’ must be pragmatic and that marriage can only succeed when economic factors are taken into account. Catherine’s affection for Heathcliff is entirely utopian or even fantastical, and it defies the norms of her time. Although Catherine is aware that she and Edgar are to wed, she chooses to marry Edgar because it is a practical choice to make. Such tragic yet pragmatic decisions must have been prevalent in an era when marriage was frequently viewed as an economic advantage for the man's progress in life, while the wife was seen as a socially advantageous acquisition. Catherine exemplifies the numerous women who were tamed and fulfilled the role of a lady purely due to realistic considerations in a bourgeois society. In contrast, Catherine’s wildness represents the rejection of her gender identity as defined within a bourgeois context. If giving birth to children is a crucial component of this gender definition, it is profoundly significant that Catherine dies during childbirth; Catherine is obliterated; she cannot fit into the patriarchal society due to her refusal to conform to the codes of femininity, where familial loyalty was paramount.Nelly’s storytelling suggests that she, similar to other individuals in the Earnshaw household, supports Catherine’s change. It appears that the time spent at the Grange has ‘healed’ Catherine both physically and culturally. After all, at the Grange, Mrs. Linton took steps to ‘enhance’ Catherine systematically and started by ‘attempting to boost her self-esteem through elegant clothing and compliments’. For Hindley and his spouse, this change offers hope that it would lead to the separation of the two friends; that is, Catherine’s new behavior. Although everyone is taken aback by Catherine’s transformed behavior, her first question pertains to Heathcliff, who, in stark contrast to her, is dressed in garments that have endured three months’ exposure to mud and dust, and his hair is unkempt. Only Nelly had displayed the ‘compassion of labeling him a dirty boy’, indicating that the notions of clean and dirty are concepts pertinent to civilized society but do not apply to Heathcliff. His status on the opposite end of the social spectrum renders him a savage who has been deserted by everyone except Catherine. Despite her attire and her newly acquired decorum, Catherine abandons her lady-like demeanor the moment she spots Heathcliff and rushes to embrace him, showering him with seven or eight kisses on his cheek instantly. For the uncultured brute, this action is something that cannot be comprehended by the individuals of the so-called civilized world. Therefore, it appears that Catherine’s current role as a lady is fragile and will shatter with the slightest provocation. C.    Heathcliff- Catherine relationship You may have noticed after reviewing the summary of the novel in the prior lesson that Wuthering Heights stands apart from contemporary Victorian fiction. The central theme of the mid-Victorian novel revolves around the relationship between individuals and society. Some authors (Dickens, Reade, Gaskell, Kingsley) focused on specific issues, such as poverty and vivisection. Other writers (Thackeray and Eliot) addressed broader themes related to the challenges faced by individuals in groups. Consequently, the Victorian novel is fundamentally social in nature. As a result, the typical Victorian novel is densely populated with characters that represent various classes, professions, and interests. More often than not, the narrative is intricate and fragmented by shifting attention from one group to another, along with intentional manipulation in crafting a plot that intertwines, or at least accommodates, a multitude of characters. Now, let us examine some key characteristics of the romantic impulse and analyze Wuthering Heights in light of these to observe how consistently the romantic elements are either undermined or transformed by the immediacy of Emily’s personal perspective. The success of romantic melodramas largely hinges on the effects created through ambiguity and vagueness, marked by a lack of precision and an element of suggestiveness. This type of romantic emotion is more about feeling than perception; it represents potential rather than an actual reality. In Wuthering Heights, however, the contrary usually takes place. Even though the events portrayed may sometimes appear unbelievable, they are typically conveyed with remarkable clarity and precision. The traits that distinguish the writing from the ordinary romantic sensibility become especially notable following the initial depiction of Heathcliff’s home and its environment. Wuthering Heights is portrayed as Mr. Lockwood, the narrator, perceives it, through a series of detailed and vivid descriptions. The meticulously arranged exposition subtly builds up to the deeply poetic imagery of “the range of gaunt thorns all stretching their limbs one way as if craving alms of the sun,” ensuring that the evocation of the place's spirit does not feel like an imposition on the reader. Unlike the romantic authors, Brontë resolutely avoids the temptation to exploit poetic nuances and continues immediately to depict the interior of the house. One step led us into the family sitting room without an introductory lobby or passage: they refer to it here as "the house" primarily. It comprises both kitchen and parlor. Generally, but I believe at Wuthering Heights the kitchen is compelled to retreat into another area: at least I recognized the chatter of voices and the clatter of cooking utensils deep inside; and I noticed no signs of roasting, boiling, or baking around the massive fireplace; nor any sparkle of copper pots and tin colanders on the walls; one end indeed, reflected beautifully both light and heat from rows of enormous pewter dishes interspersed with silver jugs and tankards, rising row after row on a vast oak dresser to the ceiling. The latter had never been covered: its entire structure remained exposed to a curious gaze except where a wooden frame burdened with oatcakes and clusters of beef, mutton, and ham concealed it above the chimney where several wicked old guns were located. and a pair of horse pistols and by way of decoration three brightly-painted candelabra placed along its ledge. The flooring was of smooth white stone. the chairs high-backed primitive pieces painted green; one or two heavy black ones lurking in the shadows. Underneath the dresser, in an arch, rested a large, liver-colored female pointer surrounded by a multitude of squealing puppies while the other dogs occupied other corners. The description is detailed and firmly anchored in specifics and emphasizes the normality of the environment. This is undeniably a style of writing that is fundamentally opposed to romantic sensationalism. Arnold Kettle describes the concrete anti-romantic local flavor of Wuthering Heights in the following terms: Wuthering Heights takes place in England during 1847 and the year prior. The individuals it depicts do not reside in a fantastical realm but in Yorkshire. Heathcliff was not born from the pages of Byron but in a Liverpool slum. The language of Nelly, Joseph, and Hareton reflects the speech of Yorkshire inhabitants. The narrative of Wuthering Heights focuses not on love in the abstract, but on the passions of real people regarding property ownership, the allure of education, the credibility of religion, and the dynamics between the wealthy and the impoverished. There is nothing ambiguous about this novel: the fog in it is the fog of the Yorkshire moors; when we refer to it as possessing an elemental quality it is because the very elements, the tremendous forces of nature are summoned which change so slowly that, within the scope of human life, they appear unchanging. However, in this summoning, there is nothing haphazard or uncontrolled. On the contrary, the connection is profoundly concrete: we seem to smell the kitchen of Wuthering Heights, to feel the winds sweeping across the moors, to sense the very alterations of the seasons and to whom Dante would not consider awarding the honour of a place among those whom he has consigned to the burning pitch”: As late as 1886, Leslie Stephen, reflecting the views of many reviewers, noted that the novel fails to present an accurate representation of society, asserting that Emily Bronte’s tenuous grip on external realities rendered the book a sort of unfounded nightmare. Pater discovered in Wuthering Heights “the combination of strangeness and beauty” and described it as a “triumph of romantic art. ” Emily’s sister Charlotte was greatly disturbed by the critical backlash against Wuthering Heights, prompting her to write an introduction to the novel's second edition in 1850. In this introduction, she defends Wuthering Heights and criticizes the reviewers for their superficial interpretation of the work. Ironically, she herself does not acknowledge the novel's beauties that later critics would highlight. She admits that Emily’s portrayal of society is unrealistic, that Wuthering Heights is rustic, moorish, wild, and as intricate as a root of health, yet she continues to argue that its being otherwise would have been unnatural, ‘the author being herself the native and nursling of the moors. ’ In response to the critics’ concerns that Emily’s characters possess a ‘sombre intensity’, Charlotte contends that this is because they resemble their creator and are infused with the dark and tragic aspects of her psyche. a mud which did not have any living intercourse with the people and ‘rarely exchanged a word’ with them, although she ‘knew their language. their family histories’. Nowhere else is Charlotte’s Victorianism illustrated more completely than in her comments on the critics' complaint that a horror of ‘great darkness’ looms over much of Wuthering Heights. Here, if anywhere, one might envision Charlotte’s opportunity to reveal the hidden graces of her sister’s novel. Yet, she only refers to the superficial attributes of the characters, which, according to her, represent the spots of ‘daylight’ and ‘sun’, albeit clouded or eclipsed, within an otherwise dark and somber Wuthering Heights. She asserts that Nelly Dean is a ‘specimen of true benevolence and homely fidelity’; Edgar Linton embodies ‘constancy and tenderness’; in young Catherine, one might discern ‘grace and gaiety’; and even in her mother is shown a ‘certain strange beauty in her fierceness or honesty amidst perverted passion and passionate perversity’. Heathcliff does indeed remain unredeemed, although he reveals a degree of humanity in his openly expressed concern for Hareton Earnshaw, the young man he has destroyed, and his implicitly expressed regard for Nelly Dean. However, Heathcliff’s colossal inhumanity is such that he is destined to ‘carry Hell with him wherever he wanders. ’ It is noteworthy that until well into the twentieth century, no commentator took the time to analyze aspects such as its structure, its dramatic and poetic presentation, and its narrative techniques (the use of two narrators). It wasn't until 1921 that C. P. Sanger, a barrister specializing in Chancery, published an essay examining the structure of Wuthering Heights. This essay signifies a pivotal moment in the discourse surrounding Wuthering Heights. By uncovering various well-woven threads in this seemingly chaotic novel and by following hints and correlating dates, he revealed the remarkable precision and accuracy of Bronte’s chronology and legal acumen. He conclusively demonstrated that Wuthering Heights was not, as was frequently believed, the chaotic and impulsive expression of a passionate and disagreeable woman. Self-Check Exercise-I Q 1 What image does Heathcliff evokes among the readers? Q 2 Who in the novel is Catherine’s conscience? Q 3 Whom would Catherine marry? Q 4 In her ghostly form, how does Catherine appear? Q 5 What is the central concern of the novel? 4.4    Summary In this lesson, we thoroughly analyzed the various characters. Additionally, the main issue of the novel was addressed in depth, which is intricate. You will now be able to grasp this complex novel effortlessly. Apart from the characters, this lesson clearly elucidated the relationship between Catherine and Heathcliff. 4.5    Glossary •    Bourgeois- belonging to or characteristic of the middle class, typically with reference to its perceived materialistic values or conventional attitudes. •    Byronic hero- Byronic hero is a variant of the Romantic hero as a type of character, named after theEnglish Romantic poet Lord Byron. •    Consecrate- dedicate formally to a religious purpose •    Dissent- express opinions that are at variance with those commonly or officially held. •    Vivid - clear images in the mind. 4.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-Check Exercise-I Ans 1. Images of natural and supernatural both. Ans 2. Nelly Ans 3. Edgar Ans 4. She appears as a little girl rather than as a young woman. Ans 5. It is the intense passionate relationship between Catherine and Heathchliff. 4.7    References/Suggested Readings •    ‘Casebook series on Wuthering Heights’ by Mirian Allott. •    ‘Early Victorian Novelists’ by Lord David Cecil, 4.8    Terminal questions Q 1 Heathcliff is associated with Christian symbols of evil. Characterize Heathcliff with respect toEmily Bronte’s views on religion. Q 2 Heathcliff brutalizes Hareton the same way that he was brutalized by Hindley. But Hareton does notgo the Heathcliff way. Why? Reason your answer. Q 3 Do you conform to the view that Catherine is in the centre of a stressful relationship first between Heathcliff and Hindley and later Heathcliff and Linton? Discuss. Q 4 Catherine – Heathcliff relationship defines love. Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer. Unit-5 Important Critical Concerns in Wuthering Heights Structure 5.1    Introduction 5.2    Learning Objectives 5.3I mportant Critical Concerns Self-Check Exercise-I 5.4    Summary 5.5    Glossary 5.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise 5.7    References/Suggested Readings 5.8    Terminal Questions 5.1    Introduction When we refer to the structure of the novel, we are indicating the arrangement of the narrative concerning its broader components. The author integrates the elements of his creation into a cohesive artistic entirety through various techniques. This is undertaken to impart unity and coherence to the work. The most evident aspect of the structure of Wuthering Heights, which encompasses three generations, is the balance of the family tree. Mr. and Mrs. Earnshaw at Wuthering Heights and Mr. and Mrs. Linton at Thrushcross Grange each have one son and one daughter. Mr. Linton’s son Edgar Linton weds Mr. Earnshaw’s daughter Catherine Earnshaw, and their sole offspring Catherine marries in succession her two cousins, Mr. Linton’s grandson and Mr. Earnshaw’s grandson. The complete symmetry of the family tree can be understood by illustrating it visually. It represents an impressive instance of symmetry within a tumultuous narrative. 5.2    Learning Objectives Dear Students, We are confident that you have grasped this intricate yet fascinating novel.Additional concerns are addressed in this lesson to enhance your understanding of this text. The framework of it has been provided above. 5.3    Important Critical Concerns A.    Structure of the Novel When we reference the structure of the novel, we are referring to the arrangement of the narrative in terms of its broader units. The novelist combines the elements of his creation into a complete artistic whole using various methods. This is achieved to provide the work with unity and coherence. The most apparent feature of the structure of Wuthering Heights, which spans three generations, is the symmetry of the family tree. Mr. and Mrs. Earnshaw at Wuthering Heights and Mr. and Mrs. Linton at Thrushcross Grange each have a son and a daughter. Mr. Linton’s son, Edgar Linton, marries Mr. Earnshaw’s daughter, Catherine Earnshaw, and their sole child, Catherine, marries in succession her two cousins, Mr. Linton’s grandson and Mr. Earnshaw’s grandson. The perfect symmetry of the family tree can be appreciated when depicted diagrammatically. It is a striking example of symmetry in a tumultuous narrative. Wuthering Heights showcases a very meticulously balanced structure of ‘pleasant’ and ‘unpleasant’, ‘normal’ and ‘abnormal’, ‘mundane’ and ‘spiritual’, ‘cultural’ and ‘natural’. This principle of contrast permeates every element of the novel: its characters and themes, as well as its setting. Bronte assigns all the potentially unhealthy aspects to their roles within the artistic whole, and the narrative perpetually moves toward a resolution of ideal tranquility. At the heart of Wuthering Heights lies the relationship between Catherine and Heathcliff, while in the second half of the novel, there is a closely related theme, the bond between younger Catherine and Hareton, with this latter theme mirroring the former as a commentary, albeit on a markedly different emotional level. The story is almost entirely narrated by two observers, Mrs. Dean and Lockwood, with the majority being recounted by the former. In fact, Lockwood only contributes the opening and closing words, while for the remainder, he simply listens to Mrs. Dean’s narrative as a representative of a world distinct from the events that unfold in the novel. Consequently, he tends to be both uncomprehending and mundane.He describes, for example, that his quest for solitude is intended to aid him in forgetting an unsuccessful romantic involvement. He narrates his experience in uninspired and dull prose. The absurdity of Lockwood’s emotions helps to highlight by contrast the importance of the Catherine -Heathcliff connection. Lockwood’s reactions in later parts of the novel align closely with what one might predict from an average reader. His emotional reaction transitions from an unsympathetic disbelief at the outset to a temporary withholding of judgment by the conclusion, as he has become aware of the profound emotional undercurrents. Mrs. Dean’s role in the narrative is more intricate. She can be viewed as the chorus, albeit one that provides a perspective that is not entirely impartial. As a narrator, she must operate on a level of ordinary and occasionally trivial awareness that somewhat isolates her from the emotional climate surrounding the Catherine -Heathcliff relationship; however, aside from this, she represents the highest degree of objectivity attainable by any active participant in the events depicted. She is a “steady, reasonable kind of person” and, unlike Lockwood, possesses wisdom gained from both her life in the hills and extensive reading. Her judgment sharply contrasts not only with Lockwood’s superficial narrowness but also with Joseph’s limited Calvinism. The core relationship in the narrative, the love between Catherine and Heathcliff, is similarly approached and portrayed through contrasts. Emily Bronte strives to highlight the impersonal aspect of the Catherine - Heathcliff bond. She shows little interest in the surface dynamics of this relationship but continually emphasizes its internal conflicts. The depersonalized, spiritual bond stands in opposition to the refined, cultured, ‘social’ relationship that exists between Edgar Linton and Catherine. Prior to Catherine’s marriage to Edgar Linton, the bond between Catherine and Heathcliff fundamentally embodies spiritual harmony and balance. However, following her marriage and subsequent demise, the harmonious relationship deteriorates, revealing a stark contrast between Catherine and Heathcliff. Mrs. Dean remarks about Catherine: Her (was the hush) of perfect peace: Her brow smooth, her lids closed, her lips wearing the expression of a smile; no angel in heaven could be more beautiful than she appeared. . . It (her corpse) asserted its own tranquility. Regarding Heathcliff, Mrs. Dean depicts him as “leaning against an old ash tree. ” After conversing with him, she recounts: He dashed his head against the knotted trunk; and, lifting up his eyes howled not like a man, but like a savage beast being prodded to death with knives and spears. The contrast continues unabated until the final chapters, as Heathcliff’s conduct remains bizarre and unnatural; he now channels all his energies toward unifying the ownership of Wuthering Heights, where he has lived, and Thrushcross Grange, where Catherine resided with her husband. This endeavor, symbolizing his yearning to be reunited with Catherine, consumes him utterly, and he allows nothing to hinder him. He exhibits, for instance, significant cunning and brutality in orchestrating the marriage between Linton, his son, and Catherine, to whom Thrushcross Grange will revert upon Edgar’s death. The fundamental insight into his actions is provided by the younger Catherine, who asserts: Mr. Heathcliff, you have nobody to love you; and however miserable you make us, we still have the satisfaction of believing that your cruelty stems from your greater misery! However, once the earthly union is achieved, Heathcliff becomes subdued. He approaches Cathy in her coffin—I saw her face again, it is hers yet—and tells Mrs. Dean: She (Catherine) has troubled me night and day for eighteen years—unremittingly, without remorse—until last night; I found peace. I dreamed I was resting the final sleep beside the deceased, my heart stilled and my cheek pressed against hers. He now possesses “a single wish” and his “entire being and faculties are yearning to fulfill it. ” The usual physical requirements of life no longer captivate him: “I have to remind myself to breathe, almost to remind my heart to beat! ” He draws closer to the unspecified aim: I am too happy; yet I am not happy enough. My soul’s joy undermines my body, but does not satiate itself. Finally, Mrs. Dean describes: “Mr. Heathcliff was there laid on his back, his eyes met mine so keen and fierce. I started; and then he seemed to smile; he was dead and stark. ” The dimension on which the Catherine-Heathcliff relationship has shifted and its impersonal quality make it entirely appropriate that the Catherine-Heathcliff connection. The distinction between these two primary themes is generally found in the fact that the Catherine-Heathcliff theme is more primal and more Lawrentian.For example, Catherine and Heathcliff do not wed; Catherine informs Mrs. Dean that their connection does not require regulations of that sort, and that her marriage to Edgar is unlikely to influence it. Similarly, this notion applies to Heathcliff's union with Isabella, Edgar's sister. Indeed, the Catherine-Heathcliff relationship is depicted in neither sexual nor particularly humane terms. Conversely, the Catherine-Hareton theme unfolds on a plane of normalcy: by the conclusion of the novel, they are poised to be married. This differentiation between the two narratives is fundamentally significant: the Catherine-Hareton connection represents the projection of the Catherine-Heathcliff relationship into the realm of ordinary conduct; it manifests the core spiritual conflict in conventional social terms. The tensions and contradictions inherent in the Catherine-Heathcliff motif are mirrored in various manners across all relationships in the novel. Heredity serves a structural and cohesive function. The essential conflict arises from the contrast between the two estates, between Thrushcross Grange — an impressive residence adorned with crimson, accompanied by crimson-covered chairs and tables — and Wuthering Heights — where “the floor was of smooth white stone and the chairs were high-backed, primitive structures, painted green. ” Thrushcross Grange is the residence of the Lintons, and Edgar and Isabella Linton, along with Frances, symbolize refinement and delicacy. In opposition, we have Hindley and Catherine Earnshaw and Heathcliff, all of whom were raised in Wuthering Heights, developing in a rough manner devoid of civilized grace. Compared to the beautiful fertile valley of Edgar's estate, Heathcliff's land is described as a "bleak hilly cool country. " As a child, Catherine was a "wild wick slip," but after spending some time with the Lintons, she comes back changed, “Her spirit was high though not rough, and qualified by a heart sensitive and lively to excess in its affections. That capacity for intense attachments reminded me of her mother; still, she did not resemble her; for she could be as soft and mild as a doe, and she had a gentle voice and pensive expression; her anger was never furious, her love never fierce: it was deep and tender. ” The ramifications of these unions and their descendants are relatively broad. The first highlights the incompatibility of the Heathcliff and Isabella elements. The second illustrates that there is a potential sympathy between the two opposing households; Catherine, having her nature refined by her time at Thrushcross Grange, marries Edgar with relative success, and their daughter receives as much approval as Heathcliff’s son receives scorn from Mrs. Dean. Finally, there is Hareton, the offspring of Frances and Hindley, Catherine’s brother. Until he reaches about seventeen, Hareton is nearly a duplicate of Heathcliff, although the influence of Frances makes him more restrained, given that she is an insignificant and fragile figure. Heathcliff uses his malice to utterly debase Hareton and teach him “to scorn everything extra-animal as silly and weak. ” Yet shortly before Heathcliff's death, he states: Hareton appeared to embody my youth, not a human being. His initial resemblance to Catherine linked him ominously with her. Hareton’s demeanor represented the specter of my eternal love, my fervent attempts to claim my rights, my degradation, my pride, my joy, and my sorrow. It is evident that this plays a significant role in bringing the novel together. We have previously observed that the Catherine-Hareton theme acts as a counterpoint to the Catherine-Heathcliff theme. The distinction between these two themes remains even in the smallest details from the beginning to the conclusion. The resolution unfolds in distinctly different manners and at entirely different levels. The affection between Catherine and Heathcliff is characterized by an undeniable passion; whereas, the bond between Catherine and Hareton lacks such immediate empathy, and their love emerges, as it were, from external factors. Catherine dies during childbirth while having the younger Catherine, and just as from that point she and Heathcliff are divided and only slowly come back together, so there exists from the outset a lack of understanding between Catherine and Hareton that is gradually resolved. Upon their first encounter, she mistakes him for a servant. The gap between them widens due to Heathcliff’s effort to consolidate the two estates by marrying his son Linton to Catherine. However, after the marriage occurs (Linton passes away almost immediately) and Heathcliff feels himself drawing ever closer to Catherine, intimacy between Catherine and Hareton rapidly emerges. Moreover, aligning with Mrs. Dean’s comments regarding her literary education, it is through teaching Hareton to read and value her books that Catherine enhances this bond. Mrs. Dean states: His genuine, warm, and intelligent character quickly shook off the shadows of ignorance and degradation in which it had been confined; and Catherine’s heartfelt praise served as a spur to his diligence. It is this connection that gains Mrs. Dean’s approval. It is accurate that her remarks about Heathcliff and Catherine are essentially sympathetic. However, they are tempered by the fact that she does not wholly or spontaneously endorse Heathcliff and Catherine. Thus, after Catherine expresses her emotions for Heathcliff, stating, “Nelly, I am Heathcliff! ” she mentions that she was “out of patience with her folly. ” Likewise, when she discovers Heathcliff in the grounds following Catherine’s death and observes him strike “his head against the knotted trunk,” she notes that “It hardly moved my compassion. ” Yet concerning Hareton and Catherine, she expresses: "The crowns of all my wishes will be the union between these two. I shall envy no one on their wedding day: there won’t be a happier woman than myself in England! " But the "union between these two" also represents the ultimate union of Catherine and Heathcliff. The close connection between the two themes now becomes evident. When Heathcliff passes away, Hareton “sat by the corpse all night, weeping in the bitter earnest. ” The resolution into peace with which the Catherine-Heathcliff theme concludes is mirrored in the Hareton-Catherine theme. As Mrs. Dean informs Lockwood that the latter are going to reside at Thrushcross Grange, they come back from a walk. “They are afraid of ‘nothing,’ [Lockwood] grumbled, watching their approach through the window. “Together, they would brave Satan and his legions. ” As they stepped onto the doorstones and paused to take a final glance at the moon—or, more accurately, at each other by her light—I felt an overwhelming urge to escape them. Lockwood, whose sympathies are now completely engaged, goes to locate the graves of Edgar, Catherine, and Heathcliff. He lingered around them, beneath the benevolent sky; observed the moths fluttering among the heath and harebells; listened to the gentle wind whispering through the grass; and pondered how anyone could ever envision unquiet slumbers for the sleepers in that tranquil earth. The novel concludes on a note of profound serenity and completeness. This feeling is further emphasized by the smooth, balanced flow of the prose. B.    Basic Theme Because the Catherine-Heathcliff relationship constitutes the essential fabric of Wuthering Heights, one might readily assume that the love between the two main characters is the novel's central theme. However, the mere narrative does not define the theme of a novel. The theme of the novel represents the abstract expression of the significance within the world it portrays. In any sufficiently intricate work of art, the meaning or significance functions on multiple levels: social, physiological, moral, and spiritual. This holds true for Wuthering Heights as well. The vastly different interpretations of the thematic structure behind its dramatic plot are a consequence of Emily Bronte’s impenetrable restraint and her failure to provide personal interpretation. In the absence of any credible or definitive interpretation of the theme, the reader must rely almost entirely on the perspectives offered by two narrators (indeed one narrator, since Lockwood merely introduces the tale and later appears at the conclusion to summarize it, thus narrating a mere fraction of the story), whose interpretative standards, while accurately relaying what they have observed and been told, are evidently frequently inadequate because the narrators are not infallible. In his book, An Introduction to the English Novel. Vol. 1, Arnold Kettle interprets the tale of Heathcliff and Catherine Earnshaw as a representation of the social struggle occurring during Emily Bronte’s era—a struggle in which she identified moral decay and vice on both sides. According to Kettle, Wuthering Heights epitomizes “an expression in imaginative terms of social tensions and conflicts—both personal and spiritual—within nineteenth-century capitalist society. ” The characters of Wuthering Heights are not enslaved by nature; they exist within the world and seek to alter it, sometimes successfully, but always with great difficulty and through numerous mistakes. It is clear that this represents a Marxist viewpoint, positioning Heathcliff as a Marxist hero who makes a conscious, albeit desperate, attempt to create a just social order founded on recognizing human needs for equality, dignity, and honor. Initially, Catherine and Heathcliff are united in their fight against Hindley and Joseph's oppression. They discard their religious books into the dog kennel. Through their revolt, they unearth their profound connection and passionate need for one another. Heathcliff, the marginalized outsider, turns to the spirited and daring girl who uniquely offers him understanding and companionship. She, born into the realm of Wuthering Heights, realizes that to attain full humanity and remain true to herself, she must entirely associate with him in his rebellion against Mr. Earnshaw's tyranny and all that it entails. This rebellion immediately wins our sympathy for Heathcliff in the early parts of the book. We recognize that he embodies humanity. He is a “conscious rebel. ” Furthermore, it is from his association in rebellion with Catherine that the unique essence of their relationship emerges. It explains why each perceives that betrayal of their bond is, in a strange and mysterious way, a betrayal of the most valuable aspects of existence and mortality. Shortly thereafter, however, the Catherine-Heathcliff narrative is overtly placed on the level of social conflict when Catherine betrays Heathcliff by marrying Edgar Linton, deluding herself into believing she can find happiness with him. Yet, choosing Linton represents a choice of death over life. Here, the conflict manifests between ‘nature’ and ‘culture,’ between Wuthering Heights and ‘Thrushcross Grange. ’ Thrushcross Grange, which represents the more pleasant and comfortable aspects of bourgeois life, seduces Catherine. She begins to disdain Heathcliff’s lack of ‘culture. ’ Nevertheless, when Heathcliff returns—now an adult and prosperous— the social conflict is accentuated once again. Edgar, understandably, wishes to avoid Heathcliff, but Catherine insists. “I know you didn’t like him,” she replied, slightly suppressing her delight’s intensity. “Yet for my sake, you must now be friends. Shall I ask him to come up? ” ‘Here’, he stated ‘into the parlour? ’ Where else? She inquired. He appeared irritated and recommended the kitchen as a better location for himself. Mrs. Linton regarded him with an amused look, half annoyed, half chuckling at his meticulousness. ‘No’. She added after a moment. ‘I cannot remain in the kitchen. Set two tables here, Ellen; one for your ‘master and Miss Isabella, being gentry, the other for Heathcliff and myself, being the lower orders. Will that satisfy you, dear? ’.... From the instant of Heathcliff’s return, Catherine strives to reconcile herself with Thrushcross. Grange is fated. Once Heathcliff is close, Catherine can uphold no delusions regarding the Lintons. The two are now united by their ‘contempt for the values of Thrushcross Grange. ’ Catherine mocks Edgar. While discussing her burial, she states: “not among the Lintons, mind, under the chapel roof but in the open air, with a headstone. ” The open-air aspect, the moors, stands in contrast with the world of Thrushcross Grange. She even boldly insults Edgar in Heathcliff’s presence. It is evident that their disdain for the Lintons is a moral contempt and not one driven by jealousy. Kettle argues that we continue to empathize with Heathcliff even post his marriage to Isabella, which marks the beginning of his heartless and ghastly acts of vengeance. We do so because Bronte convinces us that what Heathcliff represents is morally superior to what the Lintons embody. We perceive his attack on Edgar as significant because we recognize that the impetus behind his condemnation of Edgar (He refers to Edgar as “that insipid paltry creature attending, from duty of humanity’ From ‘pity and charity’! ) is rooted in moral sentiment. He confronts Edgar and everything he represents not due to some perverse emotion, but because he envisions a more natural, more social, and more humane world compared to ‘Thrushcross Grange. ’ According to Kettle, our empathy for Heathcliff remains intact even in the third section, where he embarks on his quest for revenge with complete, almost inhuman, brutality. ‘This is not obviously to admire him or defend him, but to extend to him our deepest sympathy, to continue in a subtle way to align ourselves with him against the other characters. This occurs because Heathcliff’s vengeance possesses a moral force. For what Heathcliff does is wield against his adversaries with total ruthlessness their own instruments, defeating them at their own game: The tools he employs against the Earnshaws and Lintons are their own instruments of wealth and arranged marriages. He gains power over them through the classic tactics of the ruling class, expropriation and property deals. He buys out Hindley and reduces him to drunken impotence; he marries Isabella and subsequently arranges the marriage of his son to the younger Catherine, so that he can control the entire property of the two families. He systematically degrades Hareton Earnshaw to servitude and illiteracy. “I desire the triumph of seeing my descendants fairly lords of their estates! My child employing their children to cultivate their father’s lands for wages. ” And what particularly brings him the utmost satisfaction is his achievement of the supreme ruling-class victory of making Hareton, the boy he degrades, feel a profound and even passionate attachment towards him. Heathcliff retains our sympathy throughout this grim section of the novel because we instinctively perceive a rough moral justice in what he has inflicted upon his oppressors, and because although he is inhuman, we comprehend why he is inhuman. Obviously, we do not endorse what he does, but we grasp it: the deep and intricate issues behind his actions are laid bare for us. We acknowledge that the very forces which drove him to revolt for a higher freedom have themselves ensnared him in their own values and dictated the nature of his retaliation. In the concluding section, a peculiar transformation occurs within him. Just at the moment of his dreadful triumph when he could exact revenge upon his enemies, he loses the ability to delight in their downfall. Why this alteration? How to explain this? Several critics assert that Heathcliff changes due to fatigue; the intensity of his wild vengeance has diminished. Kettle, on the other hand, suggests that as Heathcliff observes the affection between Catherine and Hareton blossom, he begins to understand the failure of his own retribution. Though the Catherine-Hareton relationship is envisioned on a less intense and passionate scale than the love between Catherine and Heathcliff, the former pair does symbolize the continuity of life and human aspiration, and it is through them that Heathcliff comes to realize the emptiness of his triumph. It is when Hareton, who adores Heathcliff, comes to Catherine’s aid during his [Heathcliff’s] attack on her that the full significance of his own bond with Catherine resurfaces, and he becomes aware that in the connection between Catherine and Hareton, there exists something of the same nature. From the instant that Catherine and Hareton are drawn together as rebels, the change begins; now for the first time, Heathcliff is confronted. Not by those who embrace the values of Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange, but by those who reflect, albeit remotely, his own wild struggles to assert his rights. The rebellion of Catherine and Hareton against him makes him realize that it is a reflection of his fight to avenge himself on the world of power and property through its own values. Catherine had betrayed him by marrying Linton, but he now recognizes that he too has betrayed Catherine and everything she represented. Just as Catherine must confront the full horror of her betrayal of their love, he must confront the full horror of his betrayal as well. And once he faces it, he can perish, not nobly or triumphantly, but at least as a man, leaving behind with Catherine and Hareton the possibility of continuing the struggle he has initiated, and in his death, he will attain again human dignity. The novel concludes on a tone of positive and unromantic hope. The connection between Catherine and Heathcliff symbolizes the essential nature of man, illustrating that to choose life over death, one must resist everything that threatens to undermine his needs and aspirations. In fact, it represents the essential need for all human beings to become more fully human through collective action. Ultimately, Heathcliff attains maturity and understanding without any support from the society he loathes. The mental tranquility he achieves in the final pages of the novel is emphasized by the fluid prose. The ongoing rhythm of life is mirrored in the evolving relationship. As Kettle remarks, “Life will persist and others will rise against the oppressors: Nothing has been resolved but much has been experienced. Deceptions, complacencies, and dreadful mistakes have been uncovered. A curtain has been lifted from the traditional façade of bourgeois man; he has been unveiled, through Heathcliff, with his disguise. ” Thus, Heathcliff's narrative embodies the story of struggle. However, his conflict is just a segment of the constant battle that humanity must engage in to transition from a class-based society to the enhanced humanity of a classless existence. Since the novel is envisioned within real, concrete specifics, it simultaneously represents a reflection of the life of Victorian England that Emily Bronte knew, as well as a commentary on life in general. In previous sections, the theme of Wuthering Heights has been explored at some length from a Marxist perspective. Yet, as previously indicated, the novel can be interpreted in various ways. Below are some alternative viewpoints. (These will be briefly outlined, and you may choose to expand or illustrate them yourself). Mark Schorer believes that in Wuthering Heights, Emily Bronte aims to “create a work of edification," initiating her narrative by attempting to educate the dandy Lockwood about the essence of a grand passion. Nonetheless, the overarching significance is the emphasis on “the transience of self and the ‘permanence of something larger. ” David Cecil categorizes Wuthering Heights as a ‘metaphysical’ novel, where the prominent characters exist based on their perspectives toward the universe and the vast landscape of the cosmic arrangement. He interprets the pattern as “the manifestation of certain vital spiritual principles; on one side, the principles of storm, the harsh, the merciless, the wild, the dynamic: on the other, the principles of calm, the gentle, the compassionate, the passive, and the tame. ” He perceives the fusion of these two principles as creating a cosmic harmony, and “the destruction and restoration of harmony is the narrative’s central theme. ” However, Elizabeth Drew disagrees with David Cecil. She argues that in the temporal realm, the storm principle does not ultimately prevail. Furthermore, neither does the calm principle win in the spiritual realm. Heathcliff’s schemes to ruin Hareton turn out to be illusions, and the future for him and the young Catherine lies in the tranquility of Thrushcross Grange. Drew asserts, “We may question whether this conclusion establishes the harmony described by David Cecil or whether it points instead to distinct planes of existence that remain separate and irreconcilable in the realm of men. ” In summary, the two love stories fail to merge to restore balance or harmony. Wuthering Heights possesses two dimensions: one that is cosmic in scope and the other human, directly addressing human relationships, which intrinsically differ from universal or cosmic forces in that they are inevitably intertwined with emotional and moral dilemmas, conflicts, and choices. The novel indeed operates on three intertwined levels: the realistic, the emotional and moral, and the realm of pure spirit. We transition between these levels within a few lines. We may begin with Nelly in the farm kitchen, soothing baby Hareton to sleep with a folk song (realistic), move on to Catherine revealing her desire to marry Edgar Linton because he is young, wealthy, and handsome (moral and social), and then hear her lamenting her unbreakable connection to Heathcliff. If everything else were to perish; and he endured. I would still persist in being ; and If everything else endured, and he were destroyed. the universe would transform into a colossal stranger: I would not appear to be a component of it. . . Nelly. I am Heathcliff (spiritual) Surely, these diverse realms of existence cannot be reconciled by any stretch of imagination. The conclusion of the novel implies that love can triumph over hate. Heathcliff revels in the fact that he has completely corrupted Hareton and that he has even “outmatched Hindley” in making Hareton “damnably fond of me”. But that is precisely where Heathcliff himself is at a disadvantage. He cannot corrupt Hareton and make his qualities ineffective simply because Hareton reciprocates love for hate. It is plausible that Emily Bronte had encountered Blake’s: Mutual forgiveness of each vice. Such are: the Gate of Paradise. Its natural counterpart is that revenge leads to hell, and this encapsulates the theme of Heathcliff. C.    Critical Assessment At this juncture, it is relevant to evaluate the history of criticism pertaining to Wuthering Heights. Pasty Stone man's Introduction in Wuthering Heights: Emily Bronte. New Casebook: Macmillan. 1993, and Linda H. Peterson’s essay ‘A Critical History of Wuthering Heights’ in case studies in Contemporary Literature, Boston; Bedford Book of St. Martin’s Press, 1992, serve this aim by tracing the lineage of the novel’s criticism and guiding us to significant critical resources. The existing critical resources on Wuthering Heights can be categorized chronologically into three stages. Criticism that arose following the novel’s publication through the early twentieth century can be termed the early stage. The middle stage is characterized by critics who recognize the novel as a significant artistic work and analyze it without the limitations of seeking moral significances or societal messages within the text. The final stage, distinguished by the critical perspectives of modern critics in the past two decades, has been especially stimulating. Many inquiries posed by earlier critics and readers, along with various issues that sparked engaging discussions, are revisited with new interpretations by these modernist critics utilizing Deconstructionist theories. Early criticism (pre 1930’s), as presented in the Case Book Series edited by Miriam Allott, acknowledges the work's potency and perceives the novel as an exceptional composition by an extraordinary writer. Critics elaborated on the author’s depiction of 'evil incarnate' and the 'tragic and terrible repercussions' of physical and mental violence in a societal framework where moral principles are intentionally disregarded. The novel’s intrigue and its gripping dramatic language were also highlighted. It appeared as though the author intended to convey something deeply personal. Consequently, early criticism was focused on biographical, historical, and literary aspects that could be integrated into the novel. This form of criticism established connections between Wuthering Heights and Byron, the French and German Gothic narratives, and notably to Emily Bronte’s Gondal poems. In her Gondal poem, Emily Bronte crafted a fictional realm featuring a fair-haired heroine who loves intensely yet is capricious in her affections with multiple dark-haired heroes. This heroine and the heroes were also perceived by critics who pointed out that there was confusion and 'wildness' not just in the narrative style but also in the moral implications they sought, which could conveniently align with their notions of social morality and justice. This preliminary exploration of the text contributed to the development of various issues relevant to the contemporary critic. By the early part of the twentieth century, a novel approach to criticism emerged. These critics focused less on moral dilemmas presented in the novel and paid greater attention to its artistic accomplishments. For them, the text was vital and fundamental, viewed as an artwork to be appreciated for the literary techniques involved in its creation. Critics associated with the New Criticism and Formalism schools believed that the baffling and elusive nature of Wuthering Heights, along with its intricate symbolism and imagery, peculiar characterizations, and suggestive elements, were indeed its strengths, as the meanings, possibly universal and timeless, were artfully concealed within the fabric of the novel, and the artistic creativity was reflected in how the text engaged readers in uncovering these hidden significances. Nevertheless, F. R. Leavis did not categorize Wuthering Heights among the Great Tradition of English novelists. For Leavis, the novel was an impressive creation yet merely a type of ‘sport,’ suggesting that it was simply a matter of personal enjoyment and lacked the depth to stand alongside authors like Jane Austen, Dickens, and George Eliot. Ironically, it was in this critical period that the novel was genuinely reinstated as a serious piece of fiction. Critics meticulously analyzed how the novel was structurally organized with respect to time and chronology and how the shifts in narrative create a deceptive but expertly crafted sense of disorder for the reader. They noted Emily Bronte’s remarkable comprehension of legal issues pertaining to property and inheritance law. Lord David Cecil contended that the novel was artistically structured around the overarching themes of ‘storm’ and calm. The central conflict within the novel was not between ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ but rather ‘between like and unlike. ’ Dorothy Van Ghent’s renowned analysis highlights the repeating motif of the window throughout the text. The windows delineate space with respect to ‘inside’ and ‘outside’ and also distinguish the human from the alien or the other. The novel’s tension stems from the clash between two types of realities, one that is raw and natural, while the other is civilized, yet limiting and often unnatural. As reviewers began to examine the text more thoroughly, especially the structure of the narrative, it became clear that the novel had more to express than merely a haunting story of unsuccessful lovers. In an analysis of the narrative, the reader's connection with the two narrators, alongside the necessity to separate oneself from both, was highlighted. The imagery patterns intrigued the critics, and they discerned how these patterns contributed to the monumental interpretation of the novel in Freudian terms of male and female sexual symbols, along with the interplay of instincts and psychic energy in the relationship between Catherine and Heathcliff. This phase is marked by the abundance and variety of interpretations that emerged from meticulous textual analysis. Rather than focusing on a singular significant message from the novel, critics conveyed and illustrated the richness and worth of the text found within its various layers of meaning and suggestion. In this environment of diversity, Emily Brontë’s life and era were observed with a dispassionate and objective lens. Instead of merely creating biographical connections between the novel and Emily Brontë’s existence, Marxist critics such as Arnold Kettle and Raymond Williams emphasized how the text directly reflects the tumultuous and evolving social, political, and economic conditions of mid-nineteenth century England, where a certain authenticity is detected in the portrayal of the social order's differential treatment of men and women, as well as the degradation of the working class, which were concerns raised by early Marxist and feminist critics. With contemporary theoretical research in philosophy, anthropology, linguistics, and culture influencing liberty criticism, the last two decades have produced a brand-new form of novel criticism. It becomes increasingly challenging to categorize these critical analyses and should be regarded as part of the intellectual discussions that critics are involved in from diverse and intricate theoretical stances. These critics are primarily shaped by what is termed structuralism. Pasty Stoneman characterizes structuralism as a movement that fused linguistics with anthropology and demonstrated that cultural behaviors of all types follow a pattern similar to language, with meanings derived from these patterns being socially constructed. Structuralism profoundly affected how texts are read. As meaning was connected to culture, texts signified more than just their literal interpretations, and high-quality literature invariably engaged readers with 'pluralities' or multiple layers of meaning. What sets structural reading apart from earlier criticism is that the structuralist did not regard the text as containing a singular meaning that, once uncovered, would be universally accepted and agreed upon. Structuralists like Frank Kermode would favor texts that suggest multiple meanings and various interpretive possibilities. Conversely, critics who practice deconstruction challenge the structuralist perspective. Influenced by the theoretical work of Jacques Derrida, deconstructionists would argue that while structuralists analyze language and culture scientifically and objectively, and study how meanings are produced, there remains the potential for making subjective value judgments that prioritize one meaning over another. These preferences may lead one back to a central core meaning in essential and cultural terms; deconstructionist critics have managed to broaden the text for those wishing to analyze it to ascertain how different cultural patterns, biases, and preferences are woven into the text, as well as how the prevailing value system is concealed within the text. In the current context, reading Wuthering Heights involves not only reading a novel by Emily Brontë but also reflecting on the reader's own cultural perspective and their knowledge or lack thereof regarding the historical context of the text. Deconstructionists have undeniably expanded the realm of literary criticism. Deconstruction represents a post-structuralist approach. Other poststructuralist approaches include those of Michel Foucault, the French historian who theorizes that ‘discourse is the accepted means of describing and evaluating experience. ’ Foucault contends that power—social, political, and economic—is sustained through the discourses present in the text of Wuthering Heights. A religious discourse is drawn from themes of heaven, hell, sin, redemption, and salvation. Furthermore, there is a discourse surrounding romanticism, emphasizing ideal love and heroic solitude, alongside discourses of magic, myth, and folklore. The purposes of these discourses may operate simultaneously while being at crosspurposes with each other. Post-structuralist critics use the text of Wuthering Heights to pinpoint the myriad discourses, or voices of mid-Victorian society, and to reveal the contradictions and conflicts that arise as these voices engage in dialogue. We have employed some of these methods in our earlier discussions on the narrative and the characters of Heathcliff and Catherine in previous units. You will come to understand that contemporary critical practices utilize the text as a starting point for a discussion and engagement with the society and culture that created it and also with the one in which it is interpreted. Literary criticism does not merely focus on recognizing social history, literary subtleties, and cultural trends; it delves deeper to investigate the essence of these trends and subtleties. For feminist critics, this investigation holds significant value because it provides insight into the methods and ways through which patriarchal society has managed to suppress and marginalize the female voice. Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, in their evocatively titled book The Madwoman in the Attic, highlight how the woman writer strives to counter the influence of earlier writers in the late eighteenth century and the nineteenth century who were truly entering a heavily male-dominated space, such as Wuthering Heights. As reviewers began to examine the text more thoroughly, especially the structure of the narrative, it became clear that the novel had more to express than merely a haunting story of unsuccessful lovers. In an analysis of the narrative, the reader's connection with the two narrators, alongside the necessity to separate oneself from both, was highlighted. The imagery patterns intrigued the critics, and they discerned how these patterns contributed to the monumental interpretation of the novel in Freudian terms of male and female sexual symbols, along with the interplay of instincts and psychic energy in the relationship between Catherine and Heathcliff. This phase is marked by the abundance and variety of interpretations that emerged from meticulous textual analysis. Rather than focusing on a singular significant message from the novel, critics conveyed and illustrated the richness and worth of the text found within its various layers of meaning and suggestion. In this environment of diversity, Emily Brontë’s life and era were observed with a dispassionate and objective lens. Instead of merely creating biographical connections between the novel and Emily Brontë’s existence, Marxist critics such as Arnold Kettle and Raymond Williams emphasized how the text directly reflects the tumultuous and evolving social, political, and economic conditions of mid-nineteenth century England, where a certain authenticity is detected in the portrayal of the social order's differential treatment of men and women, as well as the degradation of the working class, which were concerns raised by early Marxist and feminist critics. With contemporary theoretical research in philosophy, anthropology, linguistics, and culture influencing liberty criticism, the last two decades have produced a brand-new form of novel criticism. It becomes increasingly challenging to categorize these critical analyses and should be regarded as part of the intellectual discussions that critics are involved in from diverse and intricate theoretical stances. These critics are primarily shaped by what is termed structuralism. Pasty Stoneman characterizes structuralism as a movement that fused linguistics with anthropology and demonstrated that cultural behaviors of all types follow a pattern similar to language, with meanings derived from these patterns being socially constructed. Structuralism profoundly affected how texts are read. As meaning was connected to culture, texts signified more than just their literal interpretations, and high-quality literature invariably engaged readers with 'pluralities' or multiple layers of meaning. What sets structural reading apart from earlier criticism is that the structuralist did not regard the text as containing a singular meaning that, once uncovered, would be universally accepted and agreed upon. Structuralists like Frank Kermode would favor texts that suggest multiple meanings and various interpretive possibilities. Conversely, critics who practice deconstruction challenge the structuralist perspective. Influenced by the theoretical work of Jacques Derrida, deconstructionists would argue that while structuralists analyze language and culture scientifically and objectively, and study how meanings are produced, there remains the potential for making subjective value judgments that prioritize one meaning over another. These preferences may lead one back to a central core meaning in essential and cultural terms; deconstructionist critics have managed to broaden the text for those wishing to analyze it to ascertain how different cultural patterns, biases, and preferences are woven into the text, as well as how the prevailing value system is concealed within the text. In the current context, reading Wuthering Heights involves not only reading a novel by Emily Brontë but also reflecting on the reader's own cultural perspective and their knowledge or lack thereof regarding the historical context of the text. Deconstructionists have undeniably expanded the realm of literary criticism. Deconstruction represents a post-structuralist approach. Other post-structuralist approaches include those of Michel Foucault, the French historian who theorizes that ‘discourse is the accepted means of describing and evaluating experience. ’ Foucault contends that power—social, political, and economic—is sustained through the discourses present in the text of Wuthering Heights. A religious discourse is drawn from themes of heaven, hell, sin, redemption, and salvation. Furthermore, there is a discourse surrounding romanticism, emphasizing ideal love and heroic solitude, alongside discourses of magic, myth, and folklore. The purposes of these discourses may operate simultaneously while being at cross-purposes with each other. Post- structuralist critics use the text of Wuthering Heights to pinpoint the myriad discourses, or voices of mid-Victorian society, and to reveal the contradictions and conflicts that arise as these voices engage in dialogue. We have employed some of these methods in our earlier discussions on the narrative and the characters of Heathcliff and Catherine in previous units. You will come to understand that contemporary critical practices utilize the text as a starting point for a discussion and engagement with the society and culture that created it and also with the one in which it is interpreted. Literary criticism does not merely focus on recognizing social history, literary subtleties, and cultural trends; it delves deeper to investigate the essence of these trends and subtleties. For feminist critics, this investigation holds significant value because it provides insight into the methods and ways through which patriarchal society has managed to suppress and marginalize the female voice. Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, in their evocatively titled book The Madwoman in the Attic, highlight how the woman writer strives to counter the influence of earlier writers in the late eighteenth century and the nineteenth century who were truly entering a heavily male-dominated space, such as Wuthering Heights. Gilbert highlights the symbolic aspect of Catherine's yearning to acquire a whip or a means of authority and strength. Essentially, it is Heathcliff who truly becomes her source of power against an overbearing father and subsequently a savage brother. The unity of their childhood, encompassing the feeling of completeness from innocence to experience, from childhood to adulthood, as well as Catherine's transition from innocence to experience, from childhood to adulthood, and the instance when she forfeits her power. At Thrushcross Grange, according to Gilbert, Catherine is rendered powerless not just by her treatment (transformed into a lady) but also by the separation from her alter ego (Heathcliff). This marks the commencement of the woman's decline as per Gilbert. The repression of liberty and the entrapment within the chain of hierarchy Since Thrushcross Grange symbolizes civilized society and culture, it ideologically represents something coveted and requires Catherine's downfall. This presents a robust feminist argument that reveals society and its values as fundamentally andocentric. Interestingly, power has historically been a term associated with this novel. Yet, through feminist critique, power transitions, and instead of finding it within Heathcliff and the wildness linked to him, it is now perceived in Catherine's longing for it, which ultimately escapes her. Gilbert's viewpoint is not the sole feminist viewpoint regarding Wuthering Heights. Feminists have examined the novel through the lenses of language and psychology. They have particularly investigated the maturation process, from childhood and how during this journey women are subordinated by the dominant culture, and how some women like Catherine resist this subjugation while others like Cathy conform to it. Some critics have additionally indicated that the childhood innocence and happiness lost by Catherine and Heathcliff are largely reclaimed by Cathy and Hareton as they reverse their education and maturation process. Feminist perspectives and Marxist viewpoints often align. Both analyze society in terms of the unequal distribution of power. In the essay "Myths of Power in Wuthering Heights," Marxist critic Terry Eagleton interprets Catherine's decision to choose Edgar Linton as a compromise that propels both Heathcliff and herself towards demise. Eagleton contends that one cannot authentically exist within social conventions. Eagleton argues that a significant accomplishment of Wuthering Heights is its ability to demystify the Victorian ideal of the family as a virtuous, peaceful haven amid social discord. He posits that due to the restrictive and confining nature of society, there arises a necessity to seek escape from it. Hence, retreat into nature forms a component of the ideology produced by that restrictive society. For Eagleton, Heathcliff embodies capitalist ideology. Through him, the capitalist dynamic between the oppressed and the oppressor is acted out. His ascent to power simultaneously represents both the victory of the oppressed over capitalism and the dominance of capitalism over the oppressed amidst conflictual unity between the spiritual repudiation of an inhumane society and the socio-integrated nature of that same society. This culminates in his personal tragedy. Self-Check Exercise1 Q1 Who is sympathetic to Catherine and Heathcliff ? Q2 How is Heathcliff shown in the third section of the novel? Q3 Name two main places mentioned in the novel. Q4 Name a post-structuralist approach. Q5 What does Emily Bronte challenges in her novel? 5.4    Summary In this final lesson on Wuthering Heights, we have made you understand the technicality of the structure. Also viewpoints of varied critics regarding this work have been given. The basic theme is the finality of this novel. 5.5    Glossary •    Banal-lacking in originality as to be obvious or boring •    Exposition-a comprehensive description and explanation of an idea •    Goad-provoke someone so as to stimulate a reaction •    Mundane-lacking interest or excitement •    Obscure-not discovered, uncertain •  Pervade-to be present and apparent 5.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-Check Exercise-I Ans 1. Nelly Dean Ans 2. As a brutal ruthless human being Ans 3. Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange Ans 4. Deconstruction Ans 5. Woman’s secondness in the society 5.7    References/Suggested Readings •    F. B. Pinion. A Bronte companion; literary Assessment. Background. and Reference. London: The MacMillan Press. 1975. •    Judith O’ Neill,ed Critics on Charlotte and Emily Bronte. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1968 (pp 9-107). •    Elizabeth Drew : The Novel : A Modern Guide to Fifteen “English Masterpieces. New York : Dell Publishing Co.· 1963. (pp. 173-190). •    Mirian Allot Casebook Series on Wuthering Heights. London : MacMillan & Co. 1970. Contains. numerous entries, edited with notes, from early reviews. English and American to modem essyas including those of Allot. Drew, Traversi, Irene Copper Willis. and Mark Schorer. •    Arnold Kettle, An Introduction to the English Novel. Vol.1 London: H. U. L. 1950. (pp. 131-145). •    Royal A Gentleman, “Introduction” in Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights, New York: The Modern· Library. 1950 (V to XVI). Useful for comments on the two narrators. Considers Heathcliff a tragic hero. •    Lord David Cecili “Emily Bronte and Wuthering Heights” in “Early Victorian Novelists”. London 1934. 5.8    Terminal Questions Q 1 Heathcliff- Catherine relationship forms the crux of the novel. Discuss. Q 2 Heathcliff theme overshadows the other concerns of the novel. Do you agree? Give reasons. Q 3 Attempt a critical assessment of Wuthering Heights. UNIT-6 An Introduction to Charles Dickens Structure 6.1    Introduction 6.2    Learning Objectives 6.3    Charles Dickens Self-Check Exercise-I 6.4    Summary 6.5    Glossary 6.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise 6.7    References/Suggested Readings 6.8    Terminal Questions 6.1    Introduction Writers like Charles Dickens, Elizabeth Gaskell, and Charlotte Bronte shed light on the social issues of their time through vivid portrayals of poverty and inequality. The Condition of England novel faced its own challenges. It was quite difficult to ‘express’ current issues. This was an era characterized by statistics. Government reports on reform were issued in publications called ‘blue-books,’ but despite the abundance of information and viewpoints, little progress was made. ‘Blue-books had been plentiful,’ MP William Ewart remarked in 1865, and although some were perused, many ‘remained unused in government storage only to be eventually sold as scrap paper. ’ 6.2    Learning Objectives This lesson provides you with an overview of the author's life, his literary creations, the era in which he wrote, along with his constraints and successes as a writer. 6.3    Charles Dickens A.    Life and Works Charles Dickens was born on February 7, 1812, in Portsea near Portsmouth. His father, John Dickens, worked as a clerk in the Navy Post Office. He had scarce resources but consistently lived beyond his means, resulting in his deep debt. In 1824, he was imprisoned for debt and taken to Marshalsea prison. The family's situation became extremely dire as it became increasingly hard to make ends meet. The young Dickens was compelled to pawn his treasured books one by one. However, a harsh and demeaning experience that haunted Dickens for the rest of his life was yet to come. His parents secured him a position in Warren’s Blacking Factory, which was owned by a relative. Dickens labored for six months in this grim factory, applying labels. This marked the initial stark 'impact of life on the sensitive mind of a boy who had existed in a dream world. From a psychological perspective, Dickens felt utterly betrayed by those from whom he had anticipated love and safety. He provided a poignant account of this in David Copperfield. He articulated his plight in a moving manner. "No words can express the agony of my soul. " Charles Dickens’s father was released from incarceration, and he was enrolled in school for his education at Wellington House Academy. He departed from the school at fifteen and secured a position as an office-boy in a law firm. He proved to be very helpful but soon recognized that this type of work could only serve as a temporary position for a young man with his aspirations. He learned shorthand and became a Parliamentary reporter. This was a significant step toward success. His creativity began to show itself in his writing. In a very brief period, he established himself as a gifted and celebrated writer. Dickens engaged in original writing, producing brief sketches of London characters he encountered during his explorations around the city. He attributed these sketches to the name Boz. Dickens proved to be not just the greatest novelist of his nation but also the greatest entertainer. He voiced the concerns of millions and, in an era filled with remarkable figures, was acknowledged as the most exceptional among them all. He did not only pen novels but also edited magazines, produced plays, and acted in them. He traveled widely, not just throughout England but also across Europe and America. In 1836, Dickens married a twenty-one-year-old woman, Catherine Hogarth. However, the marriage did not flourish; Dickens fell for a charming actress he met during the rehearsals of his plays. Subsequently, he parted ways with his wife, who had borne him nine children. Following the separation, most of the children resided with Dickens, and his sister-inlaw, Georgine Hogarth, managed his household. At the age of forty-six, Dickens started to perform readings of excerpts and scenes from his novels to large crowds in Britain and America, which developed into an almost second career for him. His public performances created a mesmerizing effect on his audience, but these readings placed an immense strain on his mental health. Ultimately, he had to cease these public presentations. He withdrew to God’s Hill to work on Edwin Drood, which could be classified as a psychological thriller but remained unfinished due to Dickens’s unexpected passing. The narrative of Dickens’s life is rich and captivating as it tells the tale of his rise from a very modest background to a highly esteemed position. Paying heartfelt tributes to Dickens following his death in 1870, Carlyle remarked; ‘No death since 1866 has affected me with such force. The good, the kind, highly talented, even warm-hearted and noble Dickens, every inch of him an upright man: On 9th June, 1870 he had spent a lengthy day working on Edwin Drood, when he suffered a stroke during dinner. He stood from his table in a dazed state and mentioned that he had to go to London. Then he collapsed onto the floor and never regained consciousness. He passed away the following afternoon. He was laid to rest in Westminster Abbey, an honor that he richly merited. B.    His Works Dickens’s journey as a novelist began with Sketches by Boz (1836). It is a collection of character sketches focused on life in London. It includes the essence of his artistic vision, which later flourished in his subsequent works. The book that catapulted him to immediate success and recognition was his Pickwick Papers, published in 193637. If Dickens is to be associated with one book, the Pickwick Papers stands out as one of them. The novel brims with humor and cheerful lightness. It was released in serial installments in 1836. It features over three hundred and fifty characters, some of whom appear only briefly, yet they all secure a lasting spot in our memories. Oliver Twist is a compelling social narrative. Criticizing the operations of workhouses, it was published in 1837-38. It tells the tale of an orphaned boy who endures the oppression of the workhouse. It serves as a commentary on crime and villainy. It incorporates elements of poetic justice. Malevolence and wickedness, rather than prevailing, are harshly punished. A call for reform in poorhouse operations is advocated. A strong appeal is made for the improved treatment of children (Oliver Twist exemplifies that Dickens has a reformative tone). Nicholas Nickleby (1838-39) is also a reformative work. It criticizes the corrupt practices within the Yorkshire school system. It is recognized for its scathing critique of the greedy, selfish, and incompetent educators in Yorkshire schools. The Old Curiosity Shop (1840) illustrates the tribulations of little Nell and her grandfather, who endure significant financial hardships due to certain loans taken by the elderly man from the cruel and heartless moneylender David Quilp, who inflicts severe torment upon them until little Nell eventually passes away. Shortly thereafter, her grandfather also succumbs. Barnaby Rudge (1840-41) represents a historical romantic narrative among Dickens's works. It narrates the escapades of Martin Chuzzlewit, first in England and subsequently in America. The life Martin leads in America is disappointing, causing the novel to fail to resonate with American readers for this reason. Dombey and Son (1848) is the final installment of Dickens's earlier novels. It illustrates the detrimental consequences of arrogance and pride. Dombey's children are a son and a daughter named Paul and Florence, respectively, and his wife has passed away. Dombey sends his son to Dr. Blimber’s school, where he faces harsh treatment, falls ill, and dies. Dombey is devastated by his son’s death and loses all zest for life. He neglects his daughter Florence, who develops feelings for Walter Gay, a sincere and kind young man in his employ. Dombey, in his arrogance, disapproves of this romance and sends Gay to the West Indies to end it. Dombey remarries, yet his new wife, finding his pride and arrogance intolerable, elopes with Dombey's manager. Dombey pursues them, but the manager suffers a fatal accident. Completely shattered, Dombey retreats to a secluded place where his overlooked daughter takes care of him. It stands as one of Dickens’s significant novels, exposing the harmful effects of parental neglect and cruelty. David Copperfield (1849-50), which is Dickens’s most cherished novel, is autobiographical in nature. It recounts a series of highs and lows, happiness and sadness, though the dominant tone remains one of optimism, confidence, and the fundamental goodness of existence. Although it is not devoid of the contrivance of poetic justice, it does not serve a didactic purpose. Bleak House (1853) is a scathing satire addressing the malpractice of legal courts. The delays and injustices prevalent in the legal system are vigorously criticized in this novel.Hard Times (1854) reveals the wrongs associated with an excessive love for wealth and the idolization of machinery. Gradgrind embodies a figure marked by cold, calculating logic, while Bounderby represents a wealthy industrialist lacking any human empathy. Both characters have been mocked in this work. Crass materialism is criticized, and the imaginative and spiritual aspects of life are celebrated. Little Dorrit (1857) examines the corruption and delays present in government institutions, particularly concerning individuals. The negative aspects of personal life during that era are illustrated through the character and experiences of William Dorrit. The novel proposes that reform is necessary for prison life.A Tale of Two Cities (1857) is a historical novel that addresses events related to the French Revolution. The narrative alternates between two cities, namely London and Paris, moving from one location to the other. It is a well-structured literary work that is both robust in plot development and faithful to historical facts.Great Expectations (1863) holds a prominent position among Dickens's novels. It narrates the trials and adventures of Pip, a young boy, through whose character a sharp critique of social respectability and snobbery is presented. Our Mutual Friend (1864-65) serves as an exceptional novel that explores the corrupting and degrading influence of money. The Mystery of Edwin Drood (1869) stands out as one of Dickens's most masterfully crafted works. The narrative is cohesive and reflects a meticulous attention to detail that is typically warranted by the outcome. It is regrettable that this significant piece remained unfinished due to the unexpected passing of the author. C.    Dickens and Victorian Age Dickens accurately depicts the virtues and vices of the Victorian novel. There is no specific school or group of Victorian novelists that share common conventions and traditions; however, there are several shared characteristics that we typically notice among all Victorian novelists. The Victorian novel has certain limitations. The hero is accompanied by countless incidents and characters that are loosely connected through intrigues. These intrigues ultimately reach resolution when the marriage bells ring at the end. Dickens adheres to this convention as well. The plots do not form cohesive wholes, with each incident and character failing to be an essential part of the main story. The plots crafted by Dickens are often unlikely, and a number of his incidents and characters seem unnecessary. He primarily focuses on individual characters and episodes rather than the narrative as a whole. A consistent tone is not upheld. The novels are filled with melodrama, which offers excitement and sensation yet lacks authentic emotions of pity and terror. His pathos is often exaggerated. He seeks to draw out an additional tear from the circumstances.Dickens is considered unsuccessful when evaluating his characters. His serious characters, apart from David, represent the usual virtuous and wicked figures found in melodramas. The good characters are entirely virtuous, while the bad ones lack any redeeming qualities. The Victorian novel is also limited in terms of subject matter. Key aspects of life are often overlooked. The perspective on life presented is skewed and incomplete. Even the subject of sex is not well defined, even in its most respectable aspect. Victorian novels do not explore man in connection with art or public matters. Characters are not engaged with religion, sex, politics, or philosophical debates as these are deemed unsuitable topics, though they are introduced as objects of mockery. Intellectuals, politicians, and artists are noticeably absent among them. Their characters fail to evoke profound emotions. They consistently deteriorate into sentimentality. However, these flaws in the Victorian novel are offset by its strengths. They tell stories effectively. Despite the implausibility of the plot, the reader's interest remains piqued until they reach the conclusion. They are eager to discover what happens next. The entirety of society is depicted in Victorian novels. In contrast to the modern novel, they do not focus solely on the fortunes of a few individuals. The variety of moods is also vast. They combine realism with fantasy, excitement with theories, and they strive to minimize the effects of pure aesthetic beauty as much as possible. Their appeal caters to diverse tastes and moods. The Victorian novelists exhibit a gift for creative imagination. Dickens possessed an extraordinary imagination. Individual oddities and quirks are emphasized to the point of exaggeration. His imagination is ignited when he encounters anything bizarre. However, regarding the elements of life he cannot exaggerate, he believes he cannot write effectively. Dickens's world, while not lifelike, is distinctly vibrant. The Victorian novels resemble pictures. They may adhere to real-life events, but those facts are not just replicated; they are energized and enhanced by the writer's creative imagination. A street in London, as described by Dickens, is based on an actual street in London, yet it possesses unique qualities. Humor is inherently creative, and Victorian novelists excel in this aspect. All the prominent novelists are humorists, each with their own unique style. Dickens ranks among the greatest humorists in English literature. He creates numerous playful characters. His characters feel incredibly alive as they are individuals of flesh and blood. They are unforgettable and remain in our memories long after the events have faded. The Victorian novel presents a blend of strengths and weaknesses. This is why it is fundamentally unequal in nature. There are several reasons for this. The Victorian novel has not yet progressed beyond the basic stage of novel writing. It still adheres to the traditions of Fielding and Smollett. This literary form is not taken seriously, resulting in numerous faults even when significant new authors like Dickens write within it. The novelists consider the preferences of their reading audience. Dickens wrote for the middle class, which leads to a lack of high literary standards as it aims solely for entertainment. From a technical standpoint, the novel was also flawed. It remained tied to conventional stages and the heroic romance genre, thus failing to establish its own rules. Consequently, there are contrived plots, clichéd situations, and forced happy endings. Readers also lacked a tradition of taste to evaluate its shortcomings. Nevertheless, novelists narrated their stories effectively and addressed a broad spectrum of subjects and moods. Dickens resonated with a large reading audience with diverse preferences. D.    Dickens as a Novelist Critics have recognized Dickens as a remarkable novelist; simultaneously, they have highlighted numerous of his flaws. F. R. Leavis has labeled him as an entertainer but mentioned that he lacks the deep commitment of a 'creative artist. ' Long views him as an amusing companion whose writings convey a distinct message of hope for an era weighed down by challenges. Nonetheless, he does not hesitate to assert that, when evaluated by artistic standards, he fails to meet our expectations. Dickens’s range of characterization is as restricted as his characters primarily come from the lower-middle class. He does not include characters from the aristocracy within his scope. Furthermore, he focuses solely on the external aspects of his characters and does not explore the deeper intricacies of their minds. As a result, his characters remain flat and unbalanced. They can only be identified as representatives of virtues and vices, failing to achieve the status of real human beings. Dickens’s imagination wanders through romantic scenarios. He alters reality to produce vivid and emotional reactions. Specific characteristics of his characters are magnified to make them resemble caricatures. His pathos also moves us, often to the point of being overly sentimental. His novels indisputably contain elements of realism, but they do not evoke a genuine impression of reality. Dickens’s imagination serves as both a strength and a weakness, as it allows him to find beauty in ugliness while also leading him to significant exaggeration.Dickens’s plots are weak and lack coherence. His stories resemble formless hags filled with an array of the novelist’s characters and events: The device of coincidence is often misused. Numerous ends remain loose and unresolved until the very end. They are hurriedly tied up, or not tied up at all. Dickens is a novelist driven by a purpose, engaging in a constant struggle against oppression and injustice, and his zeal for reform frequently obstructs his path as an artist, in the words of George Sampson. The pamphleteer and moralist within Dickens often overshadow the artist. The narrative suffers when Dickens starts to moralize, leading to reader boredom. Ultimately, vice must face punishment while virtue is rewarded; therefore, his conclusions tend to be forced, unnatural, and at times fantastical. Dickens’s novels lack the marital aspect, which is a significant part of life. However, it is glaringly absent from Dickens’s novels. Marital issues are not subjected to psychological scrutiny. His novels are, so to speak, clean, and consequently, they do not cause a blush on innocent cheeks, but they are flawed as artistic works. His novels lack a chain of serious thought. They lack a cohesive point of view, which contributes to a modern backlash against him. Despite the flaws, his novels, in Long’s words, are delightful to read and will endure. He may struggle with story construction, but he tells it very well. His characters, despite their flaws, are exceptionally vital, vivid, and alive. He has created more memorable figures in literature than any other writer besides Shakespeare. He is one of the humorists of English literature, with humor notable for its variety. He embodies the finest national sentiments and feelings, endearing him to the English people. His shortcomings largely reflect the faults of his era, while his merits are distinctly his own. Self-Check Exercise-I Q1 Name the factory in which Dickens worked labelling stickers. Q2 Which work of Dickens remained unfinished? Q3 What was the main target audience of Dickens? Q4 What are the short comings in the plots of Dickens novels? 6.4    Summary Dear Students, you have now understood the relationship between Dickens works and the trends of 19th century British novel. Even the glossary must have helped you in comprehending the words in a particular perspective. You are ready to read and analyze this novel. 6.5    Glossary •    Caricature- a picture, description, or imitation of a person in which certain striking characteristics are exaggerated in order to create a comic or grotesque effect •    Delineation- the action of describing or portraying something precisely •    Enormous-very large in size, quantity, or extent •    Intrigue - a) arouse the curiosity or interest of; fascinate b) make secret plans to do something illicit or detrimental someone •    Oddities - a strange or peculiar person or thing •    Virulent - bitterly hostile 6.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-Check Exercise-I Ans 1. Warren’s Blacking Factory Ans 2. Edwin Drood Ans 3. Middle class readers Ans 4. Dicknes’s plots are weak and incoherent. His plots are like shapeless hags which are filled with the novelist’s characters and events of all kinds. The device of coincidence is often abused. Too many ends are left loose and hanging till the very end. They are tied together in haste, or not tied at all. 6.7    References/Suggested Readings •    ‘Dickens: A Biography’ by Peter Ackroyod •    Introduction to Hard Times by Dinny Thorold •    Philip Collins, introduction to Hard Times, Everyman’s Library, 1992 •    Ackroyd, Peter (1991). Dickens: A Biography. Harpercollins. •    Thorold, Dinny (1995). Introduction to Hard Times. Wordsworth: Printing Press. •    House. M.; Storey. G. & Tillotson. K. (1993). The Pilgrim Edition of the letters of Charles Dickens,Vol VIII. Oxford University Press. 6.8    Terminal Questions Q1 How did Victorian age influence Dickens? Discuss. Q2 Assess Dickens as a novelist. Unit-7 Hard Times: Story and Structure Structure 7.1    Introduction 7.2    Learning Objectives 7.3    Hard Times: Story and Structure Self-Check Exercise-I 7.4    Summary 7.5    Glossary 7.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise 7.7    References/Suggested Readings 7.8    Terminal Questions 7.1    Introduction Hard Times was among various 19th-century novels that were published serially in a magazine. Dickens’s weekly installments in Household Words competed for page space alongside non-fiction articles on topics ranging from disability to drainage. One article, titled ‘Idiots Again’, commends the ‘great improvement in the treatment of. . . lunatics’ in the past few years. ‘A Lesson in Multiplication’ considers 19th-century demographics, mentioning that ‘in the year eighteen-hundred and fifty one the population was above twenty-one millions’. In a touching article about urban conditions, which aligns with the themes of Hard Times, readers were encouraged to ‘turn aside’ from their own concerns and ‘care about the quiet poor’. Condition of England narratives were effectively compelled to ‘turn aside’, shifting their focus from the novel to the news. Fantasy offered no escape. 7.2    Learning Objectives Hard Times Hard Times depicts a stark reality of utilitarianism, particularly concerning the Education system. The current lesson aims to introduce you to the summary, plot, and fundamental nuances of the novel. Kindly read the text and enjoy. A. Summary of the Novel Summary — Chapter 1: The One Thing Needful In a vacant classroom, a stern man with dark eyes passionately conveys to the schoolmaster and another adult his conviction that children should be instructed in factual knowledge, asserting that “nothing else will ever be of any service to them.” Chapter 2:    Murdering the Innocents (Paraphrased) In the industrial town of Coketown, shrouded in smoke from endless factories, Thomas Gradgrind, a stern and rigid man, has founded a school focused solely on facts. He has employed a teacher, Mr. McChoakumchild, to ensure that students learn nothing but cold, hard truths. While visiting the school, Gradgrind tests two students by asking them to define a horse. Sissy Jupe, the daughter of a circus performer, is unable to provide an answer, whereas a pale boy named Bitzer offers a precise, factual response that satisfies Gradgrind. Chapter 3:    A Loophole (Paraphrased) On his way home to Stone Lodge, a house as rigid as his beliefs, Gradgrind catches his two eldest children, Tom and Louisa, secretly watching a circus through a hole in the fence. Having raised them under a strict philosophy of facts and denying them any form of imaginative amusement, he is outraged. He drags them home, where Louisa tries to take the blame to protect her brother, explaining that curiosity led them there. Gradgrind, however, is more concerned with how Mr. Bounderby would react to their behavior. Chapter 4: Mr. Bounderby (Paraphrased) Meanwhile, Mr. Bounderby, a wealthy and boastful factory owner, is at Stone Lodge, once again recounting his harsh upbringing. He never misses an opportunity to remind others that he was abandoned as a child, raised by a cruel grandmother, and suffered great hardships. When Gradgrind arrives and informs him of his children's actions, Mrs. Gradgrind weakly reprimands them, telling them to "go and be somethingological." Bounderby speculates that Sissy Jupe may have influenced the Gradgrind children. Agreeing with this assumption, Gradgrind and Bounderby decide to tell Sissy’s father that she can no longer attend the school. Before they leave, Bounderby insists that Louisa give him a kiss. Chapter 5:    The Key-note Gradgrind and Bounderby walk through the dark, smoke-filled streets of Coketown, passing rows of identical, grimy red-brick buildings on their way to find Sissy’s father. Along the way, they encounter Sissy Jupe, who is being pursued by the bullying Bitzer. Sissy, a devoted and loving daughter, has been out purchasing oils to ease her father’s aches. The two men follow her to the lodging of the circus performers. Chapter 6:    Sleary’s Horsemanship Sissy leads them to the Pegasus Arms, an inn where Bounderby and Gradgrind meet the lisping circus master, Mr. Sleary. Sleary informs them that Sissy’s father, ashamed of his declining abilities as a performer, has abandoned her without her knowledge. Gradgrind decides to take Sissy into his home and educate her according to his strict philosophy of facts. Sissy agrees, hoping her father will return for her—an idea that Gradgrind and Bounderby dismiss as foolish. The circus performers gather to bid Sissy farewell, and she sorrowfully leaves behind the only family she has ever known. Chapter 7:    Mrs. Sparsit The following day, Bounderby discusses Louisa with his housekeeper, Mrs. Sparsit, a woman from the once-aristocratic Powler family who has fallen on hard times. She constantly reminds Bounderby of her noble background despite now working for him. Bounderby expresses concern that Sissy’s imaginative nature will negatively influence Louisa, whom he already views as his future wife. Meanwhile, Gradgrind informs Sissy that she will attend his school and assist Mrs. Gradgrind in her spare time. Chapter 8:    Never Wonder That same day, Louisa talks with her brother Tom about their father’s plan to apprentice him at Bounderby’s bank. Both siblings are unhappy with their monotonous lives at Stone Lodge. Attempting to cheer Tom up, Louisa reminds him of her affection for him. She senses that something is missing in her life, but when she starts to question what it might be, Mrs. Gradgrind warns her against wondering—curiosity goes against their philosophy of facts and only makes her mother regret having a family. Chapter 9:    Sissy’s Progress Sissy struggles in school because she cannot embrace the rigid devotion to facts that Gradgrind expects. Instead, she clings to her sentimental beliefs, including the hope that her father will return. One day, Louisa secretly encourages Sissy to talk about her life with her father. Louisa, who has been raised to suppress her emotions, is deeply moved by Sissy’s heartfelt recollections. During their conversation, Tom repeatedly warns Louisa to stay alert in case Bounderby catches her indulging in such “fanciful” thoughts. Chapter 10:    Stephen Blackpool In Coketown’s harshest, most impoverished district, a poor, hardworking man named Stephen Blackpool returns home after a long day as a power loom operator in Bounderby’s factory. On his way, he briefly speaks with Rachael, a kind and virtuous woman he loves. When Stephen enters his home, he is shocked to find his estranged, troubled wife lying in his bed. She has turned to alcoholism as a way to escape the misery of poverty. Though Stephen wishes to divorce her, he also pities her condition. Chapter 11:    No Way Out The next day, Stephen visits Bounderby to inquire about the possibility of obtaining a divorce. However, Bounderby, in his usual arrogant manner, dismisses Stephen’s concerns and insists that only the wealthy have the means to divorce. He tells Stephen he must simply accept his unfortunate circumstances. Chapter 12:    The Old Woman As Stephen leaves Bounderby’s house, he encounters an elderly woman who has traveled from the countryside. She explains that each year, she saves enough money to visit Coketown for a single day just to catch a glimpse of Bounderby. Since she fears she may not see him this time, she says that meeting Stephen, who had just seen Bounderby, will have to suffice. The woman follows Stephen to the grim factory where he works and oddly praises its appearance. That evening, Stephen wanders the streets, reluctant to return home to his drunken wife. As he walks, he imagines the peaceful and happy life he could have with Rachael if only he were free to remarry. Chapter 13:    Rachael When Stephen finally arrives home, he is startled to find Rachael sitting beside his ailing wife, tending to her with care. She advises Stephen to rest in a chair, and he quickly falls asleep. However, he awakens just in time to see his wife attempting to ingest a fatal dose of her medicine. Paralyzed with shock, Stephen is unable to intervene, but Rachael suddenly wakes up and swiftly snatches the bottle from the sick woman’s grasp, preventing the tragedy. Overcome with shame at his own inaction, Stephen views Rachael as a guardian angel. Chapter 14:    The Great Manufacturer Time moves forward with the mechanical precision of a factory. Mr. Gradgrind informs Sissy that she has failed to meet the school’s expectations, yet she is permitted to stay at Stone Lodge to care for Mrs. Gradgrind. Meanwhile, Gradgrind has become a Member of Parliament and now spends most of his time in London. Tom, who has grown into a self-indulgent and reckless young man, reveals to Louisa that their father intends for her to marry Mr. Bounderby. As an apprentice at Bounderby’s bank, Tom urges Louisa to accept the marriage, believing that having her there will protect him from Bounderby’s strict authority. Chapter 15:    Father and Daughter When Gradgrind broaches the topic of marriage, Louisa reacts with confusion—she does not understand why she is expected to love the much older Bounderby. Though she knows she has no affection for him, she agrees to the union, asking, “What does it matter?” Louisa realizes that she does not truly understand love, but she is determined to fulfill her father’s wishes by marrying his friend. Chapter 16:    Husband and Wife Bounderby cautiously brings up his marriage plans with Mrs. Sparsit, suggesting that she relocate to his bank to manage the apartments once he and Louisa are wed. Mrs. Sparsit subtly expresses her disapproval, remarking vaguely that she hopes Bounderby attains the happiness he deserves. In an effort to display his devotion, Bounderby presents Louisa with lavish jewelry and elegant clothing, but she remains indifferent. As the wedding approaches, Louisa hesitates and clings to Tom in a moment of fear, sensing that she is making an irreversible decision. Nevertheless, she proceeds with the marriage, and she and Bounderby depart for their honeymoon in Lyons, where he plans to study factory operations. Section II    – Reaping Chapter 1:    Events at the Bank On a rare sunny day in Coketown, Mrs. Sparsit sits in her apartment at the bank, conversing with Bitzer, a former student of Gradgrind’s school who now works as a porter. They discuss Tom Gradgrind, who remains employed at the bank but has become an idle, reckless young man. Their conversation is interrupted by the arrival of a well-dressed young gentleman who knocks at the door. He introduces himself as someone interested in entering politics under Gradgrind’s guidance. His polished demeanor and refined manners impress Mrs. Sparsit, who attempts to flatter him. The visitor asks about Louisa Bounderby, expecting her to be an intimidating, sharp-witted, middle-aged woman. When Mrs. Sparsit clarifies that Louisa is actually a young and beautiful lady, he appears relieved and intrigued. Chapter 2:    Mr. James Harthouse The visitor is revealed to be James Harthouse, a wealthy and insincere young man who has joined Gradgrind’s political movement out of sheer boredom rather than genuine belief in its principles. He feigns an interest in Gradgrind’s philosophy of facts to keep himself entertained. Harthouse attends a dinner at Bounderby’s home, where he becomes captivated by Louisa. Chapter 3:    The Whelp After dinner, Harthouse accompanies the cynical and reckless Tom to his apartment. Tom, eager to impress his new acquaintance, indulges in wine and tobacco while revealing personal details about Louisa’s marriage. Drunkenly, he confesses that Louisa only married Bounderby to secure financial support for him. Learning that Louisa has no love for her husband, Harthouse secretly resolves to pursue and seduce her. Chapter 4:    Men and Brothers Meanwhile, in Coketown, the factory Hands organize a meeting to discuss unionizing in hopes of improving their dire working conditions. A fervent speaker named Slackbridge delivers a passionate speech urging unity and solidarity. However, Stephen Blackpool remains unconvinced, believing the union will only heighten tensions between workers and employers. His dissent leads to his expulsion from the meeting, and the other Hands, once his friends, ostracize him as a sign of their commitment to the cause. Despite this, Stephen pleads to be allowed to continue working. After enduring four days of isolation, he is summoned to Bounderby’s home by Bitzer. Chapter 5:    Men and Masters Bounderby pressures Stephen to reveal details about the union meeting, hoping to use him as an informant. Stephen refuses, explaining that Slackbridge is merely a symptom of the workers’ frustrations, much like a clock only marks the passage of time. He reiterates his belief that the union will not bring positive change. Angered by Stephen’s defiance, Bounderby fires him. Now shunned by his colleagues and jobless, Stephen is forced to leave Coketown in search of work. Chapter 6:    Fading Away Outside Bounderby’s house, Stephen encounters Rachael and the elderly woman he previously met, who introduces herself as Mrs. Pegler. He invites them to his home for tea and shares the news of his dismissal. Despite his misfortune, they enjoy their time together until Louisa and Tom unexpectedly arrive at his door. Louisa, moved by Stephen’s integrity in refusing to help her husband break the union, offers him money for his journey. Deeply grateful, Stephen accepts only two pounds, promising to repay her. Meanwhile, Tom discreetly takes Stephen aside and instructs him to wait outside the bank at night for several days, hinting that someone will come to aid him. Stephen follows Tom’s instructions, loitering near the bank each evening, but no one appears. Observers, including Mrs. Sparsit and Bitzer, take notice of his presence. At last, Stephen departs from Coketown, pausing briefly outside Rachael’s home before setting out down the road, his heart heavy with sorrow as he leaves her behind. Chapter 7:    Gunpowder As James Harthouse gains influence in politics, he also becomes more determined to win Louisa’s affection. Spending increasing amounts of time with her at Bounderby’s country estate, he carefully exploits her emotions—emotions she barely understands herself. Recognizing that Louisa’s only deep attachment is to her brother, Harthouse uses his hold over Tom to make him behave more affectionately toward her, ensuring that she knows he is responsible for the change. Chapter 8:    Explosion One morning, Bounderby bursts into a room where Louisa and Harthouse are together, announcing that the bank has been robbed of 150 pounds. The prime suspect is Stephen Blackpool, who was seen loitering outside the bank at night and has since left town. The incident leaves Mrs. Sparsit deeply unsettled, prompting her to move in temporarily with the Bounderbys. She increasingly inserts herself into Bounderby’s affairs and persistently refers to Louisa as “Miss Gradgrind,” subtly undermining her status. Meanwhile, Louisa, aware of her brother’s debts, begins to suspect that Tom is the real thief. She confronts him, but he adamantly denies any involvement. However, once she leaves, Tom buries his face in his pillow, sobbing with guilt. Chapter 9:    Hearing the Last of It Mrs. Sparsit continues to ingratiate herself with Bounderby, praising him excessively and observing his household with a keen, critical eye. She notices that Louisa spends considerable time with James Harthouse. However, their routine is interrupted when Louisa receives a letter from Stone Lodge informing her that her mother is on her deathbed. She rushes to her side and notices that her younger sister, Jane, who has been raised primarily by Sissy, appears far happier and more fulfilled than she ever was. Before dying, Mrs. Gradgrind tells Louisa that she feels as though she has forgotten something important. She expresses a wish to write to Gradgrind to have him discover what it is. After uttering a feeble farewell, she passes away. Chapter 10:    Mrs. Sparsit’s Staircase Although Mrs. Sparsit no longer resides with the Bounderbys, she frequently visits. Observing Louisa’s growing closeness with Harthouse, she imagines Louisa as descending an enormous staircase that leads into a dark abyss. With each interaction, Mrs. Sparsit envisions Louisa moving closer to the precipice, eagerly anticipating the moment when she will fall into disgrace. Chapter 11:    Lower and Lower One day, Mrs. Sparsit learns that Tom has been sent to Coketown’s train station to wait for Harthouse while Louisa remains alone at the country estate. Convinced that an illicit affair is imminent, she braves heavy rain and rushes to the estate. Hiding in the woods, she spies on Louisa and Harthouse during a private conversation. Harthouse openly declares his love and urges Louisa to become his lover. Louisa does not reject him outright but instead asks him to leave, agreeing to meet him later in town. Overjoyed, Mrs. Sparsit follows Louisa as she hurries toward Coketown, imagining her tumbling off the edge of her imagined staircase. However, she loses track of Louisa before discovering her final destination. Chapter 12:    Down Contrary to Mrs. Sparsit’s expectations, Louisa does not seek out Harthouse but instead arrives at Stone Lodge. Soaking wet and overwhelmed with emotion, she collapses in her father’s study and confesses her despair. She bitterly regrets her upbringing, telling Gradgrind that his rigid focus on facts, devoid of any nurturing for emotions or imagination, has left her unfulfilled and deeply unhappy. She admits that she despises her husband and may have developed feelings for Harthouse, though she is entirely lost in her emotions. Shocked by her outburst, Gradgrind is filled with sudden remorse. Louisa, overcome with grief, collapses onto the floor in tears. Section III:    Garnering Chapter 1:    A New Necessity Louisa remains at Stone Lodge, recovering from her emotional turmoil. Her father, deeply regretful, vows to support her but admits his limitations—he has never learned “the wisdom of the Heart.” Sissy, with warmth and devotion, promises to help Louisa discover happiness and genuine emotion. Chapter 2:    A Very Odd Situation The following day, Sissy visits James Harthouse, who has been restless since Louisa failed to meet him. With quiet determination, Sissy tells him he will never see Louisa again and demands that he leave Coketown permanently. Taken aback by her sincerity and beauty, Harthouse finds himself powerless to refuse. Feeling humiliated but defeated, he agrees to depart forever. Chapter 3:    Firm Decisions Meanwhile, Mrs. Sparsit, bedridden with a cold from her time in the rain, informs Bounderby of what she witnessed between Louisa and Harthouse. Enraged, Bounderby confronts Gradgrind at Stone Lodge, accusing Louisa of betrayal. Gradgrind, acknowledging his mistakes in raising Louisa, asks Bounderby to let her stay at Stone Lodge for an extended time to recover. Furious, Bounderby threatens to sever ties with Louisa entirely if she does not return home by noon the next day. When Gradgrind refuses to comply, Bounderby follows through, abandoning Louisa and resuming his life as a bachelor. Chapter 4:    Missing Bounderby redirects his anger into finding Stephen Blackpool, whom the townspeople now suspect of robbing the bank. Slackbridge, the union leader, delivers a speech inciting the workers to hunt Stephen down. Soon after, Louisa receives a visit from Bounderby, Tom, and a distraught Rachael. Rachael insists that Stephen is innocent and will soon return to clear his name. She recalls sending him letters informing him of the accusation, but days pass without his return, deepening suspicions against him. Chapter 5:    Discovered Sissy and Rachael wait anxiously for news of Stephen. One evening, as they walk near Bounderby’s house, they witness Mrs. Sparsit dragging Mrs. Pegler inside. Mrs. Sparsit triumphantly declares that she has captured an accomplice to the bank robbery. However, the revelation shocks everyone—Mrs. Pegler is, in fact, Bounderby’s mother. As the truth unfolds, it becomes clear that Bounderby was not a self-made man abandoned in poverty, as he had always claimed. Instead, Mrs. Pegler lovingly raised and educated him before he rejected her to maintain his fabricated rags-to-riches story. Humiliated, Bounderby refuses to explain his lies. Chapter 6:    Beneath the Starlight Stephen’s absence continues. One morning, Sissy takes Rachael for a walk in the countryside, where they stumble upon Stephen’s hat. Fearful that he has met with foul play, they search further and discover that he has fallen into an abandoned mine shaft, Old Hell Shaft, and is barely alive. A rescue team lifts him out, and though a doctor tends to him, Stephen’s injuries are severe. Before passing away, he bids a heartfelt farewell to Rachael and urges Louisa to ask her father to question Tom— implying that Tom holds the key to solving the robbery case. Chapter 7:    The Hunt for the Whelp After Stephen’s death, Tom disappears. Gradgrind and Louisa realize their worst fears—Tom was the true thief. Louisa reveals that Sissy suggested Tom take refuge at Mr. Sleary’s circus, which is camped near Liverpool. From there, he could escape the country. Determined to help him avoid prison, Gradgrind, Louisa, and Sissy travel separately to the circus. Upon arrival, Sleary confirms that Tom is safe and hiding among the performers. When they reunite, Tom is dressed in blackface, performing in a show. Though they arrange for him to flee England, he remains bitter toward Louisa, blaming her for his misfortunes. Despite his hostility, Louisa forgives him. Just as they finalize his escape, Bitzer appears, intent on taking Tom back to Coketown to face justice. Chapter 8:    A Philosophical Escape Bitzer, with the help of circus performers, escorts Tom to secure his transport back to Coketown. However, Sleary orchestrates a clever ruse involving barking dogs and dancing horses, allowing Tom to slip away and board a ship. The next morning, the Gradgrinds receive word that Tom has safely escaped England. Before leaving, Sleary reveals one final piece of news: Sissy’s father’s dog, Merrylegs, has returned alone, confirming that her father has died. Chapter 9:    The End Following Mrs. Pegler’s revelation, Bounderby fires Mrs. Sparsit and sends her to live with her disagreeable relative, Lady Scadgers. Bounderby continues his life as usual, unaware that he will suffer a fatal stroke in the streets of Coketown within five years. Gradgrind, shaken by his experiences, abandons his rigid belief in facts and dedicates himself to faith, hope, and charity. He works to clear Stephen Blackpool’s name. Louisa never remarries. Tom eventually repents for his bitterness toward Louisa but dies abroad, longing to see her one last time. Rachael continues to work with kindness and integrity, while Sissy enjoys a joyful life with a large and loving family. Through Sissy’s children, Louisa finds the warmth of childhood she never had, and she dedicates herself to helping others, always striving for deeper understanding and compassion. B.    Title of the Novel When Dickens started wiring a new serial story for his magazine ‘Household Words, he toyed with a number of titles ‘Stubborn Things, ‘Two and two are four’. The Grandgrind Philosophy “A Matter of Calculations” but he finally chose Hard Times’ as the title of this novel. The titles mentioned above are also significant as they throw light on the main theme of the novel. Dickens protested against those who cared for figures neglected imagination and creative speculation. He wanted to expose the inhumanity of the social. Economic and educational system that emphasized statistics and impersonal laws, excluding altogether the tender impulses A protest was made against the suppression of the heart by the head. In Hard Times we are shown how things move when hard facts are worshipped at the cost of living humanity.The 19th Century was the great age of industrial progress: huge factories were setup in the towns of Midland. North West areas of the open and the green countryside lost their pristine beauty and the introduction of the railways speeded up communication. Life became completely different from what it was through the past centuries. People migrated from the countryside into the towns. The Industrial Revolution reached its peak in the mid-century and brought in its wake both prosperity and poverty, which gave birth to an intense struggle amongst the classes. Disraeli gave expression to this disharmony when he recorded that the queen ruled over two nations: “a nation of the rich and a nation of the poor.” In Hard Times, Dickens intends to portray the gap in the socio-economic set up of the times. Novels which deal with social conditions can be dull and monumental. Hard Times is monumental but not dull. This is because Dickens does not look at life through sermons but through humour which is broad. He looked with disdain upon the dark satanic mills but he wove an interesting story around them. Dickens believes that the Hard Times are man made. They are the outcome of man’s inhumanity. It is a sorry state of things: because he (man) wants it to exist. . As a man sows, so he reaps. This idea is propounded in the titles of the three sections of Hard Times: Sowing, Reaping and, Garnering. Science swears by theory and calculations, and is, by and large, ruthless. The industrial set up of Coketown, is a symbol of this science. Coketown, to an industrialist like Bounderby, consists of so many bricks. Chimneys looms and so many “hands”. The workers ·are nothing short of so much horse-power to be brought in the cheapest market. The product manufactured by the sweat of their labour is to be sold in the dearest market. The profit thus accruing will make the employers richer. Bounderby is a great pillar of the Cocktown society. Gradgrind offers the hand of his beloved daughter to him in marriage. He is proud of the fact that he knows all about the smoke and the hands of the town. Smoke to him is one of the most healthy things in the world. It is the very meal and drink of his life. He regards all the criticism about the work in the mills as nonsense. The employers do· not, want to improve upon the working conditions of the employees. The employers like Bounderby have no room for “humbugging sentiments”. The hands are no better or worse than the machines. They do not call for any free play of the heart. The system of economics advocated and practiced by Bounderby has transformed England into a rubbish heap inhabited largely by slaves. When a machine has outlived its utility, it is discarded. The honest and hard-working millhand Stephen is also treated likewise. It is this ruthlessness of equation against which Dickens raises’ a protest in Hard Times. Thomas Gradgrind is a retired hardware merchant turned educationist. He runs a school where statistics and facts are the dominating things. He has no place for imagination or fancy in his philosophy of education. He cannot think of a room being prepared with pictures of horses because it is not a fact. One does not see in the real life horses walking up and down a wall. Similarly a carpet should not have flower designs, as no sensible man with tread upon the flowers. Gradgrind has an aptly named assistant Choakumchild. He is also a staunch believer in Gradgrind philosophy of facts and figures. According to both of them the minds of reasoning animals (Human beings) should he fed on facts. Gradgrind burdens the minds of his school children as well as his own with facts alone allowing them no scope to breathe anything natural and fresh. He loves to sow facts and reap their harvest His daughter Lousia returns to him from an unsuccessful, broken, loveless marriage. His son turns out to be a criminal and has to be sent out to a foreign land in order to save him from the clutches of law But when he faces his brilliant pupil, Bitzer, then the tragic irony of his training is brought but in its bitter intensity. When Gradgrind asks Bitzer, who wants to get his son arrested whether he has a heart he ironically replies that he has that organ which is the centre of blood circulation. Gradgrind further enquires whether that heart is accessible; Bitzer’s answer is again full of bitter irony that it is only accessible to reason. When Gradgrind asks Bitzer what reason he has got to stop Tom, his simple reply is that his master will appoint him in Tom’s place in the bank. When Gradgrind requests Bitzer to leave ‘Tom Bitzer tells him that he himself has taught him not to have consideration for anything else except self-interest. Thus· Gradgrind’s own theory ultimately recoils on him. Bentham’s philosophy of self-interest. Dickens demonstrates, is the root cause of the Hard Times. Sissy and Sleary are the antithesis of unsentimental faculty and it is through them that salvation is achieved, They are the symbols of that love, hope and charity which ultimately wins. Sissy keeps on hoping till the end that her father will return, she has nothing but love for Gradgrind and his family. She is charitably disposed even toward the wrong-doers. She helps Tom to escape from his punishment. According to Sleary also, the kind thing is the right thing. People cannot always learn nor can they always go on working. They need amusement and entertainment also. Sleary is a sort of an antidote to the Hard Times created by the lack of imagination of persons like Gradgrind and Bounderby. C.    Structure and Plot Construction Hard Times has been castigated by a number of critics for its tightly orgainsed structure. It is a wonderfully compact novel, free from digression, superfluous matter and unnecessary details. Its story develops keeping in view the requirements of weekly serialization over an unusually short period of five months in “Household Words”, a paper owned by Dickens himself. The three groups of characters, viz mill owners and their hangers on, the labourers and the circus troupe are interwoven in order to fulfil the requirements of a, serial presentation, The story develops from crisis in one to crisis in the other and its different strands are unified by the overshadowing mass of Coketown itself. The story is divided into three books accordance with Victorian lay-out. It makes the message of reward and punishment explored in it. Especially, when the titles of three books are Sowing, Reaping and Garnering, There are three separate sequences in Hard Times each of them offering to the novelist opportUnities for development and contrast. The main action centers around Thomas Gradgrind, a retired wholesale merchant who became a member of parliament. Gradgrind is Mr. Utilitarian, “a man of realities a man of facts, and calculations a man who proceeds upon the principles that two and two are four and nothing over, “He conducts all the business of life in a practical manner. Because according to the Victorian standard, this is the way one gets ahead makes money and becomes financially and socially successful. Thus Gradgrind brings up his children on this philosophy. The first complication in the main faction takes place when Lousia’s marriage with the capitalist Bounderby flo inders and she is tempted to escape from the resulting unhappiness by an affair with Harthouse. Dickens shows how his heroine successfully overcomes this temptation, Gradgrind’s philosophy and his way of bringing her up proved of no help to her. The second complication in the main action takes place when Tom is ruined by his environment. Tom is depicted as selfish, ill- natured, sexual and completely mercenary, He is employed in the bank owned by Bounderby, and He steals money from the bank in order to pay his gambling debts. He contrives to throw the blame on Stephen but ultimately Stephen’s innocence is established. Sissy is the daughter of a circus clown who deserts her. Gradgrind takes sissy under his protection. She illustrates ideas which are contrary to Gradgrind’s philosophy, She plays a part in Louisa’s story by prevailing upon Harthouse to quit Coketown Sissy also helps Tom to escape when he is about to be arrested for the robbery at the bank.The second division of the action centres around Bounderby a hard-hearted and vicious banker and manufacturer Bounderby is part of the husband-wife -lover triangle but he also has a place in’ the sub-plot based upon his relationship with his housekeeper, Mrs. Sparsit. This lady has an aristocratic background though she is now destitute and therefore working as a housekeeper in Bounderby’s place. Bounderby also has a mother. He is ashamed and there is a minor episode which shows her visiting Coketown on occasions Just to catch a glimpse of her son from a distance Subsequently Bounderby is exposed for having, fabricated much of the story he has been telling about his early life. The third division of the novel’s action pertains to, Stephen Blackpool, a worker in Bounderby’s mill. His married life has been rendered inolerable to him by a drunken wife. He now loves another woman Rachel, and would like to divorce his wife, but finding it impossible to do so he lives in a state of frustration, with Rachel providing whatever comfort, she can, Tom Implicates Stephen in the bank robbery. This connects Stephen with the Gradgrind story. These three plot-sequences illustrate Dickens’s general plan for revolving his action around his thesis, The thesis is, wider than the attack on a utilitarian economy since it also includes criticism of the educational system the class distinction and divorce laws, The education system is condemned through. Gradgrind’s emphasis is on facts. The caste system finds satiric emphasis through the story of Mrs. Sparsit whose ambition and position in social scheme are at variance. James Harthouse shows the decay which results from tank without character. The criticism of divorce laws is apparent· in Stephen’s misery in his inability to get rid of his drunken wife. The theme of the novel is clear; and the message behind the story is direct and humane, namely that the ways of the heart are more important than the ways of the head. It must be admitted that Dickens did not understand trade unionism, nor did he suggest positive reforms. But what Dickens did was to confront the society of his time with the truth about itself. That truth is just as valid today as it was then. Hard Times is thus a human plea for all times: and this combined with its artistic integrity makes it one of the great novels of the nineteenth century. But the structure of Hard Times is by no means perfect. Earle Davis points out that Dickens here does not have sufficient space for full development of his contrasting plot-sequences. The result is that the novel sometimes gives the effects of choppy episodes of undeveloped contrast, and of unfinished business. Thus there are certain faults in plot-construction. One of these faults is lack of enough motivation behind Stephen’s refusal to join the workers union. Stephen’s genuine and deep sympathy with the workers’ cause is fully brought out in the scene in which he is interrogated by Bounderby. Therefore, we do not understand what objection he had to join the union. Both his reasons his promise to Rachel that he won’t join the union and the union activities would lead to nothing-are flimsy and unconvincing. Another fault is that the industrial conflict is not· sufficiently dwelt upon : this conflict is merely indicated. Another lacuna in the plot is the author’s failure to show us any development in the relations of Louisa and Harthouse. Louisa’s relation to Harthouse, is never described in any specific terms. It is, Therefore, a starling development when we find Louisa rushing out of her house to catch the train to Coketown ultimately bursting into her father’s presence. Dickens should have dwelt upon the lousia-Harthouse affair at greater length and given us an account of the conflict going on in Louisa’s mind. It would have added to the psychological value of the book. The Stephen-Rachel story has also been criticised by some critics as not being closely interwoven with the main action. Another matter of detail to which the novelist has not paid any attention is Louisa’s strange silence under all circumstances when she is living with Bounderby. Louisa does not utter a single word of advice to her husband when he unjustly dismisses Stephen. Subsequently she pays a secret visit, in Tom’s company, to Stephen’s house and offers him financial help. This visit has been manipulated by the author to implicate Stephen in the bank. Louisa could not have protested against Stephen’s dismissal. However, we would attribute this to Louisa’s being a proud and reserved person, who is not on terms of intimacy with her husband so far as his business affairs are concerned, Hard Times as a Representative Novel Hard Times powerfully reflects various aspects of Victorian society. Charles Dickens was a writer of the Victorian era, a period characterized by rapid social transformation. Industrialization was progressing swiftly, and machinery was becoming a dominant force in England’s economic and social life. The expansion of industry led to growing tensions between capitalists and laborers. Additionally, this era was marked by widespread snobbery and hypocrisy among the upper class. While Dickens primarily aimed to entertain, his novels also serve as critiques of the social conditions of Victorian England. Many of his characters embody the typical traits—both virtues and vices—of different social classes, particularly those in London.One of the key themes in Hard Times is the prevailing educational philosophy of the Victorian era, which emphasized facts, figures, and statistics over creativity and emotional development. Gradgrind’s privately run school operates on this rigid principle, reinforcing the idea that “two and two make four” and nothing beyond. This system leaves no room for imagination or personal sentiment. The novel illustrates how this educational approach, rooted in utilitarianism, prioritizes reason at the expense of human emotions, imagination, and compassion.Another aspect of utilitarianism is depicted through Bounderby, a wealthy manufacturer and banker. Victorian readers harbored a deep-seated disdain for men of trade, viewing their commercial pursuits as crude. Both Gradgrind and Bounderby embody the utilitarian mindset, and Dickens cleverly uses their names to reflect their mechanical, heartless philosophy. Bounderby, utterly devoid of empathy, has no concern for his workers. When Stephen Blackpool refuses to spy on the union for him, Bounderby dismisses him without hesitation. The Victorian era placed immense value on wealth over personal merit, as exemplified by Louisa’s marriage to Bounderby. Both her father and her husband treat her marriage as a calculated, utilitarian arrangement, ignoring her emotions. Gradgrind even presents statistical justifications to persuade Louisa to marry a man thirty years her senior. Though somewhat exaggerated, this episode offers an accurate glimpse into the materialistic and emotionally detached values of Victorian society.The novel also vividly portrays the grim realities of industrialization, which was gaining momentum during the Victorian age. Dickens describes Coketown as a city dominated by machines and towering chimneys that perpetually spew smoke into the air. The streets are uniform, and the workers lead monotonous, repetitive lives. Each day, they walk the same roads, at the same time, to perform the same tasks. Dickens emphasizes that these workers are seen not as individuals but as mere "hands" operating the relentless machinery. Any concern for their well-being is dismissed by industrialists as mere sentimental nonsense.Social snobbery was deeply ingrained in Victorian society, and the wealthy largely ignored the struggles of the poor. Bounderby, for instance, is a blatant snob. He takes pride in having a housekeeper, Mrs. Sparsit, who comes from an aristocratic background. Mrs. Sparsit, in turn, is both hypocritical and snobbish—she pretends to respect Bounderby while secretly looking down on him. She even refuses to call her wages a "salary" and instead refers to them as an “annual compliment.” Despite Dickens’s characteristic exaggeration, Mrs. Sparsit realistically embodies the attitudes of the upper-middle class in Victorian England.The novel also touches on the labor movements of the time, represented through Slackbridge, an opportunistic agitator who manipulates workers against their employers. He pressures the union to ostracize Stephen Blackpool simply because Stephen refuses to conform. The era was plagued by rigid laws, social injustices, and stark divisions between the rich and the poor. Stephen’s inability to divorce his alcoholic wife highlights the restrictive divorce laws of the time. Instead of offering him a solution, Bounderby callously informs him that the legal process would cost an exorbitant sum. Stephen can only express his frustration by calling it all a “muddle.” Ironically, when Bounderby finds himself in a troubled marriage, he wastes no time abandoning Louisa at her father’s house. The negative consequences of utilitarianism are evident throughout the novel. Louisa’s emotionally empty marriage, Tom’s moral downfall, and Bitzer’s selfserving actions all stem from this flawed philosophy. Harthouse, another example of a utilitarian figure, leads a life of boredom, seeking entertainment in politics and romantic pursuits. In conclusion, Hard Times offers a comprehensive portrayal of Victorian England, encapsulating its industrial expansion, urbanization, ruthless commercialism, intense competition, and the growing influence of scientific thought. It also highlights the resulting decline in faith, as well as the ambitions, frustrations, and moral contradictions of the era. The novel presents both the strengths and weaknesses of Victorian society. As George Gissing aptly remarked, Dickens’s works are a “faithful and accurate expression of national life and sentiments of his age.” Self-Check Exercise-I Q 1 Name the main characters of the novel Hard Times. Q 2 What were the other names of the novel Hard Times before this was finalized. Q 3 What is 19th century famous for? Q 4 Name the three sequences around which the novel revolves. Q 5 What does the novel Hard Times convey? 7.3    Summary In this lesson you have learnt about the novel as explained in the summary and also how the title was chosen. You also learned about the relationship between Victorian age and the text. Your understanding of the social structure too would be better after reading this lesson. 7.4    Glossary •  Abandon - cease to support or look after (someone); desert •  Antithesis - a person or thing that is the direct opposite of someone or •    something else •    Castigate - reprimand (someone) severely •    Contrive- create or bring about (an object or a situation) by deliberate use of skill and artifice •    Digression- a temporary departure from the main subject in speech or writing •    Lacuna - an unfilled space; a gap •    Liberal arts- arts subjects such as literature and history •    Superfluous- surplus, extra •    Usurper- a person who takes a position of power or importance illegally or by force •    https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/hardtimes/ 7.5    Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-Check Exercise-I Ans 1. The main characters are: Sissy Jupe, Thomas Gradgrind, Mr. Bounderby, Louisa and Stephen Blackpool. Ans 2. The other names: ‘Stubborn Things’, Two and two are Four’ and ‘ A matter of Calculations’. Ans 3. It is famous for Industrial Progress. Ans 4. The three sequences are: 1.    The main action centers around Thomas Gradgrind, a retired wholesale merchant who became a member of parliament. 2.    The second division of the action centres around Bounderby a hardhearted and vicious banker and manufacturer Bounderby is part of the husband-wife-lover triangle but he also has a place in’ the sub-plot based upon his relationship with his housekeeper, Mrs. Sparsit. 3.    The third division of the novel’s action pertains to, Stephen Blackpool, a worker in Bounderby’s mill. Ans 5. Hard Times makes a strong statement against Victorian materialism and the education system which produced only calculative human beings. 7.6    References/Suggested Readings •    Introduction to Hard Times’ by Dinny Thorold. •    ‘The Pilgrim Edition of the Letters of Charles Dickens By M. House & K. Tillotson •    Philip Collins, introduction to Hard Times, Everyman’s Library, 1992 •    Ackroyd, Peter (1991). Dickens: A Biography. Harpercollins. •    Thorold, Dinny (1995). Introduction to Hard Times. Wordsworth: Printing Press. •    House. M.; Storey. G. & Tillotson. K. (1993). The Pilgrim Edition of the letters of Charles Dickens,Vol VIII. Oxford University Press. •    https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/hardtimes/ 7.7    Terminal Questions Q 1 Comment on the title of the novel Hard Times. Q 2 Hard Times attacks the Utilitarian economic set up as well as the education system. Do you agree?Give reasons for you answers. Q 3 Victorian age was an age of rapid social change in England. Charles Dickens depicts this changethrough this novel. Elucidate. Unit-8 Characters and Characterization in Hard Times Structure 8.1    Introduction 8.2    Learning Objectives 8.3    Hard Times : Characterization and Characters Self-Check Exercise-I 8.4    Minor Characters Self-Check Exercise-I 8.5    Summary 8.6    Glossary 8.7    Answers to Self-Check Exercise 8.8    References/Suggested Readings 8.9    Terminal Questions 8.1    Introduction Characterization refers to how an author presents individuals in a story. If done directly, the reader identifies the character through descriptions of their behavior. Characterization is a literary device used progressively to highlight and explain a character’s traits. Initially, the writer introduces the character with noticeable details. As the story develops, the character’s thoughts and actions are revealed, leading to their engagement in dialogue with others. Eventually, their personality becomes fully apparent. 8.2    Learning Objectives This lesson is dedicated to exploring Dickens’ technique of characterization. Towards the end of the lesson, guidelines are provided to help develop descriptions of minor characters in your own words. 8.3    Art of Characterization Two primary criticisms are often directed at Dickens’ characterization. First, his tendency to exaggerate makes his characters appear caricatured. Second, he does not delve deeply into their internal thoughts, which makes some portrayals seem superficial. However, Dickens, second only to Shakespeare, has created an extensive range of unique and lively characters. In Hard Times, each character symbolizes an abstract idea or principle while maintaining their individuality. Gradgrind and Bounderby, for instance, embody utilitarianism in different areas—education and industry, respectively. Gradgrind’s philosophy emphasizes facts, figures, and statistics, rejecting emotions, imagination, and sentiment. He applies this philosophy not only in his school but also in raising his children, even arranging Louisa’s marriage based on rational calculations rather than emotions. Bounderby represents greed and lack of empathy in business, prioritizing wealth over human concern. Despite their shared utilitarian outlook, Gradgrind and Bounderby differ significantly. Gradgrind, though rigid, is not entirely devoid of compassion—his decision to take in the abandoned Sissy Jupe shows his humanity. Moreover, he is capable of change. When his educational philosophy fails, leading to Louisa’s suffering and Tom’s downfall, he acknowledges his mistake and undergoes transformation. Bounderby, however, remains inflexible, refusing to change even when his lies about his humble origins are exposed. His arrogance and lack of human sentiment distinguish him from Gradgrind. Additionally, he boasts not about wealth but about his supposed self-made success, making him a braggart in an unconventional way. James Harthouse represents utilitarianism in politics but is characterized by cynicism and lack of conviction. He is indifferent to moral values and only engages in politics out of boredom. His pursuit of Louisa is devoid of genuine passion, further highlighting his shallow nature. Utilitarianism is also reflected in Mrs. Sparsit, Tom, and Bitzer, who embody different aspects of the philosophy. Mrs. Sparsit is vain about her aristocratic connections but is a hypocrite, feigning loyalty to Bounderby while secretly despising him. Tom, having been raised under strict utilitarian principles, rebels by leading a reckless life and eventually committing theft to pay off debts. Bitzer, in contrast, follows a rigid, calculated approach to life, viewing every relationship as a transaction. He ultimately achieves his ambition by securing a bank position through opportunism. Louisa’s development shows the limitations of utilitarianism. Initially influenced by her father’s teachings, she consents to marry Bounderby. However, she later regrets her decision, and when faced with the temptation of an affair, she chooses to return to her father’s house, demonstrating moral strength. Stephen Blackpool and Rachael are sometimes viewed as symbolic figures of virtue and suffering, but they are more than mere representations. Stephen is not a typical worker, as he refuses to join the trade union. Rachael, unlike the conventional "other woman" trope, actively intervenes to prevent Stephen’s wife from consuming poison, defends Stephen when he is falsely accused, and remains steadfast in her principles. Sissy Jupe is the antithesis of utilitarian philosophy, embodying values of love, faith, and empathy. Although she symbolizes resistance to Gradgrind’s teachings, she is also a well-rounded individual. Her unwavering faith in her father and loyalty to the Gradgrind family set her apart. Her decisive actions—convincing Harthouse to leave Coketown and aiding Tom’s escape—demonstrate her strength and independence. Mr. Sleary, another distinctive character, provides a counterpoint to the utilitarian mindset. As a circus owner, he represents the necessity of entertainment and joy in life. His simple yet profound wisdom, despite his lisp, reinforces the novel’s moral message. Mr. Thomas Gradgrind Thomas Gradgrind is a firm believer in facts, advocating for a strictly practical approach to life. The novel begins with his philosophy: “Now ... Facts alone are wanted in life.” He has five children, whom he raises under the rigid principles of factual education, suppressing any imagination or emotional expression. As a member of Parliament for Coketown, Gradgrind also runs a school dedicated to factual knowledge. His home reflects his inflexible and mechanical nature. Through Gradgrind, Dickens critiques both contemporary industrialism and the utilitarian political economy. Despite his harshness, Gradgrind has a compassionate side, though initially buried under his rigid philosophy. His kindness surfaces when he takes in Sissy Jupe after her father abandons her. His character evolves significantly, especially when confronted with Louisa’s emotional turmoil. The moment Louisa collapses before him, questioning the life he has imposed upon her, he realizes the failure of his philosophy. His regret and sorrow make him a tragic figure, earning the reader’s sympathy. His transformation continues when he learns that Tom has committed robbery. Realizing how flawed his teachings have been, he does everything in his power to protect his son from punishment. At this point, Gradgrind the father overcomes Gradgrind the educator. However, he also proves to be a man of integrity by publicly declaring Stephen’s innocence and exposing Tom’s guilt. By the end of the novel, Gradgrind undergoes a profound change. He abandons his rigid adherence to facts and figures, recognizing the importance of faith, hope, and compassion. Unlike Bounderby and Harthouse, who use utilitarianism for personal gain, Gradgrind sincerely believed in the system. When he sees its flaws, he is wise enough to reject it. Though he begins as a rigid, misguided man, his repentance ultimately redeems him. Josiah Bounderby Like Gradgrind, Josiah Bounderby is a man completely devoid of sentiment. He is portrayed as a wealthy individual, described as a "banker, merchant, manufacturer, and what not." Made of coarse material, he is a large, round man with a metallic laugh and a piercing stare. He always boasts about his humble beginnings, claiming to have risen from poverty after being abandoned by his mother and left in the care of a fictitious drunken grandmother. He narrates that he ran away at a young age, lived as a vagabond, and worked as an errand boy, laborer, porter, clerk, chief manager, and small business partner before achieving his current status as "Josiah Bounderby of Coketown." Bounderby is completely lacking in empathy, which is evident in his opposition to Gradgrind taking Sissy under his care. As a factory owner, he treats his workers with arrogance and indifference, failing to understand their struggles. When Stephen Blackpool approaches him for advice on obtaining a divorce, Bounderby dismisses his concerns, stating that marriage is for better or worse. Later, when Stephen refuses to spy on the workers, Bounderby fires him without a second thought, disregarding Stephen’s fear of not finding another job. Bounderby is quick to believe Stephen is guilty of robbing his bank and treats him with cold cruelty. As a husband, he is equally callous, marrying Louisa—who is thirty years younger—but making no effort to understand her emotions. He assumes she will remain loyal simply because he is "Josiah Bounderby of Coketown." When Louisa leaves him, he fails to recognize the validity of Gradgrind’s suggestion that she stay at her father’s house to recover. Instead, he issues an ultimatum: if she does not return immediately, she will cease to be his wife, and he will return to bachelorhood. His relationship with Mrs. Sparsit, his housekeeper, is also significant. He prides himself on having an aristocratic woman in his service but shrewdly moves her to the bank after marrying Louisa. When Mrs. Sparsit incorrectly reports that Louisa has eloped, Bounderby rushes to confront Gradgrind but, upon realizing the mistake, unceremoniously sends Mrs. Sparsit away without offering her any hospitality. Later, when she embarrasses him by bringing his real mother, Mrs. Pegler, to his house, he fires her. However, Mrs. Sparsit remains dignified and even calls him a "noodle" before leaving. Bounderby is eventually exposed as a fraud—his mother never abandoned him, and his alleged drunken grandmother never existed. Even when faced with these revelations, he remains unfazed, dismissing any discussion about his family affairs. His judgment is frequently flawed, particularly in his quick assumption that Stephen is guilty of theft and his refusal to believe Rachel’s account of Louisa and Tom visiting Stephen. Only when Louisa confirms it does he acknowledge the truth. In the final chapter, Bounderby dies suddenly of a stroke in the streets of Coketown. His death evokes no sorrow, as he was widely disliked. Louisa Gradgrind Louisa, a girl of fifteen or sixteen, is the daughter of Mr. Gradgrind, a strict believer in facts over emotions. She has a "starved imagination" because her father has suppressed any creative or sentimental development. Bounderby, a frequent visitor to their home, takes an interest in Louisa and sees her as his future wife. When she and her brother Tom are caught peeking at a circus through a tent hole, Bounderby defends her and later claims a kiss as a reward. However, Louisa finds him repulsive and wipes her cheek in disgust, wishing she could remove the spot entirely. Gradgrind’s strict upbringing leaves his children unhappy, forbidding them from indulging in curiosity or imagination. Louisa, however, deeply loves her brother Tom, and it is partly for his sake that she agrees to marry Bounderby, despite detesting him. Tom, who leads a reckless life, frequently asks Louisa for money, and she obliges, even selling her jewelry to help him. When she suspects that Tom may have committed the bank robbery, she attempts to draw a confession from him so she can assist him. Her unwavering affection for Tom is a defining aspect of her character. Despite her obedience, Louisa harbors respect for her father. Though she knows she does not love Bounderby, she does not openly defy her father’s wish for her to marry him. She tells Gradgrind that she has no real choice, as she has never been allowed to develop personal preferences. When Louisa reaches a crisis point in her life, she seeks refuge in her father’s house, revealing how his rigid education has left her emotionally unprepared for life. She reminds him that he pressured her into a loveless marriage and insists that she is not blaming him but asking for guidance. She confesses that she is on the verge of falling for another man, James Harthouse, and seeks her father’s help to resist temptation. Overwhelmed, she collapses in distress. Louisa’s predicament evokes deep sympathy. She never loved Bounderby but married him out of duty. Even when Harthouse enters her life, she remains faithful, despite being drawn to him. She is not swayed by his charm but by his apparent honesty and his interest in her brother. Unaccustomed to affection, she is emotionally vulnerable. However, she does not surrender to Harthouse, torn between her emotions and moral conscience. Instead of making a reckless decision, she turns to her father for help. Initially, Louisa is friendly with Sissy, but when Sissy disapproves of her marriage, she distances herself. However, when Louisa falls ill, Sissy nurses her back to health, rekindling their friendship. Louisa is not devoid of human feeling—besides loving Tom and befriending Sissy, she also sympathizes with Stephen. She visits him, offers him financial help, and later confirms Rachel’s account of her visit. Sissy Jupe Cecilia Jupe, affectionately called Sissy by her father, is a dark-eyed girl without a stable home. She first appears in Gradgrind’s school as "Girl Number 20" and feels humiliated when Gradgrind insists that she should be called "Cecilia" rather than "Sissy." She becomes even more embarrassed when she fails to define a horse according to factual principles. Gradgrind and Bounderby suspect that Sissy has influenced Louisa’s curiosity about the circus, and they decide to expel her from school. However, when they visit her home, they discover that her father has abandoned her. Gradgrind, moved by sympathy, takes her in despite Bounderby’s objections. Living under Gradgrind’s roof, Sissy never loses hope that her father will return. She treasures the bottle of oil he had sent her to buy before disappearing. Despite attending Gradgrind’s school, she struggles academically, unable to conform to factbased learning. Though Gradgrind is frustrated by her poor performance, he grows fond of her due to her kindness and helpful nature. Sissy serves as a source of comfort in Gradgrind’s household. She cares for his ailing wife and later becomes Louisa’s guardian angel, tending to her during her emotional breakdown. Her deep concern for Louisa’s well-being is touching, and Louisa is profoundly moved by her kindness. Sissy’s character is further highlighted when she boldly confronts Harthouse at his hotel. She speaks to him with firm yet respectful authority, persuading him to leave Coketown and stop pursuing Louisa. Her success in this endeavor resembles a fairy tale, as she triumphs through sheer moral strength. Sissy plays a pivotal role in the novel. She helps Rachel discover Stephen, assists in Tom’s escape, and brings warmth to the Gradgrind household. Though simple and uneducated, she possesses keen insight into human nature. She recognizes Louisa’s inner goodness and pities the circumstances that led her to marry Bounderby. Unlike Louisa, she immediately sees Tom’s flaws. Through Sissy, Dickens celebrates qualities of kindness, selflessness, and imagination over cold rationality. She never complains, never speaks ill of others, and her touch transforms lives. She represents the triumph of compassion over rigid facts, making her a minor heroine of the story. Self-Check Exercise-I Q 1 What are the two charges made against Dicken’s art of characterization? Q 2 How is Mr. Thomas Gradgrind defined? Q 3 Describe briefly Mr. Bounderby. Q 4 Who was Mrs. Pegler? Q 5 Whom does Louisa love the most? Q 6 How is Cecilia described? Minor Characters A.    Tom Gradgrind Tom Gradgrind is a completely selfish and ungrateful character, lacking any redeeming qualities. He despises his strict upbringing and views his father’s home as a prison, except for his sister Louisa, whom he loves at this stage. However, his love is ultimately self-serving—he encourages Louisa to marry Bounderby so he can take advantage of the situation. Tom is shallow, pleasure-seeking, and easily influenced by Mr. Harthouse. After Louisa marries Bounderby, Tom turns to gambling, incurs heavy debts, and relies on his sister for financial support. When she can no longer help him, he resorts to robbing a bank and frames Stephen Blackpool for the crime. Though Louisa suspects him, he denies any involvement. However, Stephen’s dying words expose Tom as the real culprit. On Sissy’s advice, he flees and takes refuge at Mr. Sleary’s circus. Bitzer catches up with him, but with Sleary’s help, he escapes to a foreign country. Before leaving, he offers a weak apology to his father but remains bitter toward Louisa for abandoning him in his time of need. Eventually, he dies abroad, with Louisa’s name on his lips, finally realizing the sacrifices she made for him. B.    James Harthouse James Harthouse is a charming, well-bred man in his mid-thirties, with pleasant manners and an attractive appearance. However, he is a cynical and morally bankrupt character. The author satirically describes him as a “thorough gentleman” shaped by the times— disillusioned and faithless. He has dabbled in various careers, from the army to traveling, but finds everything dull. On his brother’s recommendation, he joins the "Hard Fellows" and arrives in Coketown with a letter of introduction to Bounderby from Gradgrind. Harthouse has little regard for Gradgrind’s beliefs and instead embraces a philosophy of resignation—“what will be, will be.” Initially, he has no plans regarding Louisa, but he becomes intrigued when he notices her affection for her brother, Tom. Using this knowledge, he gains Tom’s trust by plying him with alcohol and tobacco, extracting useful information, and then dismissing him once he has served his purpose. He manipulates Louisa by making her aware of Tom’s ingratitude, gradually winning her over. Eventually, he declares his love, offering her the choice of running away with him or maintaining a secret affair. Confident that she will accept one of his proposals, he waits for her response. However, Sissy Jupe confronts him, exposing his deception and compelling him to leave Coketown. Though he agrees, this does not redeem him—his departure is more a strategic retreat than a moral decision. When he realizes that Sissy, who has bested him, is merely a dependent in the Gradgrind household, he is amused rather than humbled. A principal target of satire, Harthouse is an entertaining rogue. C.    Mrs. Sparsit Mrs. Sparsit is an aristocratic but impoverished widow who works as Bounderby’s housekeeper. She receives an annual stipend, which she prefers to call an “annual compliment.” She is proud of her noble connections, particularly her great-aunt, Lady Scadgers, and takes satisfaction in her late husband’s premature death, which left her in reduced circumstances. Bounderby, in turn, is proud to have a housekeeper with an aristocratic background. However, Mrs. Sparsit is a figure of satire throughout the novel. She shares Bounderby’s disdain for workers and is unsympathetic toward Stephen Blackpool when he seeks advice about his unhappy marriage. Although she disapproves of Bounderby’s marriage to Louisa, she conceals her feelings well. When Bounderby expects outrage, she surprises him with her calm reaction and agrees to move to the bank under the same financial arrangement. She pretends to sympathize with Bounderby’s plight, portraying herself as a noble and refined presence in his home. However, the townspeople see her differently, viewing her as the “bank dragon” guarding her employer’s wealth. Mrs. Sparsit’s cunning is evident in how she gathers information, using Bitzer as her informant while instructing him not to mention names. She disapproves of Louisa, referring to her dismissively as a “chit not twenty when she was married.” She closely monitors Louisa’s interactions with Harthouse, assuming she will eventually be unfaithful to Bounderby. She eagerly spies on Louisa, misinterpreting events, and rushes to London to report what she believes to be an impending elopement. However, she is humiliated when she learns that Louisa has simply returned to her father’s house. Mrs. Sparsit faces another significant defeat when she triumphantly brings Mrs. Pegler, an elderly woman, to Bounderby, believing she has uncovered a scandal. Instead, she inadvertently exposes Bounderby as a fraud—Mrs. Pegler is revealed to be his long-hidden mother, proving that his self-made-man story was a lie. Furious, Bounderby dismisses Mrs. Sparsit from his service. Despite her disgrace, she handles her dismissal with remarkable composure. In her final act of defiance, she coolly surveys Bounderby from head to toe and reveals that she has always referred to his portrait as a “noodle.” Bounderby is left speechless at her parting remark. Mrs. Sparsit is a source of both comedy and satire, embodying hypocrisy and scheming, yet ultimately meeting her downfall. Self-Check Exercise-II Q 1 Name the minor characters in the novel. Q 2 Describe the character of Tom Gradgrind. Q 3 Who outwits James Harthouse? Q 4 How is Mrs. Sparsit defined? 8.1    Summary This lesson familiarized you with different characters of the novel. Now you are prepared to understand further the nuances of this text. Characterization of characters has made you comprehend the plot in a better manner. 8.2    Glossary •    Atone for •  Braggart •  Callous others. -    make amends or reparation. -    a person who boasts about their achievements or possessions. -    showing or having an insensitive and cruel disregard for •    Caricature - picture, description, or imitation of a person in which certain striking characteristics are exaggerated in order to create a comic or grotesque effect. •    Errand      - a short journey undertaken in order to deliver or collect something, especially on someone else’s behalf. •  Exigencies  - an urgent need or demand. •  Odious      - extremely unpleasant; repulsive. 8.3    Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-Check Exercise-I Ans 1. Two charges that are made against Dicken’s art of characterization are: firstly, that is guilty of Ans 2. considerable exaggeration and secondly, that he does not tell us enough about the inner, life of his characters. Ans 3. Mr. Thomas Gradgrind is a “man of facts”. He is very practical and does not believe in imagination. Ans 4. Josiah Bounderby is ‘a man totally devoid of sentiment’. He has been protrayed as a rich man : ‘banker, merchant, manufacturer and what not.’ He is a man made out of a coarse material, He is a big, round man, with a stare and a metallic laugh’, He is a beautiful man. He always boasts of his humble origin. He takes pride in telling that he has risen from the gutter after his mother had deserted him to a fictitious drunken grandmother. But as soon as he was big enough, he ran away and became a vagabond. Ans 5. Mrs. Pegler was Mr Bounderby’s mother. Ans 6. Her brother Tom. Ans 7. She is vital to the plot. Apart from the importance of her role in the story, her character is by itself an important element in the design of the book. She is a simple homely, unclearned, unsophisticated kind of a girl with plenty of common sense and natural intelligence. She is a girl of a sterling character. Self-Check Exercise-II Ans 1. Tom Gradgrind, James Harthouse, Mrs Sparsit and Rachel Ans 2. A villainous character - selfish ungrateful, untruthful and crooked. NO redeeming quality. Has strong’ dislike for his life at home, hates the way he is being educated. His father’s home is a “Jaundiced. Jail”. Ans 3. Sissy Jupe Ans 4. A well connected elderly woman, works as housekeeper at Bounderby’s house- receives an annual stipend-prefers to call it ‘annual compliment’ has a great aunt by the name of lady Scadgers, is proud of the fact that her husband died prematurely leaving her is no affluent circumstances. She has dense black Coriolation eye brows and a Roman nose. 8.4    References/Suggested Readings •    ‘Introduction to Hard Times’ by Phillip Collins •    ‘Dickens : A Biography’ by Peter Ackroyd •    Philip Collins, introduction to Hard Times, Everyman’s Library, 1992 •    Ackroyd, Peter (1991). Dickens: A Biography. Harpercollins. •    Thorold, Dinny (1995). Introduction to Hard Times. Wordsworth: Printing Press. •    https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/hardtimes/ •    House. M.; Storey. G. & Tillotson. K. (1993). The Pilgrim Edition of the letters of Charles Dickens,Vol VIII. Oxford University Press. 8.5    Terminal Questions Q 1 Dickens is charged with being guilty of exaggeration as well as of not dwelling upon enough of hischaracters. Discuss with respect to Hard Times. Q 2 Compare and contrast the characters of Louisa Gradgrind and Sissy Jupe. Q 3 Thomas Gradgrind and Bounderby represent utilitarianism in its most rigid form. Do you agree?Give reasons for your answer. Q 4 Mrs Sparsit and James Harthouse bring about a twist in the plot. Elucidate. Unit- 9 Hard Times: Major Critical Aspects Structure 9.1    Introduction 9.2    Learning Objectives 9.3    Major Critical Aspects Self-Check Exercise-I 9.4 Summary 9.5    Glossary 9.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise 9.7    References/Suggested Readings 9.8    Terminal Questions 9.1    Introduction Hard Times presents a sharp and satirical critique of the scientific and pragmatic approach to education that Dickens believed was widespread in English schools during his time. This type of education focuses solely on developing a child's intellect by emphasizing facts while neglecting emotional and imaginative growth. This philosophy is embodied by Gradgrind, who runs a model school in the industrial town of Coketown. Although it would be an overstatement to classify Hard Times as a moral fable or morality play, the novel undeniably carries a strong moral purpose. It serves as a satirical critique of various social issues in Victorian society. Satire, by nature, has a corrective function and is inherently moral in its outlook. Additionally, the novel contains direct instances of moral reflection. Dickens is recognized as one of the greatest humorists in English literature, and his humor often emerges from the peculiarities and eccentricities of his characters. However, in Hard Times, he also demonstrates his skill as a satirist. The novel is largely satirical, showcasing Dickens’s adept use of irony, his sharp sense of sarcasm, and his remarkable ability to ridicule social flaws. 9.2    Learning Objectives We are confident that everyone must have grasped Hard Times by this point. Nevertheless, there are specific topics that would improve your understanding of the novel. This lesson will focus on symbolism, satire, shortcomings, and more. 9.3    Important Critical Aspects A.    Attack on the Contemporary Educational System We encounter Gradgrind right at the beginning of the first chapter, urging his school master to instruct his students in ‘facts’ and strictly facts. Dickens’s portrayal of Gradgrind, intended to mock the type of educational philosophy he supports, is laden with irony: Gradgrind is depicted as a man of facts and calculations. He is a thoroughly pragmatic individual who acts upon the principle that “two and two are four and nothing more. ” To him, the boys and girls in the classroom are merely little pitchers meant to be filled with facts. He refers to the pupils in his class not using their names, but instead by their numbers. The critique of an education focused on facts and statistics continues when the teacher advises the pupils against having wallpapers that feature floral designs. When Sissy brings up the term “fancy,” the teacher cautions her never to utilize that ability. “Fact, fact, fact,” asserts the teacher, and those words are echoed by Gradgrind. The new schoolmaster is also portrayed in a statistical way to reveal the absurdity of the type of education he has received and which he is delivering to his students. He has emerged, along with approximately one hundred and forty other schoolmasters, “from the same factory on the same principles, like so many pianoforte legs. ” The critique of this type of education persists in the author’s description of how Gradgrind is raising his own children. None of his children is permitted to dream, speculate, or imagine. The author humorously refers to his daughter as his “metallurgical Louisa” and to his son as his “mathematical Thomas. ” It comes as a startling revelation to Gradgrind to witness his two eldest children peeking through a tent hole attempting to catch a glimpse of the circus. Consequently, these children are growing up with their imagination starved and stunted. There is no opportunity for them to cultivate their instincts, feelings, and emotions. Gradgrind himself is depicted as a man “perfectly devoid of sentiments. ” Louisa and Tom are exceedingly unhappy with the kind of environment in which they are being raised. Tom expresses to his sister that he is tired of life in this “jaundiced jail. ” Louisa shares the same sentiment. The harm that this type of education can inflict is thoroughly illustrated by later events in the novel. Gradgrind cites statistics to assert that the age difference between a man and a woman poses no obstacle to their marriage. In this manner, he convinces Louisa to wed Bounderby. Louisa’s marriage to Bounderby ultimately proves to be a failure, and she nearly runs away with a lover. As for Tom, he entirely “compensates” himself for the strict discipline of facts and figures that he endured in his younger years. He engages in gambling, accrues debt, robs the bank where he works, and flees to a foreign country to evade the law. Gradgrind suffers greatly for the flawed and one-sided education he provided to his children and others. He is heartbroken by the end. Sissy fortunately avoids the repercussions of this educational system because she was never able to learn the facts that were imposed upon her. She remains human until the end, and it is through her that the Gradgrind family is spared from some of the calamities that would have occurred without Sissy’s emotional connection to it. In this novel, Dickens advocates for a harmonious development of both the intellect and the heart, the ability to reason and the capacity to feel, the mental faculties, and the instincts and affections. Sacrificing instincts and affections at the altar of intellect means dehumanizing the pupils and depriving them of what is most valuable in human nature. B.    Motif and Symbols 1.    Motifs Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform the text’s major themes. Bounderby’s Childhood A recurring motif in Hard Times is Bounderby’s childhood, which he frequently references with the emphatic phrase, “Josiah Bounderby of Coketown.” He repeatedly recounts his supposed upbringing in extreme poverty, claiming to have been born in a ditch, abandoned by his mother, raised by a drunken grandmother, and forced to survive through his own labor. From these humble and harsh beginnings, he has risen to become a wealthy factory and bank owner. Bounderby, therefore, appears to embody the ideal of social mobility, reinforcing the belief that anyone can achieve success—regardless of poverty or lack of education—through hard work and perseverance. He often uses his life story to suggest that his workers, known as the Hands, remain impoverished due to their own lack of ambition and self-discipline. However, Bounderby is ultimately exposed as a fraud. His mother, Mrs. Pegler, reveals that he was not abandoned but was raised by loving, though poor, parents who sacrificed to ensure he received a good education. By uncovering the truth about Bounderby’s background, Dickens challenges the notion of social mobility, implying that the Hands cannot escape poverty solely through determination. Instead, he suggests that overcoming hardship may only be possible through the generosity and compassion of those who are more fortunate. Clocks and Time Dickens distinguishes between mechanical or artificial time and natural time, which refers to the progression of the seasons. In both Coketown and the Gradgrind home, time is mechanized—in other words, it is unyielding, organized, predictable, and tedious. As the narrator notes, “Time went on in Coketown like its own machine. ” The mechanization of time is also represented by the “deadly statistical clock” in Mr. Gradgrind’s office, which tracks the passing of every minute and hour. Nevertheless, the novel itself is organized according to natural time. For example, the titles of its three sections—“Sowing,” “Reaping,” and “Garnering”—refer to farming work and the activities of planting and harvesting aligned with the shifts of the seasons. In a similar vein, the narrator observes that the seasons change even within Coketown’s “wilderness of smoke and brick. ” These seasonal transformations represent “the only stand that ever was made against its direful uniformity. ” By contrasting mechanical time with natural time, Dickens demonstrates the significant degree to which industrialization has mechanized human life. While the changing seasons offer variation in terms of landscapes and agricultural work, mechanized time continues to advance with unceasing regularity. Mismatched Marriages Hard Times features several unhappy and unequal marriages, including those of Mr. and Mrs. Gradgrind, Stephen Blackpool and his nameless, alcoholic wife, and most notably, the Bounderbys. Louisa consents to marry Mr. Bounderby after her father persuades her that it is a logical choice. He even uses statistical evidence to argue that their significant age gap should not stand in the way of their happiness. However, Louisa’s deep unhappiness in her marriage to Bounderby highlights the idea that love, rather than reason or practicality, is essential for a fulfilling and successful marriage. 2.    Symbols Symbols are objects, characters, figures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts. Pegasus Mr. Sleary’s circus performers lodge at an inn called the Pegasus Arms, where a theatrical model of a winged horse, adorned with golden stars, is displayed. The pegasus symbolizes a realm of fantasy and beauty, one from which the Gradgrind children are deliberately excluded. Mr. Gradgrind teaches his students that wallpaper depicting horses is unrealistic, as horses do not actually live on walls. In contrast, the circus world embraces imagination, where horses can dance the polka, and mythical flying horses can be envisioned even if they do not physically exist. The name of the inn itself highlights the stark opposition between the circus’s creativity and joy and Mr. Gradgrind’s rigid insistence on factuality. Smoke Serpents On a literal level, the thick plumes of smoke that darken the skies over Coketown are a direct consequence of industrialization. However, these “smoke serpents” also serve as a metaphor for the moral blindness of factory owners like Bounderby. Obsessed with profit, Bounderby views the smoke as a sign of productivity and financial success. He fails to see it as a harmful pollutant and remains oblivious to the suffering of his exploited workers. The smoke becomes a moral veil, obscuring his awareness of the Hands’ struggles. Additionally, the word “serpents” evokes a sense of evil, reinforcing the moral corruption and ignorance that the smoke symbolizes. Fire Louisa is introduced in Chapter 3 of Book the First with an inner fire—described as “a fire with nothing to burn, a starved imagination keeping life in itself somehow.” This imagery conveys that, despite her seemingly cold and logical nature, she has not completely surrendered to her father’s rejection of imagination and wonder. Louisa’s inner fire represents the warmth of her suppressed creativity in an otherwise bleak and mechanical existence. Her habit of staring into the fireplace suggests that she sees things in the flames that others—like her rigid father and self-centered brother—cannot. Fire in Hard Times also symbolizes both destruction and vitality. The same fire that fuels Louisa’s hidden emotions also powers the factories, driving the industrial machines. However, just as the factories’ flames consume coal for energy, Louisa’s repressed feelings eventually consume her from within, burning “like an unwholesome fire.” Through this symbol, Dickens underscores the significance of imagination in counteracting the dehumanizing effects of industrialization and rigid rationalism. Characters In Hard Times, Dickens has also used his characters as symbols. Almost every character in this novel is an embodiment of a certain idea or concept or principle, good and bad. In fact there are two groups of symbolic characters. One group symbolises certain objectionable feature of the Victorian life and the other symbolises certain moral qualities. These two groups symbolizing opposite principles are confronted with each other, the characters are therefore, like the dramatis personae in “morality play: there is an allegorical intention behind the characterportrayal. But this novel is albeit different from a moral fable or morality play in one striking respect. In moral fable or morality play the characters are purely embodiments of certain good or bad qualities, but in this novel the characters in addition to their function as symbols of certain good or bad qualities are also individuals, in their own right. The group of characters symbolizing, certain evils, abuses and harmful institution, and certain vices is attacked by the other group embodying certain good Qualities, Gradgrind symbolizes the utilitarian the of education. His excessive emphasis on facts and statistics and is complete disregard for the value, of instincts, sentiments and fancy or imagination makes him an object of satire. Bounderby, banker and manufacturer is a symbol of the utilitarian economic theory and the theory of “Laissez faire” which held ground in the Victorian age. This man represents greed and callous inhumanity in actual practice. His dismissal of Stephen shows him to be a selfish and indifferent kind of employer. Then there is Louisa who become a symbol of suffering due to a wrong kind of education. Tom too, symbolizes the dangerous consequences of the kind of education advocateed by Gradgrind. The most perfect achievement of Gradgrind’s system of education is symbolised by Bitzer for whom everything becomes a, matter of bargain and sale, and who is wholly governed by the principle of self- interest. Mrs. Sparsit is the symbol of snobbery and hypocrisy of the upper classes of the period. Like wise. James Harthouse symbolizes the decay which comes from rank and position without moral character. All the characters mentioned above, with the exception of Louisa, are made to appear stupid and hateful. We develop a strong dislike for them because there is no trace of human sympathy in them. We forgive Gradgrind. partly for having taken the abandoned Sissy under his protection. and partly because towards the end he realises his mistake and feels truly repentant. As for Bounderby, he aggravates his economic utilitarian philosophy by fabricating the circumstances in which he grew up, and even more by his complete disregard of filial sentiment and his callous treatment of his mother. Mrs. Sparsit may well be described as a villian. She is a hypocrite. Who respects her employer in his presence and calls him “a noodle” in his absence. She aggregates her faults by the manner in which she plays the spy keeping a close watch on the movements and actions of louisa, and later tracking. Mrs, Pegler to, her cottage. James Harthouse’s cynicism , his simulated honesty, his general boredom with life and his seeking. Distraction by pursuing a married woman all these show him to be a despicable fellow. Tom’s ingratitude towards his sister and, his coarsening of sense of right and wrong throughly repel us. As we watch these various characters behaving in accordance with their nature and their upbringing, we are filled with abhorrence for the kind of education that develops only the head and ignores the heat. We are filled with hatred for the selfishness, snobbery, greed. hypocrisy, hardness, cynicism and inhumanity which these characters symbolize. Sissy symbolizes vitality as well as goodness; she is generous and full of the spirit of service. She attends upon Mr. Gradgrind’s children. Her major service to the family, however, is the way she drives away Harthouse, from Coketown and the manner in which she becomes the instrument of Tom’s escape from the clutches of law. Gradgrind is eventually saved by the one non- utilitarian act which he performed when he took Sissy under his protection.The circus is symbolically important in that it not only stands for art but also for humanity. The people associated with the circus are embodiments of these virtues of sympathy, and helpfulness to others for which, Gradgrind’s philosophy has no use and Bounderby’s hardened heart no room. The two words conflict with each other in this novel : the world of generous feeling and the world of rationalized greed. It is through his heartless philosophy that Gradgrind is Struck down ; and through his inconsistent deed of kindness that he and his family are saved. Sleary conveys the moral of the novel after giving an account of the death of Sissy’s father to Gradgrind. He tells that there is a kind of love in the world which is not selfinterest after all, but something very different, and that this love has a way of its own of calculating and not calculating. This is the supreme message of the novel. It is a condemnation of all that, Gradgrind, Bounderby, Harthouse and Mrs, Sparsit symbolize, and an acceptance and approval of what Stephen, Rachel, Sissy and Sieary symbolize. Here the characters are chiefly functioning as symbols and partly as individuals so that the novel can be called, a moral fable or a morality play. Coketown Coketown as a Symbol The industrial city of Coketown is itself a powerful symbol. It represents the grim realities of industrial life, characterized by its monotony, pollution, and dehumanization. The mechanized routine of its workers, shaped by utilitarian principles and laissez-faire capitalism, highlights the consequences of a society that prioritizes profit over people. C.    Wit, Humour and Satire Charles Dickens is recognized as one of the greatest humorists in English literature, often deriving humor from the quirks and eccentricities of his characters. However, in Hard Times, he also demonstrates his skill as a sharp satirist. The novel is primarily satirical, showcasing Dickens’s expert use of irony, sarcasm, and ridicule. His satire is directed at the flaws, abuses, and false values of Victorian society, particularly targeting utilitarianism in education, business, industry, and even in marriage decisions. He also criticizes materialism, the laissez-faire economic philosophy, greed, class divisions, snobbery, hypocrisy, and trade unionism. These themes are personified in characters such as Gradgrind, Bounderby, Mrs. Sparsit, James Harthouse, Bitzer, Tom, and Slackbridge, while the people of Coketown as a whole are also collectively satirized. Irony is evident from the very first chapter, where Gradgrind is introduced expounding his utilitarian approach to education, emphasizing the absolute importance of facts. Dickens’s description of Gradgrind’s physical features—his eyes, forehead, mouth, and voice—contains irony, as does his depiction of the students as empty vessels waiting to be filled with facts. Further irony appears in the way the schoolmaster is likened to a mass-produced product, created by the educational system like identical piano legs. The satire continues in the portrayal of Gradgrind’s rigid upbringing of his children, who are forbidden from imagining, wondering, or even enjoying nursery rhymes. Dickens mockingly refers to “metallurgical Louisa” and “mathematical Thomas,” highlighting the mechanical nature of their education. Despite the amusement in this portrayal, there is a serious critique of Gradgrind’s methods. One of the novel’s most masterful ironic moments occurs in the conversation between Gradgrind and Louisa regarding Bounderby’s marriage proposal. Dickens ridicules Gradgrind’s statistical approach to marriage and his failure to comprehend Louisa’s ironic responses. Louisa’s claim that she knows nothing of emotions, aspirations, or affections is meant ironically, but her father completely misses the point. While this scene evokes sympathy for Louisa, it also satirizes Gradgrind’s entire philosophy of life. Bounderby is subjected to an even harsher satire. Beyond the mockery of his physical appearance, Dickens ridicules his constant boasting about his humble origins, calling him the “bully of humility.” The novel mocks Bounderby’s transactional approach to marriage, as his courtship of Louisa resembles a business deal, even describing his love as having a “manufacturing aspect.” His attitude towards workers is also ridiculed, particularly his absurd claim that factory smoke is “meat and drink” and the healthiest thing in the world. His hypocrisy is evident in the way he dismisses Stephen Blackpool’s plea for help with his marriage, coldly advising him to endure his situation because he made a vow. Mrs. Sparsit is another figure of satire, mocked for her snobbery, hypocrisy, and deceitfulness. Dickens repeatedly pokes fun at her exaggerated physical features, such as her Roman nose and Coriolanian eyebrows, as well as her pretentious references to herself as the “bank dragon.” Her sycophantic behavior toward Bounderby is humorously contrasted with her private contempt for him, as seen when she calls him a “noodle” in his absence. Bitzer, the model student of Gradgrind’s philosophy, is another satirical character, devoid of emotion or gratitude. The irony is particularly sharp when Bitzer refuses to let Tom escape, citing the very principles of self-interest that Gradgrind’s education instilled in him. James Harthouse is another object of satire, introduced ironically as a “fine gentleman.” Bored with life, he enters politics in search of amusement and attempts to seduce Louisa without genuine passion. The irony reaches its peak when he is defeated not by a man of equal status but by the daughter of a circus clown, an outcome even he recognizes as ironic. Meanwhile, Slackbridge, the trade union leader, is portrayed in a highly unflattering manner, with his exaggerated accusations against Stephen Blackpool making him appear deceitful and manipulative. Some critics have expressed disappointment with Dickens’s one-sided depiction of Slackbridge. Toward the end of the novel, there is an especially entertaining scene where Bounderby and Mrs. Sparsit part ways, exchanging sarcastic remarks. Mrs. Sparsit openly insults Bounderby, calling him a “noodle” to his face before departing with obvious contempt. Another source of humor is Mr. Sleary, whose perpetually tipsy demeanor and peculiar way of training circus horses add a touch of comic relief. Even Mr. Gradgrind, despite his rigid nature, has a certain comic element, though he remains a somewhat pitiful figure. Critics have had mixed reactions to Hard Times. Macaulay criticized it for what he called its “sullen socialism,” while John Ruskin praised it as a significant social novel. In the twentieth century, George Bernard Shaw admired its focus on social issues, and Paul Gray considered it an admirable success, albeit endlessly fascinating. G.K. Chesterton regarded Hard Times as one of the greatest works of literature, while Cockshut, though hesitant to call it a masterpiece, acknowledged that it possesses the distinct strength that defines Dickens as a major artist. He also recognized the novel’s originality, considering it an indisputable work of art. D.    Strengths and Weaknesses In Hard Times, Charles Dickens uses his characters as symbols, with nearly every character representing a specific idea, principle, or concept—whether good or bad. The novel contains two distinct groups of symbolic characters: one embodies the flaws and injustices of Victorian society, while the other represents moral virtues. These opposing groups confront each other, making the characters resemble figures in a morality play, with an underlying allegorical purpose in their portrayal. However, Hard Times differs from traditional moral fables or morality plays in one significant way: while its characters symbolize various virtues or vices, they are also fully developed individuals with distinct personalities. The first group of characters represents societal evils, abuses, and harmful institutions. These figures are challenged by characters who embody positive values. Gradgrind personifies the utilitarian approach to education, emphasizing facts and statistics while disregarding instinct, emotion, and imagination—making him a target of satire. Bounderby, a banker and industrialist, symbolizes the economic utilitarianism and laissez-faire philosophy of the Victorian era. His character embodies greed and a lack of humanity, which is evident in his callous dismissal of Stephen Blackpool. Louisa, in contrast, becomes a symbol of suffering caused by a misguided education, while her brother Tom represents the dangerous consequences of Gradgrind’s rigid philosophy. The ultimate product of this system is Bitzer, who views everything in terms of profit and self-interest. Mrs. Sparsit symbolizes the snobbery and hypocrisy of the upper class, while James Harthouse represents the corruption that results from privilege without moral responsibility. With the exception of Louisa, these characters are depicted as foolish and detestable, lacking any trace of human compassion. Some characters, however, are shown in a more complex light. Gradgrind earns some forgiveness for taking in the abandoned Sissy and later recognizing his own mistakes. Bounderby, on the other hand, not only promotes economic utilitarianism but also fabricates stories about his humble origins and mistreats his own mother, making him even more contemptible. Mrs. Sparsit is portrayed as a villain due to her hypocrisy—flattering Bounderby in his presence while insulting him behind his back. Her role as a spy, obsessively tracking Louisa and later discovering Mrs. Pegler’s secret, further emphasizes her deceitfulness. James Harthouse’s cynicism, his insincere honesty, and his pursuit of a married woman make him a thoroughly despicable character. Similarly, Tom’s ingratitude toward Louisa and his moral corruption evoke strong repulsion. As these characters behave according to their upbringing and nature, the reader is led to despise the kind of education that prioritizes intellect over emotion. The novel also condemns selfishness, snobbery, greed, hypocrisy, cruelty, cynicism, and inhumanity—qualities embodied by these characters. On the other side, Sissy represents vitality and goodness. She is generous, selfless, and devoted to serving others, particularly Gradgrind’s children. Her most significant contributions to the family include driving Harthouse out of Coketown and facilitating Tom’s escape from the law. Ironically, Gradgrind is ultimately redeemed by his one non-utilitarian act—taking Sissy into his home. The circus serves as an important symbol in the novel, representing both art and humanity. Its performers embody values such as sympathy and mutual support, qualities that Gradgrind’s philosophy dismisses and Bounderby’s hardened heart lacks. The novel highlights a conflict between two worlds: one driven by generosity and human emotion, and the other governed by cold, calculated selfinterest. Gradgrind’s rigid philosophy ultimately leads to his downfall, while his one act of kindness brings salvation to him and his family. The moral of the novel is best expressed through Sleary, who, after recounting the death of Sissy’s father, tells Gradgrind that there exists a kind of love in the world that is not rooted in self-interest. This love, he explains, follows its own unique way of measuring and not measuring worth. This idea serves as the novel’s central message: a rejection of everything that Gradgrind, Bounderby, Harthouse, and Mrs. Sparsit represent, and an endorsement of the values symbolized by Stephen, Rachael, Sissy, and Sleary. Since the characters primarily function as symbols while also maintaining individual identities, Hard Times can be considered both a moral fable and a morality play. Self-Check Exercise-I Q 1      What does Dickens plead through this novel? Q 2      What do different characters symbolize? Q 3     What is Coketown symbolic of? Q 4      What is Mr. Bounderby referred to as? Q 5      What are the three plot sequences in the novel? 9.4    Summary In this lesson we discussed all the issues required to comprehend the novel completely. We explained how this work attacks the education system which was producing only machines as human element was missing in teaching. Further, it was explained the symbolic significance of each character. Finally, it was shown how this work is a satire on the evils prevalent in the then society. 9.5    Glossary •    Albeit- though •    Eccentric- unconventional or strange •    Gallons- a large volume of something •    Pragmatic- dealing with things sensibly and realistically in a way that is based on practical ratherthan theoretical considerations •    Prevail upon- successfully persuade someone •    Pungent- having a sharply strong taste or smell Scathing- severely critical 9.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-Check Exercise-I Ans 1. In this novel Dicknes pleads for a balanced development of the head and the heart, the power of reasoning and the capacity to feel the mental faculty and the instincts and affection. Ans 2. In Hard Times. Dickens has used his characters as symbols. Almost every character in this novel is an embodiment of a certain idea or concept or principle, good and bad. Gradgrind symbolizes the utilitarian the of education. Bounderby, banker and manufacturer is a symbol of the utilitarian economic theory and the theory of “Laissez faire” which held ground in the Victorian age. Then there is Louisa who becomes a symbol of suffering due to a wrong kind of education. Tom too, symbolizes the dangerous consequences of the kind of education advocated by Gradgrind. The most perfect achievement of Gradgrind’s system of education is symbolised by Bitzer for whom everything becomes a, matter of bargain and sale, and who is wholly governed by the principle of self- interest. Mrs. Sparsit is the symbol of snobbery and hypocrisy of the upper classes of the period. James Harthouse symbolizes the decay which comes from rank and position without moral character. Sissy symbolizes vitality as well as goodness; she is generous and full of the spirit of service. The circus is symbolically important in that it not only stands for art but also for humanity. Ans 3. Coketown itself has been treated as a symbol in the novel. This industrial town represents industrial ugliness, industrial callousness, the mechanical and monotonous life ‘which the’ workmen are compelled to lead under a system governed by utilitarianism and, Laissez faire. Ans 4. He is referred to as “the bully of humility”. Ans 5. There are three plot sequences in the novel, one centres round Thomas Gradgrind and his family including Sissy, the second centres round Josiah Bounderby; and the third relates to Stephen Blackpool and Rachel. 9.7    References/Suggested Readings •    Philip Collins, introduction to Hard Times, Everyman’s Library, 1992 •    Ackroyd, Peter (1991). Dickens: A Biography. Harpercollins. •    https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/hardtimes/ •    Thorold, Dinny (1995). Introduction to Hard Times. Wordsworth: Printing Press. •    House. M.; Storey. G. & Tillotson. K. (1993). The Pilgrim Edition of the letters of Charles Dickens,Vol VIII. Oxford University Press. 9.8    Terminal Questions Q1 Discuss the dire consequences of education system promoting only ‘Facts, facts and facts’. Q2 Group of characters symbolize and attack various institutions in the novel. Do you agree? Supportyour answer with reasons. Q3 Hard Times is satirical in nature. Comment. Q4 The novel leaves a deep impression in spite of its weaknesses. Discuss. Unit-10 Major Themes Highlighted in Hard Times Structure 10.1    Introduction 10.2    Learning Objectives 10.3    Major Themes Self-Check Exercise-I 10.4  Summary 10.5  Glossary 10.6  Answers to Self-Check Exercise 10.7  References/Suggested Readings 10.8    Terminal Questions 10.1    Introduction Dickens’s writings are about sufferings of both children and the working class (Thornley and Roberts, 1984). These are the subject of one of his wellknown novels, David Copperfield (1850) (Carter and McRae, 1996). David Copperfield, the main character of the novel, is the Victorian boy who is able to release his dreams. The novel tackles part of Dickens’s childhood and his success (ibid.). Great Expectations (1861) is another famous novel of Dickens (Shelston, 1993). It is an autobiographical story with an unhappy ending (ibid.). Philip, the author’s main character in the novel, has many hopes which cannot be fulfilled. The expectations of Philip are not great as they were for David. Most of Dickens’s writings of the 1850s were characterised by a sense of irony (Carter and McRae, 1996). Hard Times (Dickens, 1854) is often regarded as a work of the Victorian times. Through this novel, Dickens attempts to criticize the values of the industrial Victorian societyDickens divided the novel into three separate books, two of which, "Sowing" and "Reaping," exemplify the biblical concept of "whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap" (Galatians 6:7). The third book, entitled "Garnering," Dickens paraphrased from the book of Ruth, in which Ruth garnered grain in the fields of Boaz. Each of his major characters sows, each reaps, and each garners what is left. 10.2    Learning Objectives We will learn about important themes and symbols in the novel Hard Times and later our focus will be on important question answers. 10.3    Major Themes A.    The Mechanization of Human Beings Hard Times indicates that the excessive embrace of industrialization in nineteenth-century England risks converting people into machines by hindering the growth of their feelings and imaginations. This notion primarily emerges through the behaviors of Gradgrind and his associate, Bounderby: while the former instructs the young members of his family and his school in the principles of fact, the latter regards the laborers in his factory as lifeless entities that can be easily exploited for his own benefit. In Chapter 5 of the first book, the narrator draws a comparison between the factory workers and the Gradgrind children— both exist in monotonous, uniform lives, free from enjoyment. As a result, their dreams and emotions become muted, leading them to develop near mechanical qualities. The dehumanizing effects of industrialization are intensified by Mr. Gradgrind’s doctrine of logical self-interest. Mr. Gradgrind asserts that human nature can be assessed, quantified, and completely governed by rational principles. In fact, his school strives to transform children into small machines that act according to such principles. Dickens’s main objective in Hard Times is to demonstrate the hazards of permitting humans to resemble machines, implying that without empathy and creativity, existence would be intolerable. Certainly, Louisa experiences this exact anguish when she comes back to her father's home and informs him that something essential has been absent in her life, to the extent that she finds herself in an unhappy marriage and possibly in love with another person. Although she does not act in a dishonorable manner, having halted her engagement with Harthouse before engaging in a socially destructive affair with him, Louisa understands that her existence is unbearable and that she must take significant action for her own well-being. By appealing to her father with the utmost sincerity, Louisa succeeds in prompting him to recognize and confess that his views on life and his approach to raising children are responsible for her emotional distance from others. B.    The Opposition Between Fact and Fancy While Mr. Gradgrind maintains that his children should always adhere to the facts, Hard Times not only implies that imagination is as vital as fact, but it also repeatedly questions the distinction between fact and imagination. Dickens argues that what is deemed as fact depends on one’s perspective or opinion. For instance, Bounderby perceives factory workers as lazy good -for-nothings who anticipate being fed “from a golden spoon. ” The Hands, conversely, view themselves as industrious and as having been unfairly taken advantage of by their employers. These differing sets of facts are irreconcilable because they rely on perspective. While Bounderby asserts that “[w]hat is called Taste is only another name for Fact,” Dickens suggests that fact is a matter of taste or individual belief. As a storyteller, Dickens is inherently interested in demonstrating that fiction cannot be excluded from a fact-based, mechanical society. Gradgrind’s children, however, are raised in a setting where all forms of imagination are frowned upon, resulting in significant social dysfunctions. Tom turns into a hedonist who shows little concern for others, while Louisa struggles to connect with those around her, despite wanting to do so. In contrast, Sissy, who was brought up in the circus, frequently indulges in the imagination that is denied to the Gradgrinds and lovingly raises Louisa and Tom’s sister in a manner more complete than the upbringing of either of the older siblings. Just as fiction cannot be separated from fact, fact is also essential for a well -rounded life. Had Gradgrind not taken her in, Sissy would lack direction, and her future could be uncertain. Consequently, the youngest Gradgrind daughter, nurtured by both the factual Gradgrind and the imaginative Sissy, exemplifies the best of both realms. C.    The Importance of Femininity During the Victorian era, women were typically linked with supposedly feminine qualities such as empathy, moral integrity, and emotional awareness. Hard Times implies that because they embody these characteristics, women are capable of counteracting the mechanizing impacts of industrialization. For example, when Stephen feels disheartened by the dreariness of his existence as a factory worker, Rachael’s gentle strength motivates him to persist. He captures her attributes by calling her his guiding angel. In a similar vein, Sissy brings affection into the Gradgrind home, ultimately teaching Louisa how to identify her feelings. Indeed, Dickens argues that Mr. Gradgrind’s doctrine of self-serving and calculating rationality has hindered Louisa from cultivating her inherent feminine qualities. Perhaps Mrs. Gradgrind’s failure to embrace her femininity permits Gradgrind to overstate the significance of fact in the upbringing of his children. On his side, Bounderby guarantees that his inflexibility will stay unchallenged since he weds the distant, unfeeling product of Mr. and Mrs. Gradgrind’s union. Through the various female figures in the novel, Dickens asserts that feminine compassion is essential for restoring social harmony. D.    Other important themes 1.    Industrialization and Utilitarianism: Dickens critiques the negative impacts of industrialization on society, particularly the dehumanizing effects of factory work and the emphasis on rationality and utility over compassion and imagination. The utilitarian philosophy, which prioritizes efficiency and profit, is depicted as detrimental to human wellbeing. 2.    Social Class and Inequality: The novel vividly portrays the stark divide between the wealthy industrialists and the impoverished working class. It highlights the exploitation and suffering of the lower classes, as well as the callous indifference of the upper classes to their plight. 3.    Education and Enlightenment: Through characters like Thomas Gradgrind and his strict educational philosophy, Dickens examines the limitations of an education system that prioritizes facts and practical knowledge over emotional and moral development. The novel suggests that true enlightenment comes from a balance of intellect, empathy, and imagination. 4.    Family and Relationships: "Hard Times" explores various familial relationships, including strained parentchild dynamics, loveless marriages, and sibling loyalty. Characters like Louisa Gradgrind and Tom Gradgrind navigate the complexities of family ties and societal expectations, highlighting the emotional toll of rigid social structures. 5.    Redemption and Compassion: Despite the bleakness of the setting, the novel ultimately offers themes of redemption and compassion. Characters like Mr. Gradgrind undergo personal growth and seek forgiveness for their past mistakes, while others, like Sissy Jupe, exemplify kindness, resilience, and empathy in the face of adversity. 6.    Identity and Authenticity: The novel interrogates the notion of identity and the importance of being true to oneself amidst societal pressures and expectations. Characters struggle with issues of identity, integrity, and selfdiscovery as they navigate the rigid social norms of Victorian society. 7.    Fancy" vs. "Fact": The opposition between "fancy" and "fact" is illustrated from the earliest pages of the novel. Clearly, the Gradgrind School opposes fancy, imaginative literature and "wondering." Instead, they encourage the pursuit of "hard fact" and statistics through scientific investigation and logical deduction. But the Gradgrinds are so merciless and thorough in their education that they manage to kill the souls of their pupils. Sissy Jupe and the members of Sleary's circus company stand as a contrast, arguing that "the people must be amused." Life cannot be exclusively devoted to labor. Self-Check Exercise-I Q 1 Discuss Hard Times as a work of Fiction exposing the evils of industrialism? Q 2 Examine Charles Dickens as a social reformer in his fiction? Q 3 Write an essay on impact of the industrial revolution on the English Fiction of the 19th century? Q 4 Character Sketches of all major characters in Hard Times? Q 5 To what extent are Gradgrind’s policies and plans justified Hard Times? 10 .4 Summary In "Hard Times," Charles Dickens critiques the negative impacts of industrialization and utilitarianism on society, emphasizing the dehumanizing effects of factory work and the prioritization of efficiency over compassion. The novel highlights the stark social divide between wealthy industrialists and the impoverished working class, portraying the exploitation and suffering of the latter and the indifference of the former. Through characters like Thomas Gradgrind, Dickens examines the limitations of an education system focused solely on facts and practicality, advocating for a balance of intellect, empathy, and imagination for true enlightenment. The story explores complex familial relationships, showcasing the emotional toll of rigid social structures. Despite the bleak setting, themes of redemption and compassion emerge, with characters like Mr. Gradgrind seeking forgiveness and others, like Sissy Jupe, exemplifying kindness and resilience. The novel also interrogates identity and authenticity, as characters struggle with societal pressures and selfdiscovery. The opposition between "fancy" and "fact" is central, with the Gradgrind school killing the souls of pupils by stifling imagination, contrasted by the vibrant, imaginative life represented by Sissy Jupe and Sleary's circus. 10 .5 Glossary •    Industrialization: The development of industries in a country or region on a wide scale. •    Utilitarianism: A philosophy that advocates actions that maximize happiness and well-being for the majority. •    Dehumanizing: Depriving of positive human qualities, making one feel less human. •    Rationality: The quality of being based on or in accordance with reason or logic. •    Compassion: Sympathetic pity and concern for the sufferings or misfortunes of others. •  Imagination: The ability of the mind to be creative or resourceful. •  Exploitation: The action or fact of treating someone unfairly in order to benefit from their work. •    Enlightenment: The state of gaining knowledge and understanding, especially about a particular subject or situation. •    Empathy: The ability to understand and share the feelings of another. •    Dynamics: The forces or properties that stimulate growth, development, or change within a system or process. •    Redemption: The action of saving or being saved from sin, error, or evil. •    Resilience: The capacity to recover quickly from difficulties; toughness. •    Authenticity: The quality of being genuine or true to oneself. •    Integrity: The quality of being honest and having strong moral principles. •    Societal: Relating to society or its organization. •    Norms: Standards or patterns of social behavior that are typical or expected within a society. •    Opposition: Resistance or dissent, expressed in action or argument. •    Merciless: Showing no mercy or pity. •    Thorough: Complete with regard to every detail; not superficial or partial. •    Pupils: Students in a school. 10. 6 Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-Check Exercise-I Ans 1. Hard Times by Charles Dickens is a potent critique of the industrial era's dehumanizing effects. The novel vividly depicts Coketown, an industrial city where factories dominate the landscape, filling the air with pollution and the lives of workers with monotony and hardship. The "serpents of smoke" from factory chimneys symbolize the spiritual and  physical  corruption  wrought by industrialization. Characters like Stephen Blackpool, a virtuous worker, face relentless exploitation and personal suffering, highlighting the grim realities for the working class. Dickens juxtaposes the cold, fact-driven philosophy of characters like Mr. Gradgrind and Mr. Bounderby with the warmth and compassion represented by Sissy Jupe and the circus folk, underscoring the human cost of prioritizing efficiency and profit over empathy and imagination. Ans 2. Charles Dickens was a social reformer whose fiction often highlighted societal injustices and the need for reform. In Hard Times, he critiques the harsh realities of industrial capitalism, the inadequacies of the education system, and the social inequalities of Victorian England. Dickens's portrayal of characters like Thomas Gradgrind and Josiah Bounderby serves to expose the flaws in utilitarian philosophies and the neglect of human compassion and moral development. Through his vivid storytelling and memorable characters, Dickens not only entertained but also provoked his readers to reflect on and challenge the societal norms of his time. Ans 3. The Industrial Revolution had a profound impact on 19th-century English fiction, shaping the themes, settings, and characters of many novels of the period. As cities expanded and factories proliferated, novelists began to explore the social and economic changes brought about by industrialization. Authors like Charles Dickens, Elizabeth Gaskell, and George Eliot depicted the lives of the urban poor, the rise of the middle class, and the conflicts between traditional rural life and modern industrial society. Dickens’s Hard Times and Gaskell’s North and South are exemplary works that address the harsh working conditions, the gap between the rich and poor, and the social upheaval of the time. These novels often served as social commentaries, advocating for better working conditions, social justice, and a more compassionate society. Ans 4. 1. Thomas Gradgrind: A strict utilitarian who values facts and figures above all else, Gradgrind runs a school and raises his children with a rigid adherence to practicality. Over time, he realizes the limitations of his philosophy and seeks redemption. 2.    Louisa Gradgrind: Gradgrind's daughter, emotionally stifled by her father's strictures, marries Josiah Bounderby without love. Her inner turmoil and ultimate rebellion against her upbringing highlight the human cost of a fact-based education. 3.    Josiah Bounderby: A wealthy, self-made industrialist who prides himself on his rise from poverty. Bounderby is arrogant and dismissive of the working class, and his hypocrisy is exposed when it is revealed he lied about his deprived childhood. 4.    Stephen Blackpool: A compassionate and honest factory worker trapped in a miserable marriage and oppressed by his employers. His tragic fate underscores the harsh realities faced by the working class. 5.    Sissy Jupe: A compassionate and imaginative girl from the circus who is taken in by Gradgrind. Sissy represents the antithesis of Gradgrind's philosophy, showing the value of empathy and imagination. 6.    Tom Gradgrind Jr.: Gradgrind’s wayward son, whose irresponsibility and lack of moral grounding lead him into trouble. His actions highlight the failure of his father’s rigid educational methods. Ans 5. Gradgrind's policies and plans, based on utilitarian principles, are initially portrayed as rational and efficient. However, Dickens demonstrates that they are ultimately dehumanizing and neglect the emotional and moral development of individuals. Gradgrind’s emphasis on facts and utility fails to account for the complexities of human nature and the importance of compassion and imagination. The suffering of his children, Louisa and Tom, and the eventual transformation of Gradgrind himself reveal the profound shortcomings of his approach. Thus, while Gradgrind's intentions may have been rooted in a desire for order and progress, the novel shows that his methods are deeply flawed and detrimental to true human flourishing. 10.7    References/Suggested Readings •    ‘Introduction to Hard Times’ by Phillip Collins •    ‘Dickens : A Biography’ by Peter Ackroyd •    Gibson, James. Thomas Hardy: A Literary Life. London: Macmillan, 1996. •    Claire, Tomalin. Thomas Hardy: the Time-torn Man (Penguin, 2007) •    https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/hardtimes/ •    Harvey, Geoffrey. Thomas Hardy: The Complete Critical Guide to Thomas Hardy. New York: Routledge (Taylor & Francis Group), 2003. •    Johnson, Lionel Pigot. The Art of Thomas Hardy (London: E. Mathews, 1894). 10.8    Terminal Questions Q 1 Hard Times as a Denunciation of Utilitarianism and Laissez-Faire Theory? Q 2 Is "Hard Times" a Moral Fable or Morality Play? Unit-11 Thomas Hardy: An Introduction to the Life and Career Structure 11.1   Introduction 11.2    Learning Objectives 11.3   Hardy and his Literary Contributions Self-Check Exercise-I 11.4   Philosophy of Life Self-Check Exercise-II 11.5  Summary 11.6  Glossary 11.7  Answers to Self-Check Exercise 11.8  References/Suggested Readings 11.9    Terminal Questions 11.1    Introduction Thomas Hardy (1840-1928) took an interest in agricultural issues and the social dynamics of the countryside. As a Victorian realist writer, he was also shaped by Romanticism. Therefore, it is essential for us to explore the Victorian era, particularly the novels produced during this time. At the forefront of the Victorian Age, the novel was the prevailing literary form. It was accessible and comprehensible to the general populace; its narrative was engaging, and the central characters of the novel were often the same individuals who read it, allowing them to become deeply immersed in the story. The shared opinions, values, and ideals of the middle class were conveyed, and the settings predominantly reflected the same cities where the readers resided. Consequently, the novel mirrored society, enabling readers to connect with its themes. The middle-class audience, especially women, constituted the most enthusiastic readers: they had the financial means to purchase or access books, ample leisure time for reading, but they required privacy to do so. Lower-income or working-class individuals lived in cramped accommodations, often with multiple families sharing the same flat or, at worst, the same room. Therefore, reading posed a challenge; to enhance the reading audience, novels were released in installments: every week, a few pages or an entire chapter of the novel appeared in one of the periodicals published. This arrangement proved beneficial for both readers and writers, as it was cost-effective and allowed authors to gauge reader responses. Novelists depicted society from their perspective, addressing issues brought on by industrialization (such as the exploitation of women and children, and dreadful living conditions, among others). The novel served as a means to encourage people to seek solutions to various problems. In this manner, “didacticism” became the primary objective of most novels during these years. 11.2    Learning Objectives Thomas Hardy is still regarded as one of the key novelists of the Victorian era. This lesson will acquaint you with both his biography and the diverse facets of his literary works – pessimism, philosophy, themes, and so forth. Enjoy your reading. 11.3    Hardy and his Literary Contributions A.    Life and Background Thomas Hardy (1840-1928) was born on June 2, 1840, in the village of Upper Bokhanpion close to Dorchester, in Southern England. There, he led a withdrawn and solitary existence for practically all of his life. He revived the historic name of Wessex for this region of lovely southern England and immortalized it in his novels. His father worked as a master mason. Although his parents intended for him to become a clergyman, his interests and talents were directed elsewhere. In 1847, he was apprenticed to Mr. Hicks of Dorchester, an ecclesiastical architect. The influence of architecture is evident in the composition of his novels. Since childhood, he had been an avid reader. He absorbed all that was exceptional in English Literature. In 1860, he moved to London and became a student of modern languages at King’s College. He also studied modern Gothic architecture under Sir Arthur Blomfield. In 1853, he was awarded a prize from the Institute of British Architecture for an essay on “Colour Brick and Terra Cotta Architecture. ” During this time, he visited the art gallery within the London Museum. He also took up painting. He created fine sketches to accompany the first edition of “Wessex Poems. ” Hardy traveled to Cromwell and developed an affection for a beautiful young woman named Emma. She motivated him to write novels. Her passing in 1912 was a tremendous shock for him. His home life was disrupted. He wedded his private secretary in 1914. In 1910, he was honored with the Order of Merit. Following a lengthy and illustrious literary career, he passed away in 1928. B.    Literary Contributions Novels and Stories 1.    Desperate Remedies (1871) 2.    Under the Greenwood Tree (1871) 3.    A Pair of Blue Eyes (1873) 4.    Far From the Madding Crowd (1874) 5.    The Hand of Ethelberta (1876) 6.    The Return of the Native (1878) 7.    The Trumpet-Major (1880) 8.    A Laodicean (1881) 9.    Two on a Tower (1882) 10.    The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886) 11.    The Woodlanders (1887) 12.    Wessex Tales (1888) 13.    Tess of the d’Urbervilles (1891) 14.    The Well-Beloved (1897) 15.    Life’s Little Ironies (1894) 16.    Jude the Obscure (1895) Poetry and Drama •    Wessex Poems (1898) •    Poems of the Past and Present (1901) •    The Dynasts (1903) Hardy’s works can also be categorized based on their general themes: •    Pastoral Tragedies: The Return of the Native, The Mayor of Casterbridge, Tess of the d’Urbervilles, Jude the Obscure, etc. •    Pastoral Comedies: The Hand of Ethelberta •    Pastoral Romance: Under the Greenwood Tree •    Pastoral Extravaganza: The Well-Beloved, The Pursuit of the Well-Beloved, etc. Between 1894 and 1913, Hardy shifted his focus to poetry after facing harsh criticism for his novels. During this time, he produced a significant collection of poetry, including The Dynasts. Notably, Hardy’s literary journey began and ended with poetry, while in between, he wrote novels that left an indelible mark on English literature. Hardy’s Contribution to English Fiction Despite initially viewing writing as merely a means of earning a livelihood, Hardy became one of the most significant novelists of the Victorian era and remains a towering figure in English literature. His influence on the development of fiction is both profound and substantial. Lionel Johnson notes that Hardy brought a sense of grandeur and depth to the novel through his ambitious vision, sweeping imagination, and thought-provoking themes. His contribution is significant in both artistic technique and thematic exploration. Vision Hardy’s works are driven by a powerful vision that set him apart from traditional novelists. While he captured the spirit of his time, he also challenged its conventions, offering a broader perspective on life. His novels break from past traditions, reflecting his dual role as both a product of his era and a critic of its limitations. Themes Hardy’s greatest contribution lies in his thematic innovations. He is credited with pioneering the philosophical novel, a genre that explores profound existential questions. Unlike previous novelists who focused on social issues and injustices, Hardy delved into fundamental questions about human suffering, fate, and divine justice. His works repeatedly ask, “Why do people suffer?” and “What causes human misery?” His answers were often unsettling, as he suggested that suffering stems from the cruelty and indifference of fate. This perspective stood in stark contrast to the optimism of the Victorian age. For instance, in Tess of the d’Urbervilles, Hardy directly challenges the idealistic optimism of poets like Robert Browning, arguing that “God is not in His heaven, and all is not right with the world.” Unlike earlier novelists who tackled social wrongs and corruption, Hardy’s focus was on the forces of fate, destiny, and cosmic injustice. He portrayed humanity as powerless against these external forces, making his novels a profound exploration of the conflict between man and fate. In doing so, he sought to revive the tragic ideals of ancient Greek literature. Plot Construction Hardy’s mastery of storytelling is evident in the careful construction of his novels. His plots are meticulously crafted, demonstrating the precision of an architect. Although his narrative technique remains conventional—lacking elements like stream-of-consciousness or modern perspective shifts—his works exhibit structural grandeur. Critics have noted that Hardy’s novels transition from a dramatic style to an epic scale. His plots are symmetrical, measured, and rigorously developed, giving the impression of a well-constructed literary edifice. In an essay published in 1898, Hardy reflected on his approach to character portrayal. He argued that the actions of the lower classes are a more direct reflection of their inner lives, whereas upper-class behavior is often concealed behind social conventions. As a result, the characters from working-class backgrounds in his novels are depicted with greater immediacy and authenticity. Regional Influence and the Wessex Setting Hardy’s significance as a regional novelist is undeniable. He set his novels in Wessex, an area that he vividly brought to life through his detailed descriptions of its landscape, traditions, and topography. The Wessex of Hardy’s fiction mirrors the ancient kingdom once ruled by King Alfred. He used the name “Wessex” to represent six counties in southwestern England, making it the central backdrop for nearly all his novels. Hardy rarely strayed from this setting, and his ability to paint a realistic and immersive picture of Wessex contributed to his reputation as one of the greatest regional novelists in English literature. Self-Check Exercise-I Q1 What is the main feature of Victorian novel? Q2 What kind of novel did Hardy promote? Q3 Which region is prominently featured in Hardy’s novels? 11.4 Philosophy of Life Although much has been discussed and written about the philosophy reflected in Hardy’s novels, he himself denied being a philosopher. He firmly stated that he did not consider himself one. However, this denial should not be taken too literally, as it may simply be an expression of humility. While he is primarily a novelist and poet, his works consistently convey a distinct perspective on life with remarkable coherence and depth. Though he was meticulous about the artistic aspects of his work, his literary achievements are deeply intertwined with his philosophical reflections. The sense of grandeur and dignity in human struggle that permeates his novels is largely a result of his profound and elevated thoughts. Hardy’s worldview presents a challenge to traditional beliefs. His philosophy dares to question and scrutinize divine justice. He perceived life as operating in a mysterious, unpredictable manner. When it comes to the role of fate, his perspective aligns closely with the tragic inevitability found in Greek drama. He suggests that human suffering stems from the cruelty of higher powers. Some of his characters, like Henchard, have personal flaws, yet they are generally good and sincere individuals who do not commit significant wrongs. However, they endure prolonged and intense suffering because they are fated to do so. Others, like Tess, are pure and virtuous, yet they face immense hardship simply because it was predetermined. In this sense, Hardy echoes Shakespeare’s fatalistic outlook, famously expressed in King Lear: "As flies to wanton boys are we to the gods; They kill us for their sport." A similar idea is vividly conveyed at the conclusion of Tess of the d’Urbervilles: "Justice was done, and the President of Immortals (in an Aeschylean phrase) ended His sport with Tess." To fully grasp Hardy’s philosophy, it is important to consider the influences that shaped his thought. One of the most significant influences on his worldview was the Bible. In his early years, Hardy read the Scriptures extensively. He later noted that he continued to read the Bible even after losing faith in a benevolent deity. Many of the allusions and metaphors in his novels stem from biblical references. In Jude the Obscure, for example, Jude expresses his deep despair with words reminiscent of the Bible: "Let the day perish in which I was born; let the day perish when it was said that a woman conceived a baby." This passage strongly echoes biblical lamentation. However, as Hardy’s perspective evolved, his references to religious teachings became increasingly critical and bitter. In Tess of the d’Urbervilles, theological doctrines are subjected to harsh scrutiny. Another major influence on Hardy was ancient Greek drama, particularly the works of Aeschylus and Sophocles. In Tess of the d’Urbervilles, he makes a direct reference to Aeschylus: "Justice was done! And the President of Immortals (in an Aeschylean phrase) ended His sport with Tess." The strong element of fatalism in Hardy’s novels can be traced back to Greek tragedy. His exploration of fundamental questions about human existence and suffering is deeply rooted in Greek philosophical thought. The idea that “Destiny is character” originates from Greek philosophy. Hardy’s belief that human beings are at the mercy of fate, unable to alter their predetermined course, aligns closely with the Greek concept of an unchangeable destiny. This belief led him to the conviction that “wrongs were continually budding and not withering.” Influences on The Dynasts Hardy was also influenced by contemporary writers, thinkers, and scientists. Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species had a significant impact on his views. The idea of chance, which plays a crucial role in Hardy’s novels, can be traced back to Darwinian thought. Additionally, philosopher Herbert Spencer greatly shaped Hardy’s thinking. Spencer’s theory of the survival of the fittest led Hardy to conclude that an obscure and incomprehensible force governs the universe. This notion frequently appears in The Dynasts, where Hardy’s writing often reflects Spencer’s influence. In Jude the Obscure, Hardy’s ideas also align with the pessimistic philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer, who had a profound effect on his thinking. Schopenhauer described the Will as a blind, cruel, and merciless force that operates without purpose—like a machine running mindlessly. He argued that the Will is neither praiseworthy for good nor accountable for evil. The bleak passages in Tess of the d’Urbervilles and Jude the Obscure echo this philosophy, particularly when Hardy writes: "It is the beginning of the coming universal Will." Hardy was also influenced by the German philosopher Eduard von Hartmann, who introduced the idea of an Unconscious force driving life. However, Hardy’s interpretation differs slightly—while he acknowledges that this force is currently unconscious, he suggests that with time, it may evolve into a conscious power. This belief aligns with Hardy’s self-description as an “evolutionary meliorist”, implying that although he recognized the suffering inherent in life, he believed in the possibility of gradual progress and improvement. A.    View of Fate and Chance Hardy sought to restore the Greek notion of tragedy. He believed that Destiny played a crucial role in human existence. Nevertheless, there exists a slight distinction. Mr. Alfred notes that ‘While the Greek was fatalistic about the will of nature which opposes civilization and which he embodies most notably in Egdon Heath (The Return of the Native). It is largely accurate to say that ‘Fate is character’ since everything is predetermined. David Cecil remarks that ‘a struggle exists between man and, on the other hand, a powerful and indifferent Fate—that encapsulates Hardy’s view of the human condition’. In Hardy’s books, Man is positioned against impersonal forces, those forces shaping his destiny. In Tess of the D’Urbervilles, the theme of Destiny has been addressed most effectively and artistically, highlighting the disorder that exists in this world. Hardy articulates in Tess of D’Urbervilles: ‘In the ill-judged execution of the well-judged plan of things that call seldom produces the comer. Nature does not often say “see” to her poor creature at a time when seeing can lead to happy doing; or reply ‘Here’ to a body’s cry of where? until the hide-and-seek has become an irksome outworn game’. The question emerges regarding the source of suffering, and the answer proposed in Tess of the d’Urbervilles is ‘out of which maladroit delay sprang anxieties, disappointments, shocks, catastrophes, and passing strange destinies. ’ Fate is relentless and overwhelming as it creates the illusion through coincidences and accidents that the unseen force manipulating events is hostile and enigmatic—and that power is Fate. Consequently, Fate looms over his novels like a dark and gloomy cloud. Hardy has illustrated Fate in various forms. It manifests as a natural force, as seen in Henchard (The Mayor of Casterbridge). It also appears as an inherent flaw of a character, such as Jude’s sensual nature (Jude the Obscure). However, it primarily takes two forms—Chance and Love. Most of Hardy's narratives revolve around Chance, resulting in the element of Chance taking an outsized role in the framework of his novels and creating the impression that it has been overstated and its application excessive. David Cecil emphasizes that chance holds significant sway in human life, but not every occurrence derives solely from chance: Hardy has faced criticism for this (the disproportionate emphasis placed on Chance): and certainly, he does occasionally exaggerate it. However, to entirely denounce his use of Chance is to misinterpret his perception of life. We observe a conflict between Man and Destiny. ‘Destiny is an unfathomable force; we do not comprehend its nature or intentions. Hence, we cannot predict what it will enact. As a result, its deeds frequently appear as baffling, unforeseen strikes of Chance. ’ He continues by stating, ‘Hardy always informs us that there is discord in the essence of existence. Man striving towards one goal. Destiny towards another: These goals may align, or they may diverge. Man is incapable of altering the will of Destiny. For instance, while seeking to clarify the reason behind the seduction of an innocent and virtuous woman. Tess, Hardy states that Tess’s own family never ceased to utter among each other in their fatalistic manner: It was to be (Tess of D’Urbervilles). One manifestation of Fate appears in the guise of Love. Love is a prominent aspect of Hardy’s novels. Hardy’s stories are fundamentally love tales: whether they culminate in joy or disaster is another issue. Hardy asserts that love is one of the most potent human drives. It serves as an inspiring and energizing force. However, he highlights that love, which seems to be a pleasant and alluring force, is not always benign. Beneath its charming facade, love conceals something ugly and horrifying. David Cecil has articulated this human predicament beautifully. He states, ‘Man thrown into a dark, unsatisfactory world, longs for happiness. The happiness promised by love serves as the most universal symbol of this longing that Hardy could have chosen. For love, far from being a benevolent spirit that consoles and aids man in his struggle with the inhuman forces governing human existence, is itself a manifestation of these forces. Love, as conceived by Hardy, the Lord of Terrible Aspect, is a blind, irresistible force seizing human beings, willingly or not, intoxicating in its inception, but more often than not leading to destruction in its wake. ’ The notion of love is intricately portrayed in Tess of D’Urbervilles. Reflecting on the ugly, shabby, and forced union between Tess and Alec, Hardy states, ‘Why was it that upon this beautiful feminine fabric (Tess), as sensitive as gossamer, and practically as blank as snow, there should have been etched such a coarse pattern as it was fated to receive? Why does the coarse so often claim the fine: thus, the wrong man the woman, the wrong woman the man, many thousand years of analytical philosophy have failed to illuminate for our sense of order? ’ The tragic narrative of Tess’s love vividly exemplifies this concept of love. Tess seems to perceive happiness in her affection for Angel Clare, yet little could she foresee the hidden mischief behind the joy promised by love. Something evidently sordid and sinister existed in Alec’s affection for Tess, yet there was something equally dreadful in the seemingly sweet and fine love of Clare for Tess. In Hardy’s novels, love infrequently leads to true happiness; it runs as a dark thread throughout the tapestry of his works. B.    Hardy’s Pessimism Hardy has been considered a pessimist. Nevertheless, he consistently refuted the accusation of pessimism. He identified himself as an “evolutionary melodist” instead of a pessimist. The reason why Hardy is perceived to have represented pessimism in several of his novels lies in his depiction of a bleak, dark, and grim image of life in many of his works. This portrayal is bound to seem pessimistic when there is constant darkness and no glimmer of life, not even a flicker of the stars. As Duffin emphasizes: “In life, it is the unexpected that happens; the world of Hardy’s novels, it is the undesirable unexpected. His entire novels are founded on the doctrine of irony of Fate as commonly understood. ” Hardy does not fit the definition of a pessimist in the strictest sense. He is, in fact, a tragic artist. It is certainly true that in books like The Mayor of Casterbridge and Jude the Obscure, pessimism is quite evident, since there is sheer darkness confronting both Henchard and Jude. He conveys a tragic vision of existence in stories like Tess of D’Urbervilles. His mind was highly attuned to life's somber tone. He felt profound compassion for suffering humanity. The harsh struggle that he perceives in life does indeed make him sorrowful, but not pessimistic; it is a different sort of pessimism. It is a philosophical kind of pessimism that serves as a strong remedy, soothing pain and offering comfort and solace to the tormented mind and bewildered spirit. Hardy’s statement “Happiness was only an occasional episode in the General drama of pain” in The Mayor of Casterbridge reflects a typical philosophical expression. This perspective made him particularly responsive to the portrayal of tragedy. Over time, tragic pathos became the defining characteristic of his artistry. In a letter to William Archer, Hardy stated that his practical philosophy was ‘melorist’. He believed that the world has the potential for improvement. Hardy expresses this philosophy in The Dynasts. “A sound of joyance thrills the air, Consciousness the will informing, Till fashions all things fair. ” And the rage of the ages will be reconciled. ” His inquiries represent a constructive move towards improvement. Bonamy Dobree correctly observes that “Hardy is not a pessimist. He is a tragic author. ” A tragic outlook on life signifies the belief that righteousness will eventually prevail over wrongdoing. Hardy’s perspective is a declaration of faith, as it essentially reflects a tragic viewpoint towards life due to its deep sensitivity to the reality of suffering for both humans and all living beings. This philosophy elevates the essence of humanity. It reveals the intrinsic nobility of character. Figures such as Henchard and Tess exhibit greatness and magnificence even in their despair. The perspective on life that arises from his works suggests that no marriage exists without sorrow. It is indeed the case that the fabric of his stories is interwoven with pessimism, and what redeems them is Hardy’s tragic depth, his compassion, empathy, and similar qualities. All these elements are meant to highlight the dignity of man in spite of anguish, mortality, and ruin. Hardy is a true tragic artist, as tragedy denotes the majesty and worth of humanity. In tragic figures, there is nothing lowly or petty. It is also accurate to say that the effect of a tragedy is never disheartening or degrading. It is perpetually uplifting and ennobling. Tess and Judge were too virtuous and admirable for their situations, which led them to endure hardship. Their greatness is found in their relentless battle against challenges and insurmountable obstacles. They experience great suffering and endure it for a long time, but they never give in or capitulate; they endure harsh defeats but remain unbroken. Hardy accurately stated that “no writer of a tragedy can be Christian. ” If there is salvation at the conclusion, it cannot be termed a tragedy. Hardy’s perspective on tragic art can be encapsulated in the words of H. W. Longfellow: “How sublime a thing it is, to suffer and be great. ” Hardy’s tragic figures possess an endless ability to endure suffering; that is the reason for their greatness. In summary, Hardy’s philosophy is “evolutionary meliorism. ” C.    Hardy’s Attitude to Nature Hardy’s view of Nature aligns with his philosophical beliefs. He reacted to Nature in two overarching manners. He addressed nature aesthetically and expressed this reaction in a highly poetic and lyrical manner. His depiction of Nature in Tess of the d’Urbervilles, especially at the Dairy, is deeply lyrical and poetic. Nature is both considered and depicted in a poetic manner. However, Hardy does not overlook the fact that beneath the beautiful and appealing surface lies a spirit that is ugly, which opposes beauty and harmony. The other manner in which Hardy has portrayed Nature is through her forceful aspect. She is antagonistic to human happiness. She displays her anger through storms and disasters. This fury is most prominently observed in Far From the Madding Crowd, The Return of the Native, and Tess of the d’Urbervilles. The Eedon Heath presents a notable example of nature’s dreadful side. Yet, Hardy’s perception of Nature differs from that of a romantic poet such as Wordsworth. Hardy’s viewpoint reflects the poet's perspective, the philosophical perspective, not that of the mystic. For example, Wordsworth is characterized as “the mystic communicant. ” Keats and Tennyson are those who relish the sensuous qualities of nature. Cyril Alfred notes that Hardy does not “lose himself in his vision: rather he loses his vision in himself. ” Hardy’s brilliance is reflected in his portrayal of the countryside with “the intimacy of the countryman and intrusions of the poet. ” However, Hardy employs Nature to articulate his philosophy. This is best exemplified in Tess of the d’Urbervilles. Hardy has astutely seized the moment of Tess’s seduction to criticize the ‘holy scheme’ of Nature that was developed and glorified by Wordsworth. In Hardy’s view, Nature was silently complicit with the malign forces to destroy Tess’s life: Darkness and silence ruled everywhere around. Above them rose the primeval views and oaks of the Chase, in which there poised gentle roosting birds in their last nap; and about them stole the hopping rabbits and hares. But, some might say, where was Tess’s guardian angel? Where was the providence of her faith? Yet, Hardy is an exceptional landscape painter. Perhaps no other novelist possesses such a wide canvas as Hardy. Duffin greatly praises Hardy’s skill in landscape painting; “If wordpictures could be hung on walls, Hardy’s word-pieces would fill up an entire gallery. ” Students should identify suitable illustrations from Tess of D’Urbervilles. D.    Art of Novel Hardy’s art aligns closely with his philosophy. He sought to capture a profound philosophy within his novels; as a result, he utilized all the elegance and nobility of art to convey that philosophy fully and vigorously. His subjects are both elevated and uplifting. Even when dealing with ordinary subjects, Hardy transforms them through his strong creative imagination and perspective to reach the heights of the sublime. Until now, the novel served as a means of social critique (as found in the works of Dickens), but Hardy infused his form with the dignity and significance of philosophy. From the perspective of plot structure, Hardy’s novels are remarkable. He showcases his architectural talent in plot construction. Here, Hardy’s architectural training is put to use. His plots possess an epic scope, featuring the balance, unity, and scale of a monumental design. Hardy understands how to craft a plot and maximize its dimensions for the greatest artistic effect. The representation of characters is where Hardy’s artistry shines most brightly. He has developed several characters that have achieved immortality in literary history. There exists an almost limitless array of schemes and diversity among Hardy’s characters. It is a world bustling with a vast range of characters. On one hand, we have pure innocent women like Tess, while on the other, we encounter coquettes like Bathsheba or Eustacia, along with a simple, unassuming woman in Susan. Hardy has created grand figures such as Henchard, Jude, Clym, Gabriel Oak, and Angel Clare. He has demonstrated skill in crafting minor characters who serve as contrasts to the main characters. They form a complete backdrop against which the larger drama of life unfolds. Although their status and stature are minor, they fulfill a significant role in the novels. Hardy has shown psychological depth in character portrayal. His characters are simultaneously subtle and intricate, simple and straightforward. Yet, they are all vivid and lifelike. Hardy’s artistic strength is also evident in his creation of a fitting atmosphere. In accordance with the essence of The Return of the Native, for example, there exists a detailed and powerful depiction of Egdon Heath. In The Mayor of Casterbridge and Tess of The D’Urbervilles, the atmosphere is painted with great precision. Style is one of Hardy’s most potent tools. In character portrayal, atmosphere, and similar elements, his dynamic style has proven to be highly effective. David Cecil rightly observes that “Personality appears in a writer’s language as it does in the strokes of the painter’s brush or the marks of the sculptor’s chisel. This is particularly true in Hardy’s work. His style is a microcosm of his talent, showcasing all his faults and virtues in their most distinctive form. ” Hardy’s art is not without its imperfections; certain flaws are notably apparent. One of these, as mentioned by David Cecil, is that Hardy’s genius manifests in bursts. “When the flash comes, it is dazzling, but then it fades, leaving the reader in darkness, searching around, confused and perplexed. Hardy was a great artist but not a great craftsman. ” One of the shortcomings can be observed in the construction of the plot. Hardy’s narratives are traditional, featuring the same recurring complication, the “eternal triangle. ” Occasionally, there is an overreliance on chance or coincidence. One significant flaw is the pedantic nature of his style. His language is both grandiose and didactic. At times, his word choice is so complex and his sentence structures so convoluted that straightforward and immediate understanding is hindered. This, however, does not mean that his style and language do not play a role in his success as a novelist. To a considerable degree, they align well with his intentions. Overall, there is a sense of dignity and beauty in Hardy’s finest works. Triviality or childishness was foreign to his stern and noble perspective on human existence. Hardy excels in advocating for the rights of humanity and in defending the actions of people to God, which had previously been overlooked. Self-Check Exercise- II Q 1 What characterizes philosophy of Hardy? Q 2 Which are the three main influences on Hardy’s writings? Q 3 Describe the working of fate in Hardy’s works. Q 4 How is Hardy’s notion of pessimism? Q 5 What is Hardy’s view towards nature? Q 6 Where is Hardy’s art best portrayed? 11.5    Summary In this lesson, we provided you with a concise overview of the key characteristics of the Victorian novel. Additionally, you learned about Thomas Hardy, including details about his life and his literary contributions. This information will greatly assist you when you read the upcoming chapter. Be sure to analyze the novel that is examined in the next chapter. 11.6    Glossary •    Appropriate: suitable or proper in the circumstances. •    Commensurate: corresponding/almost equal in size or degree •    Pastoral : used for the keeping or grazing of sheep or cattle. •    Pessimissm: a tendency to see the worst aspect of things or believe that the worst will happen. •  Profound : (of a state, quality, or emotion) very great or intense. •  Wessex  : The English author Thomas Hardy set all of his major novels in the south and southwest of England. He named the area “Wessex” after the medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdom that existed in this part of that country prior to the unification of England by Ethelstan. 11.7    Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-Check Exercise-I Ans 1. Didactism i.e art that is meant both to entertain and to instruct was the main feature of the Victorian novel. Ans 2. Hardy promoted philosophical novel where he posed the question ‘why do men suffer’? Ans 3. Thomas Hardy set all of his major novels in the south and southwest of England. He named the area “Wessex” after the medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdom that existed in this part of that country prior to the unification of England. Self-Check Exercise-II Ans 1. Hardy believes in the role of God and destiny in the life of human beings which becomes part of his philosophy. Ans 2. Bible, ancient Greek drama (Aeschylus and Sophocles) and writers and scientists of the Victorian Age have influenced Hardy as a writer. Ans 3. In Hardy’s works fate works through chance and love. Ans 4. For Hardy pessimism was a life changing process. It is his tragic vision which shows his compassion for suffering and misery in life. Ans 5. Hardy responds to nature aesthetically. He admires it and also warns how its fury can destroy all. Ans 6. In the portrayal of his characters. 11.8    References/Suggested Readings •    ‘The Art of Thomos Hardy’ by L. Pigot Jonson. •    ‘Thomos Hardy : A Literary Life’ by James Gibson. •    Gibson, James. Thomas Hardy: A Literary Life. London: Macmillan, 1996. •    Claire, Tomalin. Thomas Hardy: the Time-torn Man (Penguin, 2007) •    Harvey, Geoffrey. Thomas Hardy: The Complete Critical Guide to Thomas Hardy. New York: Routledge (Taylor & Francis Group), 2003. •    Johnson, Lionel Pigot. The Art of Thomas Hardy (London: E. Mathews, 1894). 11.9    Terminal Questions Q 1 Hardy’s pessimism cuts across all his works. Discuss. Q 2 Nature imagery can be the best feature of Hardy’s writings. How? Unit-12 Tess of the d’Urbervilles: A Detailed Outline of the Novel Structure 12.1   Introduction 12.2    Learning Objectives 12.3   Tess of the d’Urbervilles: Summary and Analysis Self-Check Exercise-I 12.4  Summary 12.5  Glossary 12.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise 12.7    References/Suggested Readings 12.8    Terminal Questions 12.1    Introduction Tess of the d’Urbervilles, similar to other significant works by Thomas Hardy, although officially a work of the nineteenth century, looks ahead to the twentieth century in terms of the themes and treatment of its content. Tess of the d’Urbervilles was the twelfth novel issued by Thomas Hardy. He initiated the writing of the novel in 1889, and after being rejected by numerous other publications, it was first serialized in the Graphic from July to December in 1891. Ultimately, it was published as a full novel in December of 1891. The narrative challenges societal sexual standards by empathetically depicting a protagonist who is lured by her employer's son, rendering her unrecognized as a pure and chaste individual by the society around her. Upon being released, Tess of the d’Urbervilles faced extremely hostile critiques; although it is presently regarded as a significant fictional work, the adverse reception of Tess and Jude the Obscure prompted Thomas Hardy's shift from writing fiction to composing poetry. Nevertheless, the book enjoyed commercial success and secured Hardy's financial stability. Tess of the d’Urbervilles addresses several pertinent contemporary issues relevant to Hardy, including the conflicts surrounding religious belief that took place during Hardy's lifetime. Hardy was significantly influenced by the Oxford movement, a spiritual movement characterized by deeply devout thought and actions. Most of Hardy's family members were orthodox Christians, and Hardy himself contemplated joining the clergy, as did many of his relatives. However, Hardy ultimately renounced his strong faith in God due to the scientific advancements of his time, notably Darwin's On the Origin of Species. Hardy's own religious experiences can therefore be reflected in the character of Angel Clare, who opposes his parents' conservative religious views to adopt a more religious and secular perspective on philosophy. The novel further illustrates Hardy's fascination with social class, a theme that persists throughout his works. Hardy had ties to both the working and upper classes, yet felt a sense of belonging to neither. This sentiment is evident in the pessimism exhibited in Tess of the d’Urbervilles regarding Tess's prospects of social advancement and Angel's insecure standing as someone who is neither part of the upper class nor aligns with his fellow milkers at Talbothays. Once more, akin to Angel Clare, Thomas Hardy experienced a conflict between various social realms with which he could not completely identify. Tess of the d’Urbervilles embodies that division. 12.2    Learning Objectives In this lesson we will learn about detailed summary of Tess of the d’Urbervilles 12.3    Tess of the d’Urbervilles A.    Summary and Analysis of the Novel As he walks home to the village of Marlott, John Durbeyfield, a middle aged man, meets Parson Tringham, who greets him as "Sir John." When Durbeyfield asks the parson why he greets him in this manner, he answers that he recently learned that he is from the d'Urberville lineage, descended from Sir Pagan d'Urberville who fought with William the Conqueror. He tells Durbeyfield that if knighthood were hereditary, he would be Sir John. The d'Urberville family is now extinct, and the parson thinks of this only as demonstrating how the mighty have fallen. Durbeyfield was returning home during the May Day dance in which the younger women of Marlott walked in procession in white gowns, holding willow wands and white flowers. Among the girls is Tess Durbeyfield, the daughter of John. Tess is no more handsome than the other girls, but has large, innocent eyes. She sees her father riding in a carriage singing that he has a great family vault in Kings bere and knighted forefathers. Tess reprimands her friends for mocking her father. At this time Tess is a Œmere vessel of emotion untinctured by experience.' She still has the local dialect, but also can affect more educated speech. Three young onlookers of superior class watch the women in the procession. The three are brothers (Angel, Felix, and Cuthbert) and consider asking the women to dance. Angel does not dance with Tess Durbeyfield, but among the girls he notices her the most and wishes that he asked her to dance, for she was so modest and soft.Tess remains with her comrades until dusk, thinking of the young man, Angel. When she arrives at home, she hears her mother singing as she rocks her youngest child to sleep. Mrs. Durbeyfield still has some of the freshness of youth, but it is faint. She speaks in the local dialect, and tells her daughter what John Durbeyfield learned that day. Mrs. Durbeyfield thinks that great things will come of this. She also tells Tess that John has fat around his heart, which could cause his death in ten years or ten days. He is now at Rolliver's, and wants to rest before his journey tomorrow with a load of beehives. Now that Tess is home, Joan Durbeyfield can go to Rolliver's to fetch her husband, but Joan herself does not return, so Tess sends her brother Abraham. Tess herself decides to go when Abraham does not return a half hour later. Rolliver's Inn is the only alehouse in the village, and can only boast of an offlicense: nobody can legally drink on the premises, but this rule is often averted. Mrs. Durbeyfield had found her husband there bragging about his grand project for his family. He will send Tess to claim kin, for there is a lady of the name d'Urberville. John Durbeyfield admits that he has not told Tess this, but she is tractable and will do what he wishes. Joan Durbeyfield reminds her husband that there are many families that were once estimable and are now ordinary, but agrees to the arrangement. Tess arrives, and Abraham tells her that she will marry a gentleman. It is eleven o'clock when Tess gets her family to bed, and the next morning John is unable to go on his journey. Tess agrees to go with Abraham. On the way there, Abraham and Tess discuss how other stars are worlds just like Earth. Tess says that some worlds are splendid, but a few are blighted, and they decide that they are on a blighted one. Tess realizes the vanity of her father's pride. Suddenly, the wagon stops and they find that the morning mailcart has crashed into their horse, killing it. Tess blames herself, while Abraham blames it for living on a blighted star. Tess does not know how to break the news to her family, but John Durbeyfield takes the news stoically. Distress looms in the distance because of the death of the horse. Joan Durbeyfield tells Tess about Mrs. d'Urberville living on the outskirts of The Chase, and tells Tess that she must go and claim kinship and ask for help. Tess is deferential, but she cannot understand why her mother should find such satisfaction in contemplating this enterprise. She suggesting getting work, but finally agrees to go. Tess leaves for The Chase, where she finds the home of the Stoked'Urbervilles, as they are now called. A young man with an almost swarthy complexion answers the door, and claims to be Alec d'Urberville. He does not allow Tess to see his mother, for she is an invalid, but she tells him that she is a poor relation. Alec shows her the estate, and he promises that his mother will find a berth for her. He tells her not to bother with the Durbeyfield name, but she says she wishes for no better. Alec prepares to kiss her, but lets her go. Tess perceives nothing, but if she had she might have asked why she was doomed to be seen and coveted that day by the wrong man. As Tess leaves Trantridge Cross to return home, her fellow travelers in the van remark about the roses that adorn her appearance, the first time that she is aware of the spectacle she presents to them. Her mother greets Tess excitedly, and Tess shows her a letter written by Mrs. d'Urberville stating that Tess's services would be useful to her in the management of their poultry farm. Tess tells her parents that she would rather stay with them, but she cannot tell them why for she does not know the reason. Later, Alec d'Urberville visits the Durbeyfields to see whether Tess could come to manage the poultry farm. Joan Durbeyfield thinks highly of Alec as a mighty handsome man. John Durbeyfield is convinced that Alec will marry Tess, but Tess tells her father that she does not like having Alec there. Joan Durbeyfield finally prepares for her daughter to leave, assuming that she will marry, for she has been discovering matches for her daughter since she was born. The day that Tess is to leave, her mother scolds her for not dressing well, even though Tess dresses in proper clothes for working. Tess submits to her mother's wishes and has her hair washed. Although Joan expects her daughter to be married, she feels a slight misgiving as Tess leaves. The younger children cry when Tess leaves, but Tess scolds them for thinking that she will marry a gentleman. As Tess leaves, Joan remarks that Tess will do well as long as she plays her trump card. This trump card is not her d'Urberville blood, as her father believes, but her face. As Alec and Tess drive the carriage toward Trantridge, Tess becomes frightened by the quick movement of the horse as they go down the hill. She grasps Alec's arm, but he tells her to grasp his waist so that he can still control the horse. When the horse becomes calm, she reprimands him for driving so recklessly, but he tells her to put her arms around his waist again. She says never, but he persists. She says that she thought that he would be kind to her as her kinsman. He calls her rather sensitive for a cottage girl, and calls her an artful hussy. Alec's reprimand of Tess as "rather sensitive for a cottage girl" serves to shatter the idea that Tess may marry a gentleman. As Alec notes, no matter her distant family connections, Tess is of such lowly birth that she may consent to be the mistress of a gentleman but not his wife. Tess begins to care for the birds in Mrs. d'Urberville's poultry house. Tess meets the old woman, who is blind, and asks Tess if she knows how to whistle. Although she knows that it is not a genteel trait, Tess admits to knowing how to whistle, and Mrs. d'Urberville tells her to practice it every day so that she can whistle to her bullfinches. Mrs. d'Urberville is not aware that Tess is a relative. The next day, Tess tries to whistle to the bullfinches, but becomes cross because she finds that she cannot do so. Alec finds her frustrated, and offers to give Tess a lesson. Repeated interaction with Alec d'Urberville removes Tess's original shyness toward him, without implanting any feeling which could engender a more tender shyness. One day, when Tess is whistling to the bullfinches in Mrs. d'Urberville's room while she is absent, Tess hears a rustling behind the bed. Alec has been hiding behind the curtains. Hardy further establishes Alec d'Urberville as a sexual predator in this chapter, a man who even stalks Tess as she whistles to the bullfinches. Nevertheless, Tess begins to become more accustomed to Alec, despite the sexual danger he presents to her. Alec ingratiates himself to Tess by aiding her in her work. This is the first evidence that Tess has let her guard down around a man whom she inherently suspects. While Tess still does not care for the villainous Alec d'Urberville, she is becoming increasingly familiar with him and receptive to him.The village of Trantridge demonstrates a particular levity and its residents tend to drink hard. The chief pleasure of many residents is going to Chaseborough, a decaying market town several miles away. Tess did not join in the weekly pilgrimages, but under pressure from matrons not much older than herself, she finally consents to go. During one trip there, she finds Alec d'Urberville also in town, and he promises to see her again. Tess goes on alone and finds a barn where the residents are dancing. Tess does not abhor dancing, but she did not want to do so, for the movement of the dancers grew more passionate. Tess finds Alec again, but she refuses his offers of assistance home. Tess goes to the other girls, one of whom is Car Darch, nicknamed Queen of Spades, and her sister, Nancy, nicknamed Queen of Diamonds. Car carries a wickerbasket containing her mother's groceries on the top of her head, and a stream of treacle had dripped down below her waist. All of the other girls laugh at Car, including Tess. However, Car notices Tess and confronts her. Car begins to disrobe to fight Tess, but Tess refuses and says that if she knew that Car was of that sort, she would not have consented to come with such a whorage. Car merely insults and continuously berates Tess, making her feel indignant and ashamed. Alec finds Tess once again, and he tells Tess to come with him. As Alec rescues Tess, Car's mother laughs, realizing that Tess has gotten out of the frying pan and into the fire. Tess admits to Alec that she is much obliged to him. He asks her why she dislikes him kissing her, and she says it is because she does not love him, and is angry with him sometimes. Alec did not object to this confession, because he prefers her anger to frigidity. He asks if he has offended her by lovemaking, and she says sometimes. She does not answer when he asks if she is offended every time he tries. Tess is weary, and nearly falls asleep on Alec's shoulder. Alec stops the horse and encloses her waist with his arm to support her, which immediately puts her on the defensive. When she pushes him away, he calls her devilish unkind, for he means no harm. He asks if she can show her belief in him by letting him clasp her with his arm. She finally submits and allows him to do so. Later on their journey, Tess finds that Alec has prolonged the ride home, and they are now in The Chase, the oldest wood in England. Tess calls him treacherous, and asks him to let her down so she may walk home. He agrees to let her walk home only after he finds a nearby house and ascertains their distance from Trantridge. Alec gives her an overcoat and walks away. In the meantime, he goes to ascertain which quarter of The Chase he is actually in, for he had purposely ridden at random. He returns to Tess and finds her sleeping. Tess' Œguardian angel' is nowhere to be seen, and Tess is seduced by Alec d'Urberville. On a Sunday morning in late October, several weeks after the night ride in The Chase, Tess travels home. Ascending the road, she sees Alec d'Urberville, who has been looking for her. He asks why she is slipping away, for nobody wished to hinder her leaving. She vows never to come back. When he asks why she is crying, she says that she sees the village where she was born, and wishes she had not been born at all. Tess tells Alec that she did not come to Trantridge for him, and that she hates herself for her weakness; her eyes were a little dazed by him, she explains. Alec admits that he is a bad fellow, but vows not to be unkind to her again. He attempts to kiss her once more, but she insists that she has never loved him. He tells her that she is being absurd. He asks her to come back to him, but once again she refuses. After Alec finally leaves her, Tess sees a man carrying a tin pot of red paint. He paints a quote from the Bible on a stile: "Thy, Damnation, Slumbereth Not." She asks if he believes what he paints, and he replies quite adamantly that he does. She asks him to suppose that one's sin is not of one's own seeking, but he says that he cannot split hairs on that question. He tells her that if she wants edification, she should speak to Mr. Clare of Emminster, who will preach today. Tess reaches home and says that she is staying for a long holiday. Tess admits to her mother what occurred, and she scolds Tess for not getting Alec to marry her. Tess asks her mother why she did not warn her about the danger that men pose.Tess Durbeyfield's return to Marlott became the subject of gossip. In the course of several weeks Tess revived sufficiently to get to church. When she goes to church, she notices others around her staring at her and whispering; she knows what their whispers concern and feels that she cannot come to church anymore. The only exercise that Tess takes is after dark when she can be alone. She perceives herself as a figure of Guilt introducing into the haunts of Innocence.On a hot August afternoon, the sun beats down on Marlott while men and women work in the corn fields. Among the women is Tess, whom the other women watch carefully. At intervals she rests, for she has been somewhat changed. After a long seclusion she had decided to undertake outdoor work during the busiest season of the year. When she finishes her labor, during lunch her sister brings Tess's child to her so that she may breastfeed it. A nearby woman observes that Tess is fond of her child, although she might pretend to hate it. Tess had come to bear herself with dignity and to resolve not to wallow in her own selfpity. However, as her sorrows over bearing an illegitimate child fade away, a fresh sorrow arises. The baby takes ill. When Tess returns home after work, she finds that the baby had taken ill. Tess realizes that the baby has not been baptized. Tess begs her father to send for the parson, but he refuses out of pride. Tess goes to bed, but the infant's breathing grows more difficult and Tess prays for pity. Tess finally decides to baptize the infant herself: she gives it the name Sorrow. As she baptizes Sorrow, Tess appears to her siblings as a large, towering, divine personage. When Tess awakes the next morning, she finds that Sorrow has died. Tess wonders whether if it were doctrinally sufficient to secure a Christian burial for the child. She asks the new parson, and he agrees that Sorrow had been properly baptized, but he refuses to give a Christian burial out of commUnity reasons. She tells him not to speak to her as saint to sinner, but as person to person. Finally he agrees that the burial will be the same. Tess began to note the passing of anniversaries, such as her first arrival at Trantridge and the fateful night at The Chase. Almost suddenly Tess changed from a simple girl to a complex woman. Her eyes grow larger and more eloquent. She wonders if chastity, once lost, is always lost and waits for a new departure. She vows that there will be no more talk of d'Urberville castles, and prepares to go to the Talbothays dairy. Tess leaves home for the second time, deciding that were she to remain, her younger siblings would probably gain less good by her precepts than harm by her example. On the way to Talbothays, Tess passes Kingsbere, the area in which her ancestors lay entombed. She dismisses ideas about her ancestors, realizing that she has as much of her mother as her father in her. Tess arrives at the dairy around milking time, halfpast four in the morning. Tess begins milking with the other milkers, including the master dairyman, Richard Crick, who introduces himself to Tess and inquires after her family. Crick knows a little about the d'Urbervilles, but Tess dismisses the ideas that she comes from an esteemed family. Later, while Tess is on a break with the other workers, Crick tells a story about an aged man named William Dewy who was chased by a bull, but played a Christmas Eve hymn for the bull on his fiddle, causing it to lay down as if it were in a Nativity scene. After Crick tells the story, a young man remarks that the story is a reminder of medieval times, when faith was a living thing. The young man is Angel Clare, with whom Tess danced years ago. Later, Tess inquires about Angel, and another milkmaid tells her that Angel is learning milking and never says much. Since he is a parson's son, he is too taken with his thoughts to notice girls. Angel's father is Reverend Clare at Emminster, and all of his sons except for Angel are clergymen. Angel Clare has a nebulous, preoccupied quality, for he is a man with no very definite aim or concern about his material future. The youngest son of his father, a poor parson, he is at Talbothays to acquire a practical skill in the various processes of farming. His father had married his mother late in life, and his brothers had each acquired a university degree, even though Angel was the one whose promise might have done full justice to academic training. Before Angel met Tess at the dance in Marlott years before, a parcel came to Reverend Clare from the bookseller. This book was a philosophical work that prompts an argument between Angel and his father in which he admits that he does not want to be a minister. Since he was not to be ordained, Mr. Clare did not send Angel to Cambridge. Angel instead spent years in desultory studies, undertakings and meditations, beginning to evince considerable indifference to social forms and observances. He began to despise the distinctions of rank and wealth. Angel now takes great delight in the companionship at Talbothays: the conventional farmfolk of his imagination were obliterated in favor of more respectable people. Angel had grown away from old associations and now sees something new in life and humanity, making close acquaintance with natural phenomena. Tess and Angel discuss whether or not one's soul can leave his body while alive, and he finds her to be a fresh and virginal daughter of nature. He seems to discern in her something familiar that carries him back to a joyous past. Since cows tend to show a fondness for particular milkers, Dairyman Crick insists on breaking down these partialities by constant interchange, yet the milkers themselves prefer to stay with particular cows. Angel Clare begins to arrange the cows so that Tess may milk her favorite ones. She mentions this to Angel, yet later regrets that she disclosed to him that she learned of his kindness. Tess hears Angel playing at his harp, and when she finds him she admits that she has no fear of the wilderness, but has more indoor fears. Angel admits that he thinks that the hobble of being alive is rather serious. Tess cannot understand why a man of clerical family and good education should look upon it as a mishap to be alive. She realizes that he is at the dairy so that he may become a rich dairyman. Angel asks Tess if she would like to take up a course of study, but she tells him that sometimes she does not want to know anything more about history than she actually does. Later, Tess learns from Dairyman Crick that Angel has scorn for the descendants of many noble families. After hearing this caricature of Clare's opinions Tess is glad that she had not said a word about her family. Tess had never in her recent life been so happy and would possibly never be so happy again. She and Tess stand between predilection and love. For Angel, Tess represents a visionary essence of woman, and calls her Artemis, Demeter, and other fanciful names, but she insists that he call her simply Tess. Tess seems to exhibit a dignified largeness of disposition and physique. The two are always the first to awake at the dairy house, where they feel an impressive isolation, as if they are Adam and Eve. There is a great stir in the milkhouse just after breakfast, for the churn revolved but butter would not come. Whenever this happens the dairy is paralyzed. Mrs. Crick says that perhaps somebody in the house is in love, for she heard that this will cause it. Dairyman Crick tells a story about how a Jack Dollop impregnated a local girl, whose mother came to the dairy to find him. Jack hid in the churn; the mother learned this and started the churn with him inside until he agreed to marry the girl. The problem with the churn resolves itself, and Tess remains depressed throughout the afternoon. She is wretched at the perception that to her companions the dairyman's story had been a humorous one, for none seemed to see the sorrow of it. One night, Tess's three roommates (Retty Priddle, Marian, and Izz Huett) watch Angel in the garden from their window. The three each are attracted to Angel, but Retty says that none will marry him for he likes Tess Durbeyfield the best. Izz Huett says that Angel will not even marry Tess, for he will be a great landowner and a farmer abroad. Tess overhears this conversation and feels some deal of jealousy. She believes that unequal attachments of rank may lead for marriage, for she wonders what good a lady may be on a farm. The next morning Dairyman Crick orders his workers to overhaul the mead, for there is garlic in it that has spoiled the milk. While searching for garlic in the field, Angel finds Tess and they search together. Dairyman Crick finds them and tells her that she should not be out in the fields, for she was not feeling well a day or so ago. Tess mentions to Angel that Izzy Huett and Retty look pretty, but Angel insists on Tess's superiority. Tess finally tells Angel to marry one of them if she wants a dairywoman and not a lady, and not to think of marrying her. From this day Tess forces herself to take pains to avoid Angel. On Sunday, after milking the milkers travel to church in the rain. The lane leading from the parish has been flooded. While they cling to the bank, the girls find Angel Clare advancing toward them through the water. Angel asks the girls, avoiding Tess, whether they are going to church, and he vows to carry them through the flooded area. Tess is the final one to be carried, and she refuses, thinking that he must be so tired. Angel tells her that he carried the other girls so that he may get the opportUnity to carry Tess. On the way to church, Marian remarks that the other girls have no chance against Tess, for Angel would have kissed her if she had encouraged him. Tess's heart aches, for there is no concealing the fact that she loves Angel Clare. That night, she vows that she will never stand in the way of Retty or the other girls. Izz tells Tess that a young lady of Angel's rank who supports him will marry Angel. After this disclosure Tess nourishes no further foolish thought that there lurks a grave import in Clare's attention to her, thinking that the love is a passing summer love for her face. The summer air is stagnant and enervating at the dairy now, as heavy scents weigh upon them. To Tess, Angel's face has a real vitality and warmth. Tess becomes aware that he is observing her. As they milk a cow, Angel finally jumps up and clasps Tess in his arms. She is taken completely by surprise, and yields to his embrace with unreflecting inevitability. He begs for forgiveness, but Tess merely says that the cow is angry and will kick over the milk. Tess begins to cry, but Angel declares that he loves her. Something occurs between them that changes the pivot of the universe for their two natures, something which the dairyman would have despised as a practical man. A veil has been whisked aside, for a short time or for a long. That night, after Tess retires to her chamber, Angel goes outside, not knowing what to think of himself. Angel and Tess had kept apart since their embrace that afternoon. Angel is shocked to find how great the obscure dairy where he works means to him. To Angel, everything exists through Tess. Angel decides to discuss Tess with his friends, thinking that in less than five months his term at Talbothays will be over and after a few months at other farms he will be fully equipped in agricultural knowledge and in a position to start a farm himself. At that point he would want a wife who would understand farming. One morning Dairyman Crick tells his milkers that Angel has gone to Emminster to spend a few days with his family. Crick expects that Angel will not remain long at Talbothays. Angel returns home, where he finds near his father's church a woman wearing a broadbrimmed hat and attempts to avoid her. The young lady is Mercy Chant, whom his parents hoped would marry Angel. Reverend Clare is a clergymen of a type that had nearly died out, a spiritual descendant of Luther and Calvin, an Evangelical of Evangelicals. Among his family, Angel has become to seem more like a farmer and behaves less in the manner of a scholar. After breakfast Angel walks with his brothers, two men who wear whatever glasses are fashionable without reference to their affect on their vision, and who carry pocket copies of Wordsworth when he is fashionable, and Shelley when he is. His brothers notice Angel's growing social ineptness as he notice their growing mental limitations. At dinner that night, Mrs. Clare tells Angel that she has given away the blackpudding that Mrs. Crick sent as a gift to local children, while they will not drink the mead that Mrs. Crick sent, for it is too alcoholic and they never drink spirits at the table on principle. When Angel suggests that he will say to the Cricks that the family enjoyed the gifts, Mr. Clare insists that Angel tell them the truth. Angel discusses with his father his plans for attaining a position as a farmer in England or one of the Colonies. Reverend Clare feels that it is his duty to set up a sum of money for Angel, for he did not pay for him to go to university. When Angel mentions marriage, Reverend Clare suggests Mercy Chant, but Angel says that it would be more practical to have a woman who can work as a farmer. Angel mentions that he has found a possible wife, and Mrs. Clare asks if she is from a respectable family. Mrs. Clare insists on Mercy Chant, claiming that she has accomplishments. Angel claims that Tess is full of actualized poetry, and an unimpeachable Christian. Reverend Clare tells Angel a story about a young man with the last name d'Urberville, known for his rakish behavior. Reverend Clare had confronted him when he was preaching at another church, and the two nearly got into a brawl. Angel finds that he cannot accept his parents' narrow dogma, but he reveres his father's practice and recognizes the heroism under the piety. Angel returns to Talbothays, where he finds Tess, who has recently awakened. Angel tells Tess that he shall soon want to marry, and asks Tess if she will be his wife. Tess declares that she cannot be his wife, and she claims that the reason is that his father is a parson and his mother wouldn't want her to marry him. He counters these objections, telling her that he has discussed the matter with his parents. Angel then recounts the story that his father told him about Alec d'Urberville, not mentioning the actual name, and when he asks Tess about marriage once more she says that it cannot be.Tess's refusal does not permanently daunt Clare, knowing that the negative is often the preface to a later affirmative. Angel asks Tess if she loves another man, but she says that this is not the reason for her refusal. She says that it is for his own good. Tess wonders why nobody has told Angel the entirety of Tess's history. When Angel asks Tess once more, she tells him that she will tell him all about himself. She vows to tell him on Sunday. Tess feels that she cannot help giving in and marrying Angel, but feels that it is wrong and it may kill Angel when he finds out about her. Dairyman Crick tells the milkers at breakfast that Jack Dollop just got married to a widowwoman, and never married the matron's daughter. However, by marrying the widow lost her yearly allowance. Mrs. Crick remarks that the widow should have told Jack sooner that the ghost of her first husband would trouble him. Beck Knibbs, a married helper from one of the cottages, says that she was justified in not telling him, for all is fair in love and war. For Tess, what is comedy to her fellow workers is tragedy to her. Tess refuses Angel once more. Dairyman Crick sends Angel to go to the station, and Tess agrees to accompany him. Tess and Angel travel together on the carriage to the station. Tess considers the various Londoners and such who will drink the milk that they are bringing to the station. Angel once again asks Tess to marry him. Tess finally begins to tell Angel her history. She tells him that she is not a Durbeyfield, but a d'Urberville. He dismisses that information as insignificant. He claims that he hates the aristocratic principle of blood, but is interested in this news. Angel claims that he rejoices in the d'Urberville descent, for Tess's sake. Angel vows to spell Tess's name correctly from this very day, and calls her Teresa d'Urberville.' Tess finally assents to marry Angel. Angel realizes when he saw Tess first, at the dance at Marlott. Tess writes a letter to her mother the next day, and by the end of the week receives a reply. Her mother gives Tess her best wishes and tells her not to tell Angel anything about her past, for many women have trouble in their time and she should not trumpet hers when others do not trumpet theirs. This advice reassures Tess, who dismisses her past, treading upon it and putting it out as a smoldering, dangerous coal. As a suitor, Angel is more spiritual than animal. Tess worries when the two walk in public as a couple, thinking that it may reach his friends at Emminster that he is walking about with a milkmaid. He thinks it absurd that a d'Urberville hurt the dignity of a Clare. One evening Tess abruptly tells Angel that she is not worthy of him, but Angel tells her that he will not have her speak as such. Angel asks on what day they shall be married, but he does not want to think like this. The news of their engagement reaches the other milkmaids and Dairyman Crick. Tess tells the other girls that Angel ought to marry one of them, for all are better than she. The girls try to hate Tess for her relationship but Angel, but find that they cannot. Tess seems to want to stay in a state of perpetual betrothal with Angel, although the beginning of November seems to be when she will marry him. Angel mentions to Tess how Mr. Crick told him how, when he leaves Talbothays it will be winter, when the workload would be light and therefore he should take Tess with him. Tess finally agrees to fix the day of the wedding. Angel wishes to see a little of the working of a flour mill, and visits one at Wellbridge, where he stays at a farm house that had once been a d'Urberville mansion. Tess finally decides to marry Angel on the thirty first of December. Tess, however, forgets to publish banns in time, but Angel says that obtaining a marriage license will be a better means of marrying. Angel obtains a white wedding dress for Tess. She thinks of her mother's ballad of the mystic robe: "That never would become that wife / That had once done amiss." Tess wonders whether her wedding dress will betray her. Angel wishes to spend a day with Tess away from the dairy before the wedding, thus they spend a day in the nearest town on Christmas Eve. While in town, others remark that she is a comely maid, although a Trantridge man thinks that he recognizes her. He thinks that she was once a woman of ill repute. That night, Angel has a dream that he fought with the man who insulted Tess. This is the last thing required for Tess to turn the scale of her indecision. Tess writes on four pages a succinct narrative of those events of years before and slips it under his door. The next morning, Angel meets her at the bottom of the stairs and kisses her as warmly as ever. Tess feels that her doubts were childish and he may have forgiven her. On the wedding day, Tess finds in Angel's room the note under the carpet, unopened and never seen. Tess attempts to tell Angel once more, but she does not. On the way to the church, Tess believes that she has seen the carriage before. Angel tells Tess the legend of the d'Urberville Coach, the superstition of the county that a certain d'Urberville who committed a dreadful crime in his family coach. Supposedly, members of the d'Urberville family see the coach at certain times, but Angel refuses to tell Tess when. Tess marries Angel, but feels that she is somewhat more truly Mrs. Alexander d'Urberville. When she finds herself alone, Tess prays. Although she tries to pray to God, she in fact prays to Angel. As the two leave Talbothays, Tess advises Angel to kiss her three roommates one more time. On their way out of Talbothays, they see an afternoon crow. Tess and Angel go to Wellbridge, where they stay in one of the d'Urberville ancestral mansions. On entering, they find that they have only a couple of rooms. Two life-size portraits of d'Urberville ladies frighten Tess, for she can see her form in theirs. Jonathan Kail, the servant, brings a package from Reverend Clare to Tess, containing a necklace with pendant, bracelets and earrings. Angel has Tess put on the jewelry, and imagines how wonderful she would appear in a ballroom. Tess thinks that the jewelry must be sold. Jonathan tells Tess how Retty Priddle attempted to drown herself when the Clares left, and how Marian was found drunk. Only Izzy remains as usual, but her spirits remain low. Tess feels guilty about her fate, thinking herself undeserving. Angel promises to tell Tess all of his faults. Angel admits how in London he plunged into a forty-eight hour dissipation with a stranger. Tess decides to tell Angel about her sin, and enters into her story about Alec d'Urberville and its results. Tess finishes her story, which she had given in a monotone and without any displays of emotion. She watches the flame in the fireplace flicker, as everything around her seems to mock her situation with its lack of response. Angel stirs the fire, having not yet comprehended the events. His face withers as he cries out that this cannot be true. She begs for forgiveness, for she has forgiven him the same. Angel claims that forgiveness is irrelevant, for she was one person before and now is another. He calls her another woman in her shape. She bursts into tears as she asks whether or not she still belongs to him anymore. Tess vows not to do anything unless he orders her, and vows to behave as a wretched slave and die if he so desires. He tells her that there is discordance between her present mood of selfsacrifice and her past mood of self-preservation. Angel leaves the room for a walk. Tess follows him, but the two say nothing. Finally she asks what she has done, saying that it is his mind that has changed and that she is not the deceitful woman that he thinks she is. She claims that she was a child when it happened and knew nothing of men. He claims he forgives her, but forgiveness is not all. Tess says that her mother has told her of many cases in which similar situations occur, in which the husband survives and still loves the wife. Angel claims that his situation is one for satirical laughter rather than tragedy, and asks Tess to return to the house to go to bed. Angel returns later to find her sleeping soundly. He turns to leave and sees a portrait of a d'Urberville lady that appears sinister. Angel arises at dawn; the neighboring cottager's wife knocks on the door, but he sends her away because her presence is awkward. Angel prepares breakfast, and the two behave civilly to one another, although the pair are "but ashes of their former fires." Angel asks again if it is true, and he asks if the man is still in England. Tess says that he can get rid of her by divorcing her; her confession has given him adequate grounds for that. She tells him that she thought of putting an end to herself under the mistletoe, but did not because she felt it would cause scandal. Tess continues to do chores around the house for Angel while he visits a local miller, but he scolds her for behaving as a servant and not a wife. Tess breaks into tears, claiming that she had told him that she was not respectable enough to marry him, but he urged her. Her tears would have broken any man but Angel Clare, whose affection masks a hard, logical deposit like a vein of metal that blocks his acceptance of Tess as it blocked his acceptance of the Church. He tells her that it is not a question of respectability, but one of principle. Angel tells Tess that it is imperative that they should stay together to avoid scandal, but it is only for the sake of form. Angel tells Tess that he cannot live with Tess without despising himself and despising her. He considers what their possible children may think. She considers arguing that in Texas or Australia, nobody will know about her misfortunes, but she accepts the momentary sentiment as inevitable. Angel's love is doubtless ethereal to a fault, imaginative to impracticability. He orders her to go away from him, and she says that she can go home. She claims that she has convinced him and that she thinks it best. At midnight, Angel enters the bedroom to find Tess, who was asleep. Standing still, he murmurs in an indescribably sad tone "dead, dead, dead." Angel occasionally walks in his sleep as he does now. Tess sees this continued mental distress. Angel bends low and encloses Tess in his arms, and rolls her in the sheet as in a shroud. He lifts her from the bed and carries her across the room, murmuring "my dearest darling Tess! So sweet so good, so true!." He leans her against the banister as if to throw her down, but rather kisses her and descends the staircase. Tess cannot determine Angel's ultimate intention, but finally realizes that he is dreaming about the Sunday when he carried her across the water with the other milkmaids. He carries her near the river, and she believes he may drown her. He walks through the shallow areas of the river carrying her, but they reach the other side in safety; if she had awakened him, they would have fallen into the gulf and both died. Angel carries her to the empty stone coffin of an abbot, where he lays Tess and then falls down asleep. Tess sits up in the coffin, but does not awake Angel out of fear that he may die if awakened from sleepwalking. She walks him back to the house and induces him to lay down on the sofa bed. The next morning, Angel seems to know nothing about the previous night's events. The two leave Wellbridge to return to Talbothays to pay a visit to the Cricks. At Talbothays, Tess learns that Marian and Retty have left Talbothays, and she fears they will come to no good. After Tess and Angel leave, Mrs. Crick remarks how unnatural the two look, as if they were in a dream. Angel tells Tess that he has no anger, and he will let her know where he is going as soon as he himself knows. He tells her that until he comes to her she should not come to him, and that she should write if she is ill or if she wants anything. Tess returns to Marlott, where a turnpike keeper tells how John Durbeyfield's daughter has married a gentleman farmer and the Durbeyfields have since been celebrating. Tess attempts to arrive at home unobserved, but cannot. She sees a girl whom she knew from school and claims that her husband is now away at business. When Tess arrives at home, she admits to her mother that she told Angel about her past. Tess claims that she could not so sin against him, but Joan replies that she sinned enough to marry him first. Tess finds that there is no place for her at home anymore; her old bed is now used by two of the younger children. Her father is a foot haggler now, having sold his second horse. When John finds out what has happened to Tess, he laments the humiliation he will receive, and claims that he will put an end to himself. Tess decides to stay only a few days, and receives a letter from Angel informing her that he had gone to the north of England to look for a farm. Tess uses this as a reason to leave Marlott, claiming that she will join Angel. Before she leaves, she gives half of the fifty pounds Angel has given her to her mother, as a slight return for the humiliation she had brought upon them. Three weeks after the marriage, Angel returns to his father's parsonage. His recent conduct has been desultory, and his mood became one of dogged indifference. He wonders if he had treated Tess unfairly, and returns to Emminster to disclose his plan to his parents and to best explain why he has arrived without Tess without revealing the actual cause of their separation. Angel tells his parents that he has decided to go to Brazil. They regret that they could not have met his wife and that they did not attend the wedding. Mrs. Clare questions Angel about Tess, asking if he was her first love, and if she is pure and virtuous without question. He answers that she is. The Clares read a chapter in Proverbs in praise of a virtuous wife. After reading the chapter, Mrs. Clare thinks about how the passage so well describes the woman Angel has chosen. Angel can no longer bear this, and goes to his chamber. Mrs. Clare follows him, thinking that something is wrong. He admits to his mother that he and his wife have had a difference. Mrs. Clare senses that Tess is a young woman whose history will bear investigation, but he replies that she is spotless. Angel perceives his own limitations, knowing that he is a slave to custom and conventionality. In considering what Tess was not, he had overlooked what she was. Angel discusses Brazil with his parents at breakfast, and then does errands around town. On the way to the bank, he encounters Mercy Chant, carrying an armful of Bibles. Angel suggests that he may go to Brazil as a monk, implying Roman Catholicism, which shocks Mercy, who claims she glories in her Protestantism. He apologizes to her, telling her that he thinks that he is going crazy. Angel deposits money for Tess and wrote to her at her parents to inform her of his plans. Angel calls at the Wellbridge farmhouse, where he surprisingly reminisces about the happier time there. Angel wonders whether he has been cruelly blinded, and believes that if she had told him sooner he would have forgiven her. Angel finds Izz Huett there. She tells Angel that if he had asked her to marry him, he would have married a woman who loved him. Angel admits to Izz that he has separated from his wife for personal reasons, and asks Izz to go to Brazil with him instead of her. He warns her that he is not to trust him in morals now, for what they will be doing is wrong in the eyes of Western civilization. She admits that she does not love him as much as Tess did, for Tess would have laid down her life for him and Izz could do no more. Finally Angel claims that he does not know what he has been saying, and apologizes for his momentary levity. He tells Izz that she has saved him by her honest words about Tess from an impulse toward folly and treachery. According to Angel, women may be bad, but are not so bad as men in such things. Eight months after Angel and Tess part, Tess is a lonely woman who found irregular service at dairy work near Port Bredy to the west of Black moor Valley. She had concealed her circumstances from her mother, but Joan wrote to Tess that the family was in dreadful difficulty, and Tess sent money to her. Tess is now reluctant to ask Reverend Clare for money, as Angel suggested that she could, for she fears that the Clare despise her already. At this point Angel lies ill from fever in Brazil, having been drenched with thunderstorms and persecuted by other hardships. Tess now journeys to an upland farm to which she had been recommended by Marian, who learned of her separation through Izz Huett. On her journey, she meets the man whom Angel confronted for addressing Tess coarsely. He tells Tess that she should apologize for allowing Angel to inappropriately defend her honor, but Tess cannot answer him. Tess instead runs away, where she hides in the forested area. She remains in hiding until morning, where she finds dying birds around her, the remains of a shooting party from the night before. She puts the birds out of their misery. Tess starts again alone toward Chalk Newton, where she has breakfast at an inn. At this inn, several young men are troublesomely complimentary to her because of her good looks. After leaving the inn, Tess covers her chin and hair with a handkerchief and cuts off her eyebrows to deflect against men's admiration. She thinks that she will always be ugly as long as Angel is not with her. Tess walks onward, from farm to farm in the direction of the place from which Marian had written her. Tess finally reaches Flintcomb Ash, the place of Marian's sojourn. The place is barren and rough. Tess's plain appearance surprises Marian, who thinks that she has been abused. Tess asks that Marian not call her Mrs. Clare. Marian tells Tess that she will be employed at swede hacking, a rough profession. Tess asks Marian to say nothing about Angel, for she does not wish to bring his name down to the dirt. Tess sets to work at Flintcomb Ash, sustained by her sense of patience. For Tess, patience combines moral courage with physical timidity. The movement of the swede hackers shows a mechanical regularity, as they work hour after hour unconscious of the forlorn aspect they bear on the landscape. Marian now has alcohol as her only comfort. She proposes to Tess that they invite Izz Huett and Retty Priddle to come to FlintcombAsh. Marian soon hears from Izz that she is coming. The winter is particularly harsh, one day preventing work altogether. Marian tells Tess that the harsh weather improves Tess's beauty, and that her husband should see her now. Tess reprimands Marian for her mention of him. Along with Tess, Marian and Izz, two other women working at FlintcombAsh are Car and Nancy Darch, neither of whom recognize Tess. Tess finds that her employer is the Trantridge native from whom she had taken flight. He laughs that he has regained his superior position. Tess does not answer him, so he demands an apology. Izz tells Tess that Angel was a splendid lover, no doubt, and tells Tess that Angel has left for the New World. Tess claims that she can always find out where Angel is. Tess continues to work, but she finally sinks down upon a heap of wheatears at her feet. Marian cries out that the work requires harder flesh than hers. The farmer suddenly enters and reprimands her for not working. Izz and Marian continue working to make up for Tess after the farmer leaves. Marian tells Tess how Angel asked Izz to accompany him to Brazil, but changed his mind. Tess cries at this news, thinking that she has been wrong and neglectful. Tess writes a letter to Angel, but cannot finish it. Afterwards she takes the wedding ring she keeps on a ribbon around her neck and wears it on her finger. Tess wonders why her husband has not written to her, for he had distinctly implied that he would at least let her know of the locality to which he journeyed. She wonders whether he is indifferent or ill. On a Sunday morning, the only morning in which Tess may leave, Tess leaves for Emminster. When Tess reaches the home of the Clares at Emminster, nobody answers, for they are all at church. Tess sees Felix and Cuthbert, but fears that they should find her before she is prepared to confront them. Tess also sees Mercy Chant, whom one of the brothers identifies; Tess remembers the name from Talbothays, and listens as the brothers discuss how Angel threw himself away upon a dairymaid. When the Clares reach their home once more, they find Tess's boots which she has left there and appropriate them as charity. Tess views this scene as evidence of her condemnation, and feels that she cannot return to the vicarage. Tess leaves Emminster and reaches the village of Ever shead, where she learns that a fiery, Christian man is preaching. Tess finds this preacher giving a sermon on justification by faith. She recognizes the voice of the preacher as that of Alec d'Urberville. Alec d'Urberville appears with the same unpleasantness, but now has a neatly trimmed mustache and a half clerical dress. Alec has not been reformed, but rather transfigured, his passion for religious devotion instead of sensuality. Tess feels that this change is unnatural, although Christianity has a pattern of great sinners becoming great saints. Alec approaches her and tells her that his duty is to save, and there is no person to whom he has a greater duty than Tess. Tess asks him if he has saved himself, for charity begins at home. He says indifferent that he has done nothing and that no amount of contempt will equal what he has brought upon himself. Alec mentions Reverend Clare, who has been his religious inspiration since confronting Alec. She tells Alec that she does not believe his conversion, for a better man does not believe as much as Alec claims. Alec tells Tess that he should not look at her too often, for women's faces have too much power over him already. The two reach the point called Crossin Hand, named for a stone pillar that once stood there. Alec asks her who has taught her such proper English, and she claims that she has learned things in her troubles. She tells him about Sorrow, which shocks him. He asks Tess to swear on the Crossin Hand that she will never tempt him by her charms and ways. Upon leaving Tess, Alec opens a letter from Reverend Clare that expresses joy at Alec's conversion. Tess asks a shepherd the meaning of the Crossin Hand, and he says that it is no holy cross, but rather a medieval torture device and a place of ill omen. Several days pass since Tess's journey to Emminster. Tess sees a man approach as she works; it is not Farmer Groby, her employer, but rather Alec d'Urberville. Alec claims that he has a good reason for violating Tess's request that he not see her. He tells her that he now sees that she suffers from hard conditions, which she did not know earlier because he saw her in her best dress. He tells her that her case was the worst he was ever concerned in, and he had no idea of what resulted until their encounter days before. He takes blame for the ordeal, but says that it is a shame that parents bring up girls ignorant of the wicked. He tells her that he has lost his mother since Tess left Trantridge and he intends to devote himself to missionary work in Africa. He asks Tess if she will be his wife and accompany her. He tells Tess that his mother's dying wish was for Alec to be married, and he presents Tess with a marriage license. Tess admits to Alec that she is already married, and claims that she and Alec are now strangers. As Tess attempts to explain her situation, Alec calls her a deserted wife and he grabs her hand. She asks Alec to leave in the name of his own Christianity. Farmer Groby approaches Alec and Tess and asks what the commotion is, and Alec calls him a tyrant. When Farmer Groby leaves, Tess says that Farmer Groby will not hurt her, because he's not in love with her. That night, Tess writes a letter to Angel, concealing her hardships. Tess sees Alec again, and he remarks that Tess seems to have no religion, perhaps owing to him. She says that she believes in the spirit of the Sermon on the Mount, but she does not believe other details. Alec dismisses her opinions as merely those of her husband. He claims that Angel must be an infidel. Alec gives Tess a poster giving the time when he would preach, but claims that he would rather be with Tess. Alec claims that Tess has the means of his backsliding, and accuses her of tempting him. A man comes to see Tess, and her three companions watch. They do not recognize the man as Alec, however, for Alec does not appear as a ranting parson, as they have heard him described, but rather as a dandy. Alec has returned to his normal appearance, wearing fancy clothing once more and shaving off his beard. Alec claims that he has given up his preaching entirely. Alec tells Tess that he does not want her working at Flinctcomb Ash. He derides Tess's husband, whose name he does not know, as a "mythological personage." Alec tells her that she should leave her husband forever, and Tess responds by slapping him with her leather glove, drawing blood. When he springs up at her, she tells him that he can whip her or crush her, and she will not cry out because she is always his victim. Alec tells her that he was her master once and will be her master again. Alec continues to visit Flintcomb Ash to observe Tess. When he visits her again, he says that if he cannot legitimize their former relations, he can at least assist her. He says that although his religious mania is over, he retains a little good nature. He says that he will make her family comfortable if only she will show confidence in him. She tells him not to mention her siblings, and if he wants to help them, he should do so without telling her. After Alec leaves, Tess writes yet another letter to Angel, asking him to return to her. In this letter, she writes that she lives entirely for him and would be content to live with him as his servant if not as his wife. The Clares receive the letter that Tess wrote to Angel so that they may forward it to him. Mrs. Clare laments that Angel has been ill-used and should have been sent to Cambridge. The Clares blame themselves for Angel's marriage, for if Angel were not destined to be a farmer, he would have never been thrown in with an agricultural girl. During Angel's absence he had mentally aged a dozen years. Angel wonders whether he rejected Tess eternally and could no longer say that he would always reject her. Angel has grown to be Tess's advocate, remembering Izz Huett's words about her. Tess's sister, LizaLu, visits Tess at FlintcombAsh and tells her how both of their parents are ill and Joan may be dying. Tess returns home to find a neighbor who has been caring for Joan Durbeyfield. John tells Tess that he is thinking of asking local antiquarians to subscribe to a fund to maintain him as a part of local history. He says that such societies keep local bones, and living remains should be far more interesting. Alec finds Tess in Marlott. He asks Tess if her engagement at FlintcombAsh has ended, and mocks the idea that she might join her husband. Tess replies that she has no husband. Alec tells her that he has sent her something that should have arrived at her house, and insists that he will help her in spite of herself. When Tess returns home, she finds that her father has died. Over the preceding generation, the class of skilled laborers in Marlott had largely left, leaving only tenant farmers. Those who were not employed as farmers were largely forced to seek refuge. Upon John Durbeyfield's death, the Durbeyfield's lease of their home is not renewed and the family is forced to find accommodations elsewhere. Tess believes that their lease is not renewed because of her reappearance in Marlott, a reminder of the family's questionable morals. Alec tells Tess the full legend of the d'Urberville coach. According to family legend, a d'Urberville abducted a beautiful woman who tried to escape from his coach and, in a struggle, he killed her. Tess admits that she is the reason that her family must leave their home, for she is not a proper woman. She tells Alec that they will go to Kingsbere, where they have lodgings. Alec offers his house at Trantridge and tells Tess that her husband will never return to her. Tess says that, if her circumstances with Alec would change, her mother would be homeless again. He offers a guarantee in writing against that occurring. Tess says that she can have money from her fatherinlaw if she were to ask, but Alec retorts that he knows that she will never ask. Tess writes to Angel again, asking why he has treated her so monstrously and vowing to forget him because of the injustice she has received at his hands. Tess and her family remain in their home for the last night, and Joan sees a man at the window. Tess says that it is not her husband, and once they reach Kingsbere she will tell her mother everything. Tess worries that Alec is her husband in a very physical sense. Tess and her family leave Marlott, and on their journey she sees Marian and Izz, who have left the hard life at FlintcombAsh. When the family reach their destination, the innkeeper tells them that they have no lodgings there, for he received their request too late. The family instead stays in the d'Urberville Aisle church where the family vault is located. Alec d'Urberville finds Tess there. Marian and Izz discuss Angel; Marian thinks that they will never have Angel no matter what, and they should try to mend his situation with Tess. They write to Angel that he should look to his wife if he loves her as she loves him. Reverend and Mrs. Clare await the return of their son, and when they see him Mrs. Clare is shocked to see him sickly and angular. He asserts that he is fine now, but then nearly faints. The Clares give Angel the latest letter they received from Tess, which asserts that Tess will try to forget him. Mrs. Clare tells him not to worry about such a mere child of the soil, but Angel retorts that they are all children of the soil. Angel sends a line to Marlott announcing his return and his hope that Tess is still living there, but in several days receives a letter from Joan Durbeyfield telling him that they are no longer at Marlott and Tess is not with them and she does not know when Tess will return. Angel decides to wait for another letter, but then rereads an earlier letter by Tess in which she claims that she would die for him. He determines that her more recent note does not show her true feelings, and decides to find Tess. Angel realizes that Tess has not asked for money from the Clares because of their special charity toward sinners. As Angel packs, he finds the note from Marian and Izz. Angel travels to find Tess, passing CrossinHand and FlintcombAsh. He discovers there that nobody knew a Mrs. Clare, but they did know about Tess. Angel travels to Marlott, where he learns that John Durbeyfield is dead and his widow and children had left for Kingsbere. He sees John Durbeyfield's tomb, with its inscription "How Are the Mighty Fallen." Eventually, Angel finds Joan Durbeyfield, who tells him that Tess has not come home. When Angel asks whether Tess would want him to look for her, Joan Durbeyfield claims no emphatically, but Angel replies that he is sure that she would because he knows Tess better. Joan admits that she has never really known her daughter, and tells Angel that Tess is at Sandbourne. Angel reaches Sandbourne, a fashionable village that had recently experienced tremendous growth. Angel wonders where Tess could be amidst the wealth and fashion around him. He asks the postman for the address of a Mrs. Clare, and then a Miss Durbeyfield, but he does not know either. Another postal worker tells Angel the address of a d'Urberville at The Herons. Angel goes to this lodging house and asks Mrs. Brooks, the householder, for Teresa d'Urberville. He learns that she has been passing as a married woman. Tess appears, loosely wrapped in a cashmere dressing gown. Angel begs forgiveness for going away, but she says that it is too late. She says that she waited and waited, but Alec has won her back. She says that she hates Alec now, for he told her the lie that Angel would never come again. Angel can barely speak, but feels that Tess had ceased to recognize the body before her as her husband. Mrs. Brooks had heard fragments of the conversation between Angel and Tess, and hears Tess return to her room. Mrs. Brooks ascends the stairs and stands at the door of the drawing room. She can hear only a low sort of moaning as Tess sobs, and then hears portions of a conversation between Alec and Tess in which she tells him that Angel has returned and it looks as if he is dying. She tells Alec that she has lost Angel again because of him. Alec replies in sharper words and there is a sudden rustle before Mrs. Brooks hastily retreats down the stairs. Later, Mrs. Brooks notices a red spot on the white ceiling that had grown since the morning and has qualms of misgiving. She finds a workman nearby and asks him to enter the room with her. They find in the room Alec d'Urberville, who has been stabbed in the heart with a knife and is now dead. Angel prepares to leave town, dejected. He walks to the first nearby train station, and as he travels he sees a woman running toward him. It is Tess, who has been following him. She tells Angel that she has killed Alec, and smiles faintly as she tells him this. Tess admits that she killed Alec when he taunted Tess and called Angel by a foul name. Angel wonders what obscure strain in the d'Urberville blood had led to this aberration of moral sense, if it were an aberration. Angel thinks about the legend of the d'Urberville coach. He vows not to desert Tess, and they continue together. They pass a deserted mansion, Bramshurst Court, where they rest. That night, Tess tells Angel about how he carried her while sleepwalking, and he regrets that she did not tell him about this earlier, for it might have prevented much misunderstanding and woe. Tess is reluctant to leave their shelter and go toward Southampton or London, for she wonders why they must put an end to all that is sweet and lovely. She says that what must come will come. Angel decides that they must finally leave the mansion, but Tess wishes to stay, for she believes she will not last more than several weeks. Angel plans to take Tess north, where they can sail from Wessex. They travel northward and reach Stonehenge. Tess wishes to remain there, for Angel used to say that she was a heathen and thus Stonehenge is appropriate for her. Tess asks Angel to look after LizaLu if he loses her and to marry her. Tess falls asleep there, and as she sleeps a party of sixteen men surrounds Stonehenge to get Tess. Tess awakes, and asks Angel if they have come for her. Tess admits that she is almost glad, for her happiness could not have lasted. She tells them that she is ready. Angel Clare walks with LizaLu, moving hand in hand without speaking. Tess is executed for her crime, as "justice" is done and fate has ended his sport with Tess. As the black flag is raised, Angel and LizaLu silently rise, join hands and move on. B.    A Critique of Victorian Society Thomas Hardy's Tess of the d’Urbervilles serves as a profound critique of Victorian society, particularly its rigid social structures, sexual hypocrisy, and the harsh judgment of women's morality. Through the character of Tess Durbeyfield, Hardy explores the devastating effects of these societal norms on individuals, especially women.Social Class and Inequality: One of Hardy's primary critiques is the rigidity of social class and the impact of ancestry on an individual's fate. Tess's family, the Durbeyfields, discover their noble lineage, but this discovery brings more harm than good. Tess's encounter with Alec d'Urberville, a supposed relative, leads to her seduction and exploitation. Alec's abuse of power and Tess's subsequent fall from grace highlight the brutal inequalities of Victorian society, where the wealthy and powerful can exploit the vulnerable with impUnity Hardy contrasts Tess's genuine nobility of character with Alec's moral corruption, thereby criticizing the idea that social status and wealth are indicators of virtue. This juxtaposition underscores the novel’s thematic assertion that true nobility comes from one's actions and integrity, not one's birth right. Victorian society's sexual mores and double standards are central to Hardy's critique. Tess's seduction by Alec d'Urberville and the resulting loss of her "purity" are pivotal events that shape her tragic destiny. Despite being a victim, Tess is judged harshly by society. Her confession to Angel Clare on their wedding night reveals the deep-seated sexual hypocrisy of the time. While Angel cannot forgive Tess's past, he expects forgiveness for his own sexual transgressions, highlighting the double standard applied to men and women. Hardy's portrayal of Tess as a pure, natural woman despite her past seeks to challenge the Victorian notion of female purity. Tess remains morally pure and inherently good, regardless of her victimization. Through her character, Hardy condemns the societal tendency to define women by their sexual history rather than their inherent worth. Critique of Religion and Morality: Religion, another pillar of Victorian society, is also scrutinized in the novel. The church's judgmental and unyielding nature is embodied in the character of Angel Clare, whose rigid moralism leads him to abandon Tess. Angel's name itself is ironic, as he fails to embody true Christian forgiveness and compassion. Hardy critiques the superficial morality of Victorian religious practice, suggesting that true morality lies in empathy and understanding, rather than rigid adherence to dogma. Self -Check Exercise-I Q1 Who is the protagonist of "Tess of the d’Urbervilles"? Q2 What discovery prompts Tess's family to send her to the d'Urbervilles? Q3 How does Tess meet Alec d'Urberville, and what impact does he have on her life? Q4 Who is Angel Clare, and what is his relationship with Tess? Q5 What is the ultimate fate of Tess Durbeyfield in the novel? 12.4    Summary In Tess of the d’Urbervilles, Thomas Hardy uses Tess's tragic life story to expose and critique the injustices and hypocrisies of Victorian society. Through his detailed and empathetic portrayal of Tess, Hardy condemns the societal norms that trap individuals in predetermined roles and harshly judge them for circumstances beyond their control. The novel calls for a more compassionate and just society, where individuals are valued for their intrinsic qualities rather than their social status or sexual history. 12.5    Glossary •    Procession: Parade •    Dialect: Vernacular •    Modest: Humble •    Invalid: Sick •    Poultry: Fowl •    Ingratiates: Endears •    Pilgrimages: Journeys •    Passionate: Intense •    Treacle: Syrup •    Indignant: Offended •    Frigidity: Coldness •    Seduced: Ensnared 12.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-Check Exercise-I Ans 1. The protagonist of the novel is Tess Durbeyfield, a young woman from a rural, working-class family in Victorian England. Ans 2. Tess's father, John Durbeyfield, learns from a local parson that their family is descended from the noble d'Urberville lineage. This discovery prompts them to send Tess to the d'Urbervilles to seek kinship and financial support. Ans 3. Tess meets Alec d'Urberville when she goes to the d'Urberville estate to seek help for her family. Alec seduces and later assaults Tess, which leads to a series of tragic events that profoundly impact her life. Ans 4. Angel Clare is a gentleman farmer and the son of a clergyman who falls in love with Tess while she works at Talbothays Dairy. They marry, but their relationship faces severe challenges after Angel learns about Tess's past with Alec. Tess is ultimately arrested and executed for the murder of Alec d'Urberville. Her tragic fate underscores the themes of social injustice, fate, and the harsh judgment of Victorian society. 12.7    References/Suggested Readings •    Jeremy Ross, author of ClassicNote. Completed on July 23, 2000 •  Hardy, Thomas. Tess of the d’Urbervilles First published in book form in 1891. •  Gibson, James. Thomas Hardy: A Literary Life. London: Macmillan, 1996. •    Claire, Tomalin. Thomas Hardy: the Time-torn Man (Penguin, 2007) •    Harvey, Geoffrey. Thomas Hardy: The Complete Critical Guide to Thomas Hardy. New York: Routledge (Taylor & Francis Group), 2003. •    Johnson, Lionel Pigot. The Art of Thomas Hardy (London: E. Mathews, 1894). 12.8    Terminal Questions Q 1 How does Thomas Hardy use the character of Tess to critique Victorian society in Tess of the d’Urbervilles? Q 2 How the novel critique religion and moral values of Victorian society? Unit-13 Tess of the d’Urbervilles: A Critical Overview Structure 13.1    Introduction 13.2    Learning Objectives 13.3    Tess: A Critical Overview Self-Check Exercise1 13.4  Summary 13.5  Glossary 13.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise 13.7    References/Suggested Readings 13.8  Terminal Questions 13.1   Introduction Tess is among the most renowned novels by Thomas Hardy. Its complete title is Tess of the d’Urbervilles: A Pure Woman. It first emerged in installments in the newspaper The Graphic in 1891, before being published as a three-volume book in the same year, and then released as a single volume in 1892. Upon its initial release, Tess of the d’Urbervilles faced mixed critiques, partly due to its challenge to the sexual ethics of late Victorian England. It garnered praise on numerous occasions as well as criticism. Nevertheless, it is now recognized as a classic novel. 13.2    Learning Objectives A sorrowful tale – Tess – highlights Hardy's perspective on life. According to Thomas Hardy, all human distress results from destiny and randomness. This lesson will provide a summary of the novel and explore the different elements of the story, including God, religion, characters, and more. 13.3    Tess: A critical Overview Tess of the d’Urbervilles is a tale of a destitute woman grappling with her involuntary loss of purity. It is divided into seven phases, with each phase containing a number of chapters. The first phase is named ‘The maiden,’ the second ‘Maiden No More,’ the third ‘The Rally,’ the fourth ‘The Consequences,’ the fifth, ‘The Woman Pays,’ the sixth, ‘The Convert,’ and the seventh ‘fulfillment. ’ Each phase illustrates a facet of Tess’s life that involves extensive and significant agony. A.    A Critical Assessment Tess of the d’Urbervilles is a novel with a distinct purpose, written with a clear objective in mind. Hardy skillfully employs various narrative techniques to highlight the core message of his social philosophy. In the Explanatory Note to the First Edition, Hardy states that the novel is presented with sincerity and intention, aiming to artistically represent a true sequence of events. He insists that he is telling the truth and urges readers who might find the novel offensive to consider the words of St. Jerome: “If an offence comes out of the truth, better is it that offence come than that the truth be concealed.” Hardy was aware that the truth conveyed in the novel might provoke controversy, yet he remained undeterred by criticism and was steadfast in his commitment to portraying reality. Despite Hardy’s efforts to clarify the novel’s purpose, it was met with strong reactions. In 1892, he stated that Tess of the d’Urbervilles was not meant to be didactic or confrontational but was more focused on impressions than arguments. Hardy viewed the novel as an artistic expression rather than a rigid assertion of beliefs. He further emphasized this perspective by declaring that when evaluating poetic representations, the primary concern should be inner necessity and truth. This firm stance was taken in response to harsh critiques from contemporary reviewers. The Quarterly Review dismissed the novel as an “extremely disagreeable story told in an extremely disagreeable manner.” Similarly, The Saturday Review criticized it for lacking “any beam of sunshine.” Hardy was deeply affected by such reviews and sharply responded to a critic who objected to a phrase he used about the immortals, stating that criticizing the gods was neither a novel concept nor an original fault of his. To illustrate this, he cited Shakespeare’s King Lear: "As flies to wanton boys are we to the gods; They kill us for their sport." Although some critics who initially condemned the novel eventually fell silent, public and private criticism persisted, remaining fresh in Hardy’s mind. As a result, he declared that if such negative reception continued, he would abandon novel writing altogether. He expressed frustration, stating that “a man must be a fool to stand up to be shot.” However, the novel was not universally condemned. Many readers welcomed it with enthusiasm. The Westminster Review praised it as “one of the greatest novels of the century, a monumental work, bearing the hallmark of truth on every page.” Similarly, W. Watson described it as “one of the great tragedies.” Despite the critical backlash, the novel achieved remarkable commercial success and was translated into major European languages, making it the best-selling of Hardy’s works. This raises an important question: was the central theme of the novel truly controversial and provocative? Tess of the d’Urbervilles was written with a serious purpose and in a serious tone. Unlike works that adhere to the doctrine of Art for Art’s Sake, it does not offer an escape into a dreamlike world, free from the harsh realities of life. Instead, its aim is clear—it seeks to “justify the ways of men to God.” Hardy delivers a sharp critique of the universe and its creator. Tess, depicted as a pure woman, is relentlessly pursued and tormented by sinister forces. Critics have pointed out that “these pitiless hunters pursue a lovable and high-spirited woman who falls victim to the cruel forces that govern human fate.” Nevinson found Tess’s suffering so unbearable that he could not bring himself to finish reading “the eternal chase.” The novel tells the heartrending story of a woman’s unwilling descent from virtue. Hardy emphasizes Tess’s innocence, portraying her as a pure woman despite her seduction. To elicit sympathy and admiration for Tess, Hardy draws on Shakespeare’s words, conveying her purity and suffering: "Poor wounded name, my bosom as a bed shall lodge thee." Hardy asserts that Tess’s suffering is primarily caused by supernatural forces such as Fate and Chance, which seem determined to destroy human happiness. He condemns the indifference and cruelty of divine powers, making a bold critique of the gods who toy with human lives for their own amusement. This sentiment is famously expressed in the novel’s conclusion: "Justice was done, and the President of Immortals (in an Aeschylean phrase) ended His sport with Tess." Stylistically, Tess of the d’Urbervilles exhibits both the strengths and weaknesses of a self-taught writer. At times, the style appears overly learned, pedantic, or even awkward, yet it is overall grand, stately, and magnificent in effect. Despite its occasional complexity, the novel is well-structured and imposing. Some critics liken it to “an elaborate and massive edifice, austere yet majestic.” Johnson describes it as “massive in its simplicity, moving to a solemn music.” The novel also possesses a lyrical quality of a high order, marked by controlled and dignified writing. It conveys a deep sense of passion and drama, its intensity reaching white heat, burning with sympathy and indignation. Thematically, the novel is both provocative and profound, presenting a challenge to the structure of the universe itself. Hardy uses reason rather than emotion to critique the world’s order, particularly the relentless fate that haunts Tess. His descriptions of nature are vivid and evocative, sometimes beautiful, sometimes stark and cold. He even challenges Wordsworth’s holy plan of nature, suggesting instead that nature does not provide solace but rather reinforces human suffering. Ultimately, Tess of the d’Urbervilles is a remarkable fusion of art and philosophy. With its epic scope and profound tragic depth, it stands as one of the great literary achievements of its time. B.    God and Religion in Tess Hardy is intensely critical of God and organized religion. He went so far as to declare loudly that “no writer of a tragedy can be Christian. ” It is an intriguing aspect of Hardy's life that he was once a devoted churchgoer, had absorbed the Bible, yet eventually forsook his faith in Christianity as the events transpiring in the world did not align with his reasoning and sense of justice. It is a peculiar irony that Hardy, who was considered “one of the most Christian spirits that ever lived,” waged a battle against faith. He possessed deep compassion and was profoundly attuned to the sight of suffering, whether human or animal. The inquiry extends: Why did Hardy, then, criticize divine justice and accuse religious individuals? The reason he took issue with God’s benevolence was that, if God were indeed a kind creator, unnecessary and undeserved suffering should not exist. However, given the prevalence of needless and unearned suffering in the world, it seems clear that God, who is believed to be the creator of this world, is unkind, indifferent, and malevolent. He has established certain forces that target innocent and virtuous people like Tess. From this sadistic perspective, Hardy’s viewpoint is illustrated in his satire of Robert Browning: “God is not in his heaven. ” And all is not right with the world. ” Hardy has encapsulated these notions in Tess of the d’Urbervilles. The dialogue between Tess and her younger brother Abraham is particularly insightful. He inquires about “how far away those twinkles were and whether God was on the other side of them. ” Hardy articulates his perspective through Tess, who expresses that the stars were “like the apples on our tabard tree. Some of the worlds were “blighted and we live on a blighted one. ” Hardy critiques God when Tess is seduced by Alec: “Where was Tess’s guardian angel? Where was the providence of her simple faith? Perhaps like that of the other God of whom the ironic Tishbite spoke. He was talking, or he was pursuing, or he was on a journey, or he was sleeping and not to be awakened. ” It is clear that God remains indifferent to humanity's fate on earth. The unfortunate situation of humans in this world led Hardy to assert that God, seated high in heaven, regarded mankind bleakly and without concern. The pinnacle of Hardy’s critique of God is achieved when he employs irreverent terms to describe God, referring to him as “the president of immortals. ” And the reason Hardy was harsh on religion is that it flourishes on unreasoning faith and tradition. It is often equated with insincerity and moral pretense. Those who claim to uphold morality frequently act in contradiction to it; Hardy believed religion ought to serve as a guiding light for individuals wandering in darkness. It should offer peace and comfort to the grieving human heart. It should assist in soothing wounded sentiments. However, this is seldom the case. Devout individuals are, for the most part, primarily concerned with trivial rituals and formalities that exist on the fringes of religion. In Tess of the d’Urbervilles, Hardy provides numerous opportunities to criticize religious hypocrisy and self-righteousness. The first opportunity to denounce orthodox Christianity arises when Tess encounters the painter after the violation against her has occurred. Hardy suggests that it is futile and utterly hypocritical to illustrate biblical texts, as they amount to mere clichés: “Alas poor theology. ” Religion is criticized when the priest Marlon declines to baptize Tess’s child, who is referred to as the intrusive being, the illegitimate gift of unrepentant Nature, which disregards societal laws. This innocent child is denied a Christian burial due to the lack of proper baptism. Hardy expresses, with all the moral outrage he can muster: “So the baby was carried in a small deal box under an ancient woman’s shawl, to the church yard that night, and buried by lantern light, at the cost of a shilling and pint of beer, to the Sexton, in the shabby corner of God’s allotment where he lets the nettles grow, and where all anabaptized infants, notorious drunkards, suicides and others of the conjecturally damned are laid. ” Alec’s transformation is merely superficial. The essence of religion has not reached his spirit. He is a lustful individual who thrusts himself into the role of a preacher, and at the slightest allure of worldly pleasures, he recoils back like a wild animal to his original disposition. The primary focus of the attack is Angel Clare. At the beginning, he is depicted as a virtuous, moral, and sincere individual. He argues that education should serve the honor and glory of humanity. His interaction with Tess is meant to illustrate that his moral statements were merely superficial. He married her in a fit of emotion, believing that Tess was entirely innocent and untouched. However, the instant Tess confessed her past, all the romantic fervor and affection he held for Tess, a woman with a history, evaporated completely, despite his own admission of having sinned. Tess implores him, beseeches him, and requests forgiveness, saying, ‘Forgive me as you are forgiven. I forgive you, Angel. Yet Angel suddenly erupted into a horrifying laughter, as unnatural and terrifying as laughter in hell. ” This is followed by the endless suffering of Tess due to Angel Clare's heartless demeanor. In summary, the exploration of God and religion in ‘Tess of the D’Urbervilles leads us to conclude that Hardy is at odds with the moral codes endorsed by a Christian society. ’ (W. I. Cross). This is clearly evident in the structure of this novel. C.    Role of Fate and Chance The significance of Fate and chance is essential in Hardy's novels. Tess of the d’Urbervilles stands out as one of its best illustrations. It significantly reflects the adage: “Destiny is character. ” Hardy perceives the human condition as a battleground where, on one side, stands man, and on the other, a powerful, enigmatic, merciless, and indifferent Fate, which is thoroughly represented in this narrative. The opposition in this novel lies between Tess, the virtuous and naive woman, and the impersonal forces that are too perplexing and confounding for her. Hardy aptly highlights this phenomenon: “In the ill-judged execution of the well-judged plan of things the call seldom produced the corner; the man to love rarely coincides with the hour for loving. ” Concerning the nature of our world, he states, “Missing counterparts wandered independently about the earth waiting in crass abstruseness till the late time came: Out of which maladroit delay sprang anxieties, disappointment, shock catastrophes, and passing-strange destinies. ” Fate has revealed itself in Tess of the d’Urbervilles through various forms. Its wickedness and malevolent intent are evident in and through Alec. Alec enters the narrative and devastates Tess’s existence because it was predestined by malicious Fate. He wreaks havoc in her life by committing an atrocity against her in the name of love and marriage. He relentlessly pursues her to her destruction and doom. His chase is nearly hellish, and he repeatedly appears to obliterate her opportunity for joy. In the conclusion, when she finds reconciliation with Angel Clare, Alec reappears like a portentous comet heralding evil and the unavoidable. Chance plays a significant role in Tess of the d’Urbervilles, influencing the fates of characters. The influence of Chance is critical, seemingly operating from behind the scenes. At the novel's outset, it resembles a tiny cloud on the horizon, yet it gradually engulfs the entire sky. The chance encounter between Parson Tringham and Jack Derbeyfield, Tess’s father, is laden with immense tragic potential. It not only affects Tess immediately but also has significant repercussions. Tess’s horse meets with an accident while she is on her way to the fair. The poverty that loomed at home compelled her to approach Alec for kinship. Alec welcomed her and presented her with flowers “to put in her bosom. ” She accepted them “like one in a dream. ” Little did she realize “as she innocently looked down at the roses in the bosom that there behind the narcotic haze was potentially the tragic mischief of her drama? ” A relentless battle ensues. However, in spite of her greatest attempts, she could not free herself from Alec's grasp. Even Nature conspired with the wicked man. When returning from the fair with Alec, she was unable to find the precise place to turn, as ‘a faint luminous fog’ appeared to suspend the moonlight ‘and she fell victim to Alec’s malicious intentions. This violation resulted in endless anguish in Tess’s life. Then for a brief moment, at the Darry, fortune appeared to favor her, but fate intervenes and the letter of confession she had composed for Angel slips beneath the carpet. Consequently, the entire structure of Tess's future joy collapses like a deck of cards. She is left abandoned, without friends. After an extended time of profound suffering when Angel returns and reconciles with Tess, Alec reemerges. In a fit of rage, she stabs him, and the noose of justice and vengeance tightens around her neck. Hardy implies that Tess's immense suffering was a consequence of Fate and Chance. His compassion for Tess was so intense that he even used disrespectful language regarding the ‘President of Immortals’ (God). Self-Check Exercise-I Q 1      Name three main characters of the novel Tess. Q 2     How can the novel Tess be defined? Q 3      Why was Hardy critical of religion? Q 4      What according to Hardy is the reason for Tess’s suffering? 13.4    Summary In this lesson, dear students, we helped you comprehend the novel. We provided you with the summary and examined the various themes. You discovered Hardy’s philosophy and his perspective on the world. This will assist you in addressing any inquiries related to the novel Tess. 13.5    Glossary •  Benevolent -well-meaning and kind •  Enchanting -very charming or attractive •    Indignation-anger or annoyance provoked by what is thought/perceived to be unfair treatment •    Intrusive-causing discomfort or annoyance through being uninvited •    Interloper-unwanted person 13.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-Check Exercise-I Ans 1. Tess, Alec and Angel Clare Ans 2. Novel Tess can be defined as an amalgamation of art, fate and philosophy. Ans 3. Hardy was critical of religion because he believed that it thrived on faith and orthodoxy which wasnot good for humanity. Ans 4. Tess suffered because of ill fate and negative role played by chance. 13.7    References/Suggested Readings •    Gibson, James. Thomas Hardy: A Literary Life. London: Macmillan, 1996. •    Claire Tomalin, Thomas Hardy: the Time-torn Man(Penguin, 2007) •    Harvey, Geoffrey. Thomas Hardy: The Complete Critical Guide to Thomas Hardy. New York:Routledge (Taylor & Francis Group), 2003. •    Johnson, Lionel Pigot. The art of Thomas Hardy (London: E. Mathews, 1894). 13.8    Terminal Questions Q1 The novel blames the God for human suffering. Do you agree? Illustrate. Q2 Discuss the role of fate and chance in the novel Tess. Q3 What are the Victorian views on women and temptation as depicted in the novel? Unit-14 Character and Characterization in Tess of the d’Urbervilles Structure 14.1   Introduction 14.2    Learning Objectives 14.3   Chatacter and Characterization Self-Check Exercise-I 14.4  Summary 14.5  Glossary 14.6  Answers to Self-Check Exercise 14.7  References/Suggested Readings 14.8  Terminal Questions 14.1   Introduction In Tess of the d’Urbervilles, Thomas Hardy weaves a complex tapestry of characters, each carefully crafted to mirror the intricate interplay of social, moral, and personal forces influencing their lives. At the heart of the novel is Tess Durbeyfield, a young woman possessing considerable inner strength and vulnerability, whose tragic path symbolizes the fight against societal limitations and injustices. Through careful characterization, Hardy not only brings Tess to life but also investigates the motivations and changes of key figures like Alec d’Urberville and Angel Clare. This chapter examines the diverse nature of Hardy’s characters, analyzing how their growth and interactions propel the narrative and highlight the novel’s themes of fate, morality, and social criticism. 14.2    Learning Objectives In this lesson, we will concentrate on characters and provide an overview of the primary characters in Tess of the d’Urbervilles, emphasizing their roles and relationships throughout the novel. 14.3    Character and Characterization: Tess of the d’Urbervilles Character List A.    Tess Durbeyfield In one of the reviews, she was labeled a ‘prig,’ but this is a flawed perception, stemming from a corrupted judgment. The level of sympathy Hardy had stirred in our hearts for her would become meaningless if she is viewed as a ‘prig. ’ Meredith aptly noted that ‘Tess was at one time real to me. ’ Ruskin remarked that she represented a great achievement and a masterpiece. Her Tragic Grandeur: Tess stands out as one of the most tragic figures. In terms of tragic grandeur, she soars far above the tragic female characters found in Shakespeare’s tragedies. Except for Cleopatra, the tragic women in Shakespeare are a contrast to the heroic characters. They tend to be passive and less assertive. However, Tess in the novel shines with exceptional prominence. It is hard to conceive that Tess, created from delicate feminine material, would rise to the occasion splendidly and reach tragic heights of grandeur. Her heroic battle with Fate and Chance represents the most glorious facet of her character. A Pure Woman: Hardy’s main focus in illustrating Tess’s character is the assertion of her purity despite assault and seduction. Meredith concurred that her purity remained unscathed until the very end, although outward purity is lost. She is not culpable for what transpired. She is a victim, a target of malicious forces of evil. It is clear that Hardy does not align with traditional morality and ethics in his attempt to depict and evaluate Tess’s character. He attributes utmost significance to the purity of heart and emotions. An unwilling descent from virtue does not constitute a vice or sin; a person is, in no way, responsible for an action performed under compulsion, coercion, and the influence of circumstances. The situation Tess faced was so perplexing and devastating that she cannot be deemed responsible in the slightest for the misfortune that befell her. For instance, Alex forcibly placed a kiss on her cheek, and she immediately wiped it away, with Hardy referring to it as ‘a kiss of master. ’ Hardy defends her purity even in this regard. Her exhaustion and helplessness are highlighted at the moment of her violation: ‘She was sleeping soundly and upon her eye-lashes there linseed tears. ’ Despite being a mother, she never loved Alec, the father of her child, because he was not a father in love and fairness, but merely an intruder, an interloper, whose presence Tess constantly resented and rejected. Her sense of right and justice pushed her to a state of desperation, leading her to stab him in a frenzy and surge of passion and indignation. A Paragon of Feminine Grace, Delicacy and Courage: Hardy has demonstrated exceptional skill in portraying the character of Tess. She possesses gentle traits of both mind and heart: a woman at the very core of her essence. However, despite her delicate femininity, she shows remarkable bravery in both her physical and mental resilience when confronted with the dreadful challenges she encounters in her life. In the novel, she is depicted as a simple vessel of emotion shaped by her experiences, yet she was more capable of handling domestic responsibilities than either her father or mother. She shows both assertiveness and feminine modesty when she rejects Alec’s advance to kiss her: ‘But I do not want anybody to kiss me. ’ She pleaded, a large tear starting to roll down her cheek and the corners of her mouth quivering as she fought not to cry. Her character is fully displayed in her bravery to confront the most devastating trial of her life, the birth, baptism, and burial of her child. When the clergy denied her child a baptism, she takes it upon herself to perform the rite. She heroically battles the life of suffering and poverty that comes her way. Tess, who was ‘sensitive as gossamer’ and pure as snow, faced all the hardships that arose with a tranquil spirit. The most feminine and elegant facet of her character emerges during her time at the Dairy when she meets Angel Clare. To Clare, she seemed ‘a rosy warming apparition’ radiating love and vitality: the joy within her heart harmonized with the captivating natural surroundings. She appeared ‘a visionary essence of woman, a whole sex condensed into typical form’ (she was ‘graceful to a degree, and in personal appearance, exceptionally beautiful. ’) She was overflowing with poetry, lived poetry; she embodies what mere poets only express in writing. The impact of the uplifting atmosphere was so profound that ‘despite her many months of solitary self-discipline, struggles, reflections, and plans for a future of strict seclusion, love’s guidance would ultimately triumph. B.    Angel Clare The second significant character in Tess of the d’Urbervilles is Angel Clare. He is a peculiar blend of contrasting characteristics. He falls victim to the ideals of virtue; he is overly strict, dogmatic, and doctrinaire. In Hardy’s works, Fate appears in two forms: Chance and Love. In this narrative, Angel Clare represents fate disguised as romantic love. The dreadful and repulsive aspect of love is evident in Alec’s character, who resurfaces repeatedly in Tess’s life until she is completely devastated. Angel Clare, on the other hand, symbolizes Love that seems alluring on the outside, but beneath that facade, it is equally unsightly and grotesque. He enters Tess’s life as a love angel meant to banish the despair within her heart. However, the romantic affection that Angel held for Tess was merely a disguise allowing the malice of Fate to be concealed. The most prominent characteristic of Angel’s persona is hypocrisy. One of the Dairy girls perceives Clare as “a person” who is “too much taken up with his own thoughts to notice girls. ” His father pressures him to pursue ordination, but he adamantly refuses. He informs his father that a University education can serve for “the honour and glory of man,” not just for “the honour and glory of God. ” At this point, he is filled with aesthetic sensibility. He responds to Tess aesthetically by stating, “What a fresh and virginal daughter of nature that milk maid is. ” He appears to revitalize Tess. Regarding his temperament, Hardy notes that Clare “was in truth more spiritual than animal; he was singularly free from grossness. Though not cold-natured, he was rather bright than hot, less Byronic than Shelleyan; he could love desperately but with a love more especially inclined to the imaginative and ethereal. ” The consequence of such a disposition was that when Tess revealed the troubling details of her past, he felt shocked and bewildered. All his romantic notions of love dissipated upon confronting harsh reality. He could not endure it and abandoned Tess to endure her suffering and regret. Possibly, he inflicted a greater shock and pain on Tess through his escapism and hypocrisy than Alec did through his sexual indiscretions. By the time he recognized his mistake, it was too late. Hardy uses his realization to illustrate that overly rigid doctrinaire beliefs lead a person nowhere. If Alec is excessively earthly, Angel is excessively ethereal. C.    Alec D’Urbervilles Another significant character in the novel is Alec Hardy, whose portrayal is adeptly crafted, making him seem both substantial and authentic. He is sharply contrasted with Angel Clare. His outward appearance reflected the nature of his inner self. This is vividly depicted by Hardy: “He (Alec) had an almost swarthy complexion with full lips, badly molded, though red and smooth, above which was a well-groomed black mustache with curled points, though his age could not be more than three or four and twenty. In spite of the elements of barbarism in his demeanor, there was a distinctive strength in the gentleman’s face and in his bold, rolling eye. ” While Angel damages Tess’s life with a Shelleyan and ethereal perspective, Alec destroys it through a Byronic and primal disposition. He embodies the direct and outright personification of malign Fate. He brought all despair to Tess. His animalistic desire culminating in her seduction marks the beginning of Tess’s endless suffering, yet he never experiences the slightest pangs of conscience for having wronged Tess. He exhibits no sign of remorse or moral scruples that might redeem a wrongdoer's character. Nonetheless, he faces appropriate retribution from the innocent woman he had wronged. This illustrates that evil may thrive for a limited time but not indefinitely. The virtuous endure suffering in the world but ultimately attain genuine victory in life. Self-Check Exercise-I Q1 What prompts Tess Durbeyfield to seek kinship with the wealthy d'Urbervilles? Q2 How does Angel Clare's view on education and career differ from his family's expectations? Q3 Describe Alec d'Urberville's character transformation throughout the novel. Q4 What role does Mrs. Brooks play in the novel? Q5 Why do Reverend Clare and his wife favor Mercy Chant as a suitable match for their son Angel? Q6 What leads to the disagreement between Reverend Clare and his son Angel? Q7 How does Mrs. Clare react to Angel's marriage to Tess? Q8 What is the nature of Farmer Groby's interactions with Tess? Q9 What do Izz Huett and Marian do to try to help Tess after her separation from Angel? Q10     What significant information does Parson Tringham provide to John Durbeyfield? 14.4    Summary These summaries provide an overview of the main characters in Tess of the d’Urbervilles, highlighting their roles and relationships within the novel. 14.5    Glossary •    Rural - Relating to the countryside rather than the town. •  Kinship - Blood relationship. •  Imminent - About to happen. •    Seduce - To entice someone into sexual activity. •    Infancy - The state or period of early childhood or babyhood. •    Fortitude - Courage in pain or adversity. •  Obedient - Complying or willing to comply with orders or requests. •  Parson - A member of the clergy, especially a Protestant one. •  Agriculture - The practice of farming, including cultivation of the soil for the growing of crops and the rearing of animals. •  Liberal - Open to new behavior or opinions and willing to discard traditional values. •    Dogmatic - Inclined to lay down principles as incontrovertibly true. •    Obstinate - Stubbornly refusing to change one's opinion or chosen course of action. •    Rapacious - Aggressively greedy or grasping. •    Possessive - Demanding someone's total attention and love. •    Hedonistic - Engaged in the pursuit of pleasure; sensually self-indulgent. •    Fundamentalist - A person who believes in the strict, literal interpretation of scripture in a religion. •    Bawdy - Dealing with sexual matters in a comical way; humorously indecent. •    Jovial - Cheerful and friendly. •    Reformation - The action or process of reforming an institution or practice. •    Gregarious - Fond of company; sociable. 14.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-Check Exercise-I Ans 1. Tess Durbeyfield seeks kinship with the wealthy d'Urbervilles because her family faces imminent poverty. Ans 2. Unlike his siblings who entered college, Angel Clare rejects the career path his father intended, which was the ministry, and instead chooses to study agriculture to become a farmer. Ans 3. Alec d'Urberville starts as a sophisticated and possessive individual who seduces Tess. He reforms his hedonistic ways to become a fundamentalist preacher but reverts to his old ways upon encountering Tess again. Ans 4. Mrs. Brooks is the householder at The Herons, where Alec and Tess stay together. She discovers Alec's body after Tess stabs him. Ans 5. Reverend Clare and his wife favor Mercy Chant as a suitable match for Angel because of her proper religious views. Ans 6. The disagreement between Reverend Clare and Angel stems from their differing religious philosophies, leading to Angel not being sent to college. Ans 7. Mrs. Clare, being conservative, disapproves of Tess and believes her to be unsuitable for her son Angel. Ans 8. Farmer Groby recognizes Tess as disreputable and treats her harshly when he later employs her at FlintcombAsh. Ans 9. Izz Huett and Marian, both in love with Angel, write to him urging him to forgive Tess. Marian also invites Tess to work at FlintcombAsh. Ans 10.     Parson Tringham informs John Durbeyfield that their family is descended from the noble d'Urberville lineage. 14.7    References/Suggested Readings •    Gibson, James. Thomas Hardy: A Literary Life. London: Macmillan, 1996. •    Claire, Tomalin. Thomas Hardy: the Time-torn Man (Penguin, 2007) •    Harvey, Geoffrey. Thomas Hardy: The Complete Critical Guide to Thomas Hardy. New York: Routledge (Taylor & Francis Group), 2003. •    Johnson, Lionel Pigot. The Art of Thomas Hardy (London: E. Mathews, 1894). 14.8    Terminal Questions Q 1 Give a Character-sketch of Alec D’Urbervilles. Q 2 Elaborate “Tess is a pure woman”. Q 3 Give a character portrayal of Angel Clare as a Victorian Man. Unit-15 Tess of the d’Urbervilles: Major Themes Structure 15.1   Introduction 15.2    Learning Objectives 15.3   Tess of the d’Urbervilles: Major Themes 15.4    Self-Check Exercise-I 15.5  Summary 15.6  Glossary 15.7    Answers to Self-Check Exercise 15.8    References/Suggested Readings 15.9    Terminal Questions 15.1    Introduction The themes in Thomas Hardy's "Tess of the d’Urbervilles" are central to understanding the novel’s profound impact and enduring relevance. Through the exploration of fate, social injustice, and the clash between traditional morality and personal integrity, Hardy delves into the complexities of human experience and societal structures. These themes not only shape the tragic trajectory of Tess’s life but also offer a poignant critique of Victorian society, challenging readers to reflect on issues of class, gender, and morality. This chapter examines how these themes are intricately woven into the narrative, highlighting their significance in shaping both the characters and the overarching message of the novel. 15.2    Learning Objectives Dear students in this Unit you will be able to identify and explain the central themes in "Tess of the d’Urbervilles," such as fate, social injustice, morality, and the conflict between nature and industrialization and will examine how Thomas Hardy develops these themes through the plot, character interactions, and setting, and understand their significance in the narrative and within the broader context of Victorian society. You will also be able to assess the impact of these themes on the characters' lives, particularly Tess, and how they contribute to the novel’s tragic elements and moral questions and draw connections between the themes in the novel and contemporary social issues, exploring the novel’s relevance to modern discussions about gender equality, social justice, and moral complexity. 15.3    Major themes A.    Women and gender inequality Hardy portrays the lives of women at this time as very complex and difficult in Tess of the d’Urbervilles. Tess's actions show her to be a very capable and strong woman. She makes an effort to provide for herself and her family, particularly when her father cannot. Tess is also sensible and rational. Her status as a woman leads her to suffer, however. This is clear in Alec's horrific mistreatment of her and her body. Alec feels a sense of entitlement towards Tess because he is attracted to her and she is a woman who he sees as inferior. This would have been a common view in the Victorian period. After his religious conversion, Alec believes that Tess tempted him. Another common view in Hardy's time was that attractive women tempted men and men were not to blame for their actions towards them. This puts Tess in a very difficult position. Tess of the d’Urbervilles also shows gender inequality in Angel's treatment of Tess when he discovers her past. His actions are hypocritical. Tess has forgiven him for his past in which he engaged in what their society would see as improper behaviour. However, Angel blames Tess for what was forced upon her. Hardy is exposing a very unequal way of seeing the world. Hardy also shows that the two men who are romantically interested in Tess have two very different views of her. Alec sees Tess in a very sexual way. He is attracted to her and focuses on her physical beauty. Alec manipulates Tess to get what he wants from her. Angel treats Tess in a much kinder way but he still has a warped view of her. When he meets her, Angel has an idealised view of Tess. He calls her 'Artemis', the name of a Greek goddess because he sees her as perfect. Angel seems to view Tess as the Victorian stereotype of the 'Angel of the House'. The Angel of the House stereotype was very common in the Victorian era. It refers to the idea of a woman that is a perfect wife and mother. She is pure, well behaved, delicate, and performs all of her domestic tasks perfectly. The phrase comes from an 1854 poem of the same name by Coventry Patmore. What both Alec and Angel have in common is that they both have inaccurate views of Tess as a woman. Neither of them sees her for who she really is. She represents certain things for both of them but neither sees her as human. B.    Fate and Destiny: Throughout the novel, Hardy explores the idea of fate and the extent to which individuals can control their own destinies. Tess's life is shaped by a series of chance encounters and external forces beyond her control, from her family's discovery of their noble ancestry to her relationships with Alec and Angel. Despite here efforts to escape her tragic fate, Tess finds her self inexorably drawn back into the same cycles of suffering and despair, highlighting the cruel and unforgiving nature of fate in Hardy's universe. Gender and Sexuality: "Tess of the d’Urbervilles" offers a searing critique of the double standards and oppressive social norms that govern gender and sexuality in Victorian society. Tess is repeatedly victimized and exploited by the men in her life, from Alec's predatory advances to Angel' shypo critical rejection of her after learning of her past. simultaneously excusing men for their indiscretions, underscoring the inherent injustices of the patriarchal system. C.    Nature and the Rural Landscape: Nature plays a central role in "Tess of the d’Urbervilles,"serving as both a source of solace and a relentless forceof destruction in Tess's life. Hardy's vivid descriptions ofthe rural landscape evoke a sense of timelessness and continuity, providing a stark contrast to the turmoil and upheaval of human affairs. The natural world serves as a powerful symbol of the immutable forces that shape Tess's destiny, offering moments of beauty and transcendence amidst the chaos and tragedy of her life. D.    Social Class and Inequality: Hardy exposes the rigid class distinctions and social hierarchies that pervade Victorian society, conde mning the injustices and inequalities that result from these arbitrary divisions. Tess's humble origins and low social status condemn her to a life of poverty and hardship, while characters like Alec and Angel wield their wealth and privilege with impUnity. Hardy's critique of classic equality reflects his broader concerns about the corrosive effects of social injustice and the inherent cruelty of a system that rewards privilege at the expense of human dignity. E.    Morality and Conscience: morality and conscience as she navigates the conflicting demands of her own desires and society's expectations. Despite her fundamentally good nature,Tess is repeatedly judged and condemned for her perceived transgressions, while those who exploit and betray her go unpunished. Hardy underscores the arbitrary and often hypocritical nature of moral judgment, challenging readers to confront the complexities of human morality and the inherent fallibility of ethical codes based on social convention. In conclusion, "Tess of the d’Urbervilles" stands as a powerful testament to Thomas Hardy's literary genius and enduring relevance. Through the tragic story of Tess Durbeyfield, Hardy offers a searing critique of the injustices and hypocrisies of Victorian society, while also exploring timeless themes of fate, love, and the struggle for individual autonomy. With its rich prose, vivid characters, and profound insights into the human condition, "Tess of the d’Urbervilles" continues to captivate readers and provoke thought more than a century after its initial publication. F.    Justice Justice is very important in Tess of the d’Urbervilles. Tess is often treated cruelly and unfairly throughout Hardy's novel. Her life is filled with injustice. Tess is the victim of a horrific rape that leaves her pregnant yet her society blames her for this. The man she marries, Angel, blames her for this too. This can be linked to the previous theme of gender inequality. Some of the injustice Tess experiences can be attributed to the fact that she is a woman in a patriarchal society. There is a further injustice in the fact that Tess must return to Alec for help after her father dies and she cannot support her family. She must obey a man who has treated her so terribly. This in order for her family to have food and shelter. This is another cruel twist of fate. Unlike her society, Thomas Hardy's narrator never judges Tess. He is showing her suffering in a cruel world. Hardy shows that Tess is fundamentally a good person. She tries her best to do right in the world. Yet she still faces so much injustice in her life. Tess often struggles with this injustice as she feels as though the world is against her. Hardy is showing the unfair nature of the world here. Never in her life – she could swear it from the bottom of her soul – had she ever intended to do wrong; yet these hard judgments had come. Whatever her sins, they were not sins of intention, but of inadvertence, and why should she have been punished so persistently? Self-Check Exercise-I Q1 How does Hardy explore the theme of fate and destiny in the novel? Q2 What does Hardy expose about social class and inequality in the novel? Q3 How are morality and conscience depicted in the novel? Q4 What does Hardy's narrator reveal about Tess's character? Q5 How does the theme of justice manifest in Tess's life? 15.4    Summary In "Tess of the d’Urbervilles," Hardy portrays the complex and difficult lives of women, highlighting gender inequality through Tess's experiences. Tess is strong and capable, yet suffers due to her gender, notably through Alec's mistreatment and Angel's hypocritical rejection. Both men view Tess inaccurately, Alec seeing her sexually and Angel idealizing her as a perfect, pure woman. Hardy also explores themes of fate, showing Tess's life shaped by chance and external forces, and critiques Victorian gender and sexual norms that excuse men's indiscretions while condemning women. Nature plays a dual role, offering solace and destruction, symbolizing the forces shaping Tess's destiny. Social class and inequality further exacerbate Tess's struggles, with Hardy condemning the injustices of a system that favors privilege. Tess's morality and conscience are central, as she is judged and condemned despite her good nature, highlighting the arbitrary nature of societal moral judgment. Justice is a key theme, with Tess's life filled with unfairness and suffering, illustrating the harsh realities of a patriarchal society. Hardy's novel remains a powerful critique of Victorian society's injustices, exploring themes of fate, love, and individual struggle. 15.5    Glossary •    Inadvertence: Unintentional lack of care or attention; negligence. •    Immutable: Unchanging over time; unable to be changed. •    Transcendence: The state of going beyond ordinary limits; surpassing. •    Corrosive: Harmful and destructive; tending to cause corrosion. •    Hypocritical: Behaving in a way that suggests one has higher standards or more noble beliefs than is the case. •    Predatory: Exploitative or rapacious; seeking to exploit others. •    Searing: Extremely intense or severe. •    Autonomy: The right or condition of self-government; independence. •    Stereotype: A widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing. •    Patriarchal: Relating to or characteristic of a system of society or government controlled by men. •    Victimized: Made a victim of; subjected to cruelty or unfair treatment. •    Privilege: A special right, advantage, or immUnity granted or available only to a particular person or group. •    Conscience: A person's moral sense of right and wrong, viewed as acting as a guide to one's behavior. •  Indiscretions: Behavior or speech that displays a lack of good judgment. •  Arbitrary: Based on random choice or personal whim, rather than any reason or system. •    Condemn: Express complete disapproval of; censure. •    Entitlement: The belief that one is inherently deserving of privileges or special treatment. •    Inequality: Difference in size, degree, circumstances, etc.; lack of equality. 15.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-Check Exercise1 Ans 1. Hardy shows Tess's life as shaped by chance encounters and external forces beyond her control, emphasizing the cruel nature of fate. Ans 2. Hardy condemns the rigid class distinctions and social hierarchies, highlighting the injustices and hardships faced by those of lower social status. Ans 3. Tess navigates conflicting demands of her desires and society's expectations, facing judgment and condemnation despite her good nature, challenging the hypocritical nature of moral judgment. Ans 4. The narrator shows Tess as a fundamentally good person, unjustly treated by a cruel world, emphasizing her unintended wrongdoings and persistent punishment. Ans 5. Tess experiences significant injustice, including societal blame for her rape and the necessity to rely on Alec for survival, highlighting the unfair nature of the world. 15.7    References/Suggested Readings •    Gibson, James. Thomas Hardy: A Literary Life. London: Macmillan, 1996. •    Claire Tomalin, Thomas Hardy: the Time-torn Man(Penguin, 2007) •    Harvey, Geoffrey. Thomas Hardy: The Complete Critical Guide to Thomas Hardy. •    New York: Routledge (Taylor & Francis Group), 2003. •    Johnson, Lionel Pigot. The art of Thomas Hardy (London: E. Mathews, 1894). 15.8    Terminal Questions Q 1 Discuss how Thomas Hardy portrays social injustice in "Tess of the d’Urbervilles." How do Tess’s experiences reflect the rigid class structures and gender inequalities of Victorian society? Provide examples from the text to support your analysis. Q 2 Analyze the theme of fate in the novel. To what extent are Tess’s misfortunes a result of fate, and to what extent are they the result of personal and societal actions? Discuss how Hardy uses fate to shape Tess’s character and the overall narrative. Q 3 Explore the complexity of Tess Durbeyfield’s character. How does Hardy depict her inner strength and vulnerability? How do Tess's personal qualities and decisions influence the course of her life, and what do they reveal about her as a protagonist? Q 4 the moral complexities and ambiguities in Tess’s relationships with Alec d'Urberville and Angel Clare. How do these relationships highlight the themes of morality, forgiveness, and redemption in the novel? Q 5 Investigate the theme of nature versus industrialization in "Tess of the d’Urbervilles." How does Hardy use the rural setting and descriptions of the natural world to contrast with the encroaching industrialization and societal change? What impact does this theme have on the characters and the narrative? UNIT- 16 An Introduction to George Eliot Structure 16.1   Introduction 16.2   Learning Objectives 16.3    George Eliot: An Introduction to Life and Career Self-Check Exercise-I 16.4  Summary 16.5  Glossary 16.6  Answers to Self-Check Exercise 16.7  References/Suggested Readings 16.8  Terminal Questions 16.1   Introduction Almost all the authors of Victorian England seem to be driven by two factors: a strong intellectual inclination to examine life's challenges and a desire to teach, meaning to clarify the approach through which these challenges can be addressed. The novels do not focus on an artistic ideal of writing and, in reality, they strive for moral guidance. In George Eliot, these two inclinations merge. She is more intentionally a preacher and moralist than any of her peers. Although deeply religious at her core, she was significantly influenced by the scientific spirit of her time. All of her works establish the moral law as the foundation of human society. Despite contemporary society's criticism of her for the unlawful and thus immoral relationship with Lewes, George Eliot believed her position was entirely moral. In her writings as well, she is a moralist at heart. 16.2    Learning Objectives Dear Students, you should be aware that George Eliot holds an important place as both a Victorian and a female author in English literature. This lesson seeks to familiarize the students with the intriguing personal and professional life of this remarkable writer. The goal is to grasp the connection between the novel and the novelist’s personal development. 16.3  Life and Works A. Life and Background George Eliot was an intellectual, a thinker, and had a philosophy or view of life to present. She wrote not just for enjoyment. She desired her readers to contemplate alongside her. Her novels are not intended for children or those who are still at a childlike mental level. To comprehend her works, it is not only beneficial but also essential to grasp her life, philosophy, and her other writings. Mary Ann Evans, later known as Mary-Ann-Cross, was born at Arburey Farm in Warwickshire on November 22, 1819. She referred to herself as Marian. Her father, Robert Evans, who was a builder and carpenter like his father George Evan before him, became the estate agent for Francis Newdigate. Amid her responsibilities, Marian took regular lessons in German, Italian, and music. She was an enthusiastic reader and studied Shakespeare, Milton, Wordsworth, Shelley, Scott, and many works of literature and journalism. Through her exposure to various books and people, her own personality experienced numerous transformations. At nineteen, she was strict, ascetic, and held rigid views. She disapproved of marriage and having children. She was even resistant to novels and romances and did not approve of music, except for the music of solemn worship. However, she did not remain a puritan for long. Just two years later, she was moved to hysterical tears upon hearing music. George Eliot had an unusually wide and thoughtful interest, sharp sensitivity, a tolerant spirit, a desire to recognize all the good hidden beneath the ordinary and narrow, a lively empathy with all the grander aspirations, a clear insight into the difficulties that even the strongest minds encounter, brilliant in her melancholic perspective on life shaped by a proper understanding of circumstances. “Her spiritual struggle, which resembles that of Carlyle, is undoubtedly the source of the gloom and depression that hang like English fog over much of her work. ” Although her biographer Cross suggests that she was not of a melancholic disposition, all her novels possess a depressive temperament. When her husband once commented that her novels are fundamentally joyless, she reportedly wept and replied that she must depict life as she had experienced it. George Eliot translated Strauss’s Life of Jesus in 1846. She wrote for The Westminster Review and served as its assistant editor from 1851-53. Her translation of Feurbach’s Essence of Christianity was published in 1854. In 1851, she developed a friendship with the rationalist philosopher Herbert Spencer, who introduced her to George Henry Lewes’s death, two years prior to her own. Lewes’s wife was alive at that time, and under the legal framework of the day, he could not divorce her, as he had condoned her infidelity when she left him. Thus, George did not break up any family and was a deeply devoted foster mother to Lewes’s two sons. However, due to the societal prejudices of that era, she faced complete social ostracism for many years. Nonetheless, the relationship was beneficial for her intellectual brilliance, as Lewes encouraged her to try writing fiction. Lewes served as a great source of inspiration to her, and in honor and affection, she took the first part of her pen name from him. George was derived from the name George Henry Lewes. The death of Lewes in 1878 was a significant emotional and intellectual loss for her. Therefore, two years later, in May 1880, at the age of sixty-one, she married John Walter Cross, who was approximately twenty years younger than her. However, the marriage was brief, as she passed away later that same year on December 22, 1880. Victorian society was taken aback by her relationship with Lewes. This is why she hid her identity using the pen name George Eliot. Her novel Adam Bede became so famous that it was referenced in parliament. Impressed by the book, Queen Victoria wished to meet the author. Yet, when she discovered that the author was a woman cohabiting with a man to whom she was not officially married, she declined to meet her. A sensitive individual with significant intellectual accomplishments, she endured the pain of social exclusion. She, however, recognized the importance of suffering. She believed suffering serves as a baptism that refines and sobers the human spirit. It is suffering that teaches life’s lessons and sheds light on the human character. Indeed, her belief in all her heroines is characterized by passionate nature and unfulfilled ideals. They find themselves in challenging situations and must endure intense mental anguish. Through these characters, we understand that one should transform one's ego, elevate beyond the personal self, and connect with those who suffer. Reading her novels provides a perspective on life as it truly is and allows one to become much wiser. George Eliot did not like being referred to as a novelist. She believed that she was a writer whose main goal was to expand human empathy. The genuine measure of art, in her view, is that it should assist us in empathizing with our fellow humans. Her novels demonstrate an extraordinary sense of humor and the pathos of human existence, a profound religious belief in the cleansing impact of human challenges, and her extensive and diverse reading. B.    Her Writings Style George Eliot’s novels are characterized by psychological realism, a term she herself used. She explores the internal conflicts of individuals, delving into the motives, impulses, and hereditary factors that shape human behavior. Her writing meticulously examines her characters' motivations and the moral lessons embedded in their journeys. Unlike the characters of Dickens and Thackeray, who are often fully formed when introduced, Eliot’s protagonists undergo transformation. Her interest lies in the evolution of a character’s soul—whether they grow stronger through experience or deteriorate due to their choices. In Romola, for instance, Tito steadily degenerates by indulging his selfish impulses, whereas Romola matures into a figure of strength through self-sacrifice. Their contrasting paths encapsulate Eliot’s moral philosophy. The concept of law was central to Victorian thought, influencing writers like Tennyson. For Eliot, moral law functioned like fate, overriding personal freedom and inclination. She viewed moral consequences as automatic and inevitable, much like the law of gravity. The downfall of Tito in Romola, as well as the failures of Dorothea and Lydgate in Middlemarch, follow an inexorable course, just as a falling apple obeys natural law. To Eliot, every action has a distinct moral consequence, and an individual's character is the cumulative result of their past actions. This belief negated the need for a divine judge since moral justice occurs naturally within an unbreakable framework of ethical law. Beyond her moral philosophy, Eliot’s novels also offer a vivid portrayal of English rural life. While Dickens captured the lower middle class and Thackeray depicted upper middle-class society, Eliot’s Adam Bede, The Mill on the Floss, and Middlemarch contain numerous countryside scenes. These depictions reveal the influence of Wordsworth and Scott on her work. Eliot possessed an exceptional ability to observe and document life in the Midlands, where she lived. J.B. Priestley remarked that Eliot elevated the novel beyond mere entertainment, bringing it into an atmosphere of seriousness and moral introspection. Within her, there were two distinct identities: the sharp, humorous young woman who grew up among country folk with keen powers of observation and the intellectual, scholarly figure who worked as an assistant editor at the Westminster Review. Over time, the latter persona overshadowed the former. Her early works—Scenes of Clerical Life (1857), Adam Bede (1859), The Mill on the Floss (1860), and Silas Marner (1861)— are filled with lifelike characters and natural humor. However, while these novels are rich in realism, they occasionally falter in handling main themes and characters. Her later works, including Romola (1862–63), Felix Holt, the Radical (1866), Middlemarch (1872), and Daniel Deronda (1874–76), demonstrate greater psychological complexity but lack the spontaneity of her earlier novels. As Eliot matured, she moved further from the unforced vitality of her early fiction. Her analytical nature meant that she often dissected her characters like a surgeon rather than bringing them to life organically. The artistic imagination within her was never particularly strong and seemed to fade over time. Her declaration about learning to endure pain without "opium" reflects a stoic perspective but suggests that she did not find creative joy in her work. J.B. Priestley observed that art, to flourish, often requires a touch of imaginative indulgence. Nonetheless, Eliot’s humor counterbalanced her more solemn tendencies. Initially, her humor appeared somewhat self-conscious, as seen in Scenes of Clerical Life when Mr. Gilfil jokingly asks if the geese have been milked. While her depictions of children are sympathetic and truthful, they sometimes feel overly serious. However, her best humor appears in her earlier novels, particularly in Adam Bede and The Mill on the Floss, where she delivers sharp, witty observations on human nature. Critics have noted that her humor, while at times satirical, is ultimately a refreshing element in her work. Eliot’s reputation remains high even after a century, though critics have often wished she were different. Her publisher, John Blackwood, while acknowledging her genius, was occasionally unsettled by the moral boldness of her writing. Scholar George R. Creeger identified three main characteristics of Eliot’s fiction. First, her commitment to realism—portraying life with fidelity, though she later allowed imagination more freedom. Second, her emphasis on unity in storytelling, viewing a novel as an organic whole rather than a mere collection of events. Third, her belief that fiction should teach and expand human understanding, extending readers’ experiences beyond their personal lives. Eliot saw novelists as responsible for shaping public consciousness, though she recognized that change happens gradually. One common critique of Eliot’s work is that she intervenes too frequently, guiding the reader’s judgment rather than allowing characters to speak for themselves. She believed, however, that a writer had the right to shape a novel’s message. Unlike the concise, fast-paced narratives of some of her contemporaries, Eliot’s novels are often expansive and leisurely, allowing for deeper psychological exploration. David Cecil described Eliot as a transitional figure between the old and modern novel—a monumental presence who retained some Victorian traditions while steering fiction in a new direction. The English novel’s first era, beginning with Defoe, concluded with Trollope, while the modern era, represented by writers like Henry James and George Meredith, began with Eliot. She developed the form in ways that altered its fundamental purpose. Unlike traditional Victorian novelists, Eliot was an intellectual writer whose fiction was rooted in ideas rather than mere storytelling. Her novels prioritize conceptual depth over plot-driven entertainment. Consequently, her narratives do not follow the conventional patterns of Victorian fiction—there are no idealized heroes, romantic happy endings, or contrived resolutions. Scenes of Clerical Life features tragic conclusions, while Silas Marner centers on an aging bachelor. The Mill on the Floss ends unhappily, and Middlemarch lacks an obvious protagonist. With Eliot, the novel matured, moving beyond light entertainment to become a medium for exploring complex issues of human existence. Her fiction marked the beginning of a new literary era, emphasizing depth, realism, and intellectual engagement over traditional storytelling conventions. C.    Her The Mill on The Floss and Other Works Let us now briefly examine the earlier works of George Eliot, commencing with Scenes of Clerical Life (1867), which consists of three tales starting with “The sad fortunes of the Rev. Amos Barton. ” This is a portrayal of an ordinary clergyman lacking education, finesse, or appeal. He receives a meager salary, is disliked, and wins affection through his hardships, particularly the excessive toil that results in the loss of his lovely wife, Milly. The narrative of Amos Barton is inspired by real events, including that of John Groyther and his spouse, Emma. The second tale, “Mr. Glifil’s love story,” revolves around an individual whose character has been distorted due to a tragic romantic experience. It is once more based on reality, as Mr. Glifil was in love with Caterina Sastri (Tina). Captain Willbrow flirts with her and subsequently abandons her. Under his attentive care, Tina recovered for a period and wed him, but passed away a few months later, leaving Glifil heartbroken. The third tale, “Janet’s Repentance,” illustrates the struggle between faith and disbelief. It explores the impact of a compassionate human being, Rev. Edgar Tryan (in real life, one Mr. Jones), on Janet, the poorly treated spouse of Dempster, a drunken, brutish lawyer who mistreats his wife until she resorts to alcohol for comfort. With Tryan’s support, Janet slowly attains self-discipline and abandons drinking. Tryan's death from tuberculosis leaves her in grief, but fortified for a life dedicated to service. What made the Scenes of clerical life appealing was the serious and exaggerated depiction of the lives of everyday people, the author's unemotional objectivity, and exceptional expertise in the language and behaviors of rural society. There exists an entire collection of clerical personalities in the writings of George Eliot, possibly the most extensive in English literature. In addition to those mentioned previously in the three stories, we find Rev. Stelling and Dr. Kenn in The Mill on the Floss and Farebrother, Cawalodar, Tyke, and Casaubon in Middlemarch. According to her, the ideal priest is not a zealous religious figure but rather a composed individual who blends morality and humanity, much like Rev. Irwine in Adam Bede, Farebrother in Middlemarch, or Dr. Kenn in The Mill on the Floss; Dinah Morris in Adam Bede is one of the most remarkable depictions of the genuine religious spirit. Her characters do not represent exaggerated vices or virtues. They are living, breathing individuals made of flesh and blood with human desires and shortcomings, often drawn from real life. The next significant work, Adam Bede, is founded on a tale recounted to George Eliot by her aunt Elizabeth Evans, a Methodist preacher, who was the inspiration for Dinah Morris and the source of a girl's confession of child murder made to her while in prison. Adam Bede, a stern and principled village carpenter, is in love with Hetty Sorrel, a pretty, vain, and selfish niece of farmer Martin Poyser. Hetty is seduced by the possibility of the status that marrying the young squire Arthur Donnithorne would afford her. After being abandoned by Arthur, Hetty, heartbroken, agrees to marry Adam. However, prior to the marriage, she realizes she is pregnant and flees to find Arthur, but her search is futile; she is arrested and convicted of murdering her child and is sentenced to transportation. Later, Adam learns that he has captured the affection of Dinah Morris, a deeply devout Methodist preacher, whose calming presence influences the earlier narrative, and whom Adam's brother Seth has long cherished and now selflessly relinquishes to him. Adam Bede contains a significant amount of reminiscence and the portrayal of actual life. Mrs. Poyser is inspired by her mother, just as Dinah Morris is inspired by her aunt. Adam and Seth are based on her father and uncle, Robert Evans and Samuel Evans. It was this work that brought George Eliot considerable acclaim and established her as a novelist. While some critics regard this work as her masterpiece, others prefer either The Mill on the Floss (1860) or Middlemarch (1871-72). The Mill on The Floss was George Eliot’s third novel, following Scenes of Clerical Life (1858) and Adam Bede (1859). She commenced writing the book in 1859, and it was published for the first time in 1860, with a few later revised editions. The novel was highly awaited, as Adam Bede had achieved significant success, and it was generally well received. It did not receive the same level of uniform acclaim as Adam Bede did at its debut, but it was also a more ambitious piece of work. Numerous critics greatly favored the initial half of The Mill on the Floss, which centers on Maggie and Tom Tulliver’s childhoods, over the latter half and particularly the conclusion. The Mill on The Floss is Eliot’s most autobiographical work. While the story elements do not directly reflect events from Eliot’s own life, the character of Maggie Tulliver is the nearest representation of Eliot to appear in her literary works, and she experiences many of the same challenges that Eliot encountered. The Tullivers are not intended to symbolize Eliot’s parents, yet Tom Tulliver bears a strong resemblance to Eliot’s brother Isaac Evans, and the Dodson aunts resemble Eliot’s aunts, the Pearsons. Self-check Exercise-I Q 1 What shaped George Eliot’s personality and writings? Q 2 What according to George Eliot is the duty of a writer? Q 3 What is the distinct feature of George Eliot’s novels? 16.4    Summary In this lesson, you all have studied George Eliot’s life, her education, her literary works, and the influences on her personal life. All of this will assist you in situating this novel within a context. I am confident you must have understood that she is a moralist and all her writings should be viewed through this lens solely. 16.5    Glossary •  Fidelity-     faithfulness to a person, cause or belief •  Foster -     (i) encourage the development something (ii)    bring up a child that is not one’s own by birth •  Vivid -      producing powerful feelings or strong, clear images in the mind •  Voracious-   involved in an activity with great enthusiasm 16.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-Check Exercise-I Q 1 George Eliot was a voracious reader and studied Shakespeare, Milton, Shelley and numerous other contemporary writers and varied works of literature and journals. This shaped her personality and influenced her writings. Q 2 George Eliot believes that literature should help us to sympathize with fellow beings. Hence, the writer should be able to evoke understanding of life and compassion in the readers. Q 3 George Eliot’s novels are marked with Psychological realism. 16.7    References/Suggested Readings •    Allen, Walter. George Eliot. Thames and Hudson, 1959. •    Roberts, Neil. George Eliot: Her Belief and Her Art. Vision Press, 1975. •    Putzell, Sara M. “An Antagonism of Valid Claims”: The Dynamics of The Mill on the Floss.” Studies in the Novel 7.2 (1975): 227. Academic Search Premier. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. •    Wasserman, Reanata R. Mautner. “Narrative Logic and the Form of Tradition in The Mill on the Floss.” Studies in the Novel 14.3 (1982): 266. Academic Search Premier. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. •    Aristotle. "Poetics." The Internet Classics Archive. 20120322. . •    Kathryn Hughes. "Rereading: George Eliot's Mill on the Floss." The Guardian. 20100326.                                                20120427. . 16.8    Terminal Questions Q 1 Explain George Eliot’s own theory of novel. Q 2 As a Victorian novelist, why do you think, George Eliot had to adopt a male name? Discuss. Q 3 George Eliot’s works exhibit her melancholic temperament. Do you agree? Support your answers with reason. Unit-17 The Mill on the Floss: Major Themes Structure 17.1    Introduction 17.2    Learning Objectives 17.3    The Mill on the Floss: An Introduction to the Novel 17.4  Summary 17.5  Glossary 17.6  Answers to Self-Check Exercise 17.7  References/Suggested Readings 17.8  Terminal Questions 17.1   Introduction George Eliot was presented to you in the previous section. Her writings have impacted numerous readers. This lesson is designed to briefly summarize the narrative of the prescribed text The Mill on the Floss. Students are urged to read the original novel. The way George Eliot depicts herself in her novel is also examined in this lesson. The lesson also seeks to familiarize you with the imagery she employs as well as her examination of different characters. 17.2    Learning Objectives Dear Students, by the conclusion of the lesson, you will have the ability to summarize the story and discuss the key events in the novel. Additionally, you will be capable of responding to the questions related to the novel. 17.3    The Mill on the Floss: An Introduction to the Novel A.    Summary of the Novel Like Adam Bede, The Mill on The Floss provides a truthful depiction of English rural life. Tom and Maggie, the central figures in the narrative, are the offspring of the sincere yet stubborn Mr. Tulliver, the miller of Darlcote Mill located by the river Floss. Tom is a mundane young man, limited in thought and intellect, motivated by a clear sense of duty and a tendency to exert authority over others. Maggie represents a much more elevated kind, highly sensitive and intelligent, possessing deep feelings and a taste for artistry and poetry. From the clash of personalities and the mismatch between Maggie’s character and her environment arises a great deal of distress for her and eventual tragedy. Maggie's affection for her brother is hindered by this absence of understanding, leading to an emotional deprivation in her life. She discovers in Philip Waken, the deformed boy of a nearby lawyer, a temperament similar to her own. They feel drawn to one another, yet face obstacles. Ultimately, Tom and Maggie meet their fate in the flood of the river Floss. As Brunetiere notes, it is this melodramatic device that detracts from the conclusion. Nevertheless, the novel is deeply affecting. The narrative showcases the depth of George Eliot’s extensive human insight. Her digressions and analyses emerge from the exploration of character and context, enriching her perspective; these reflect the observations of a balanced intellect and a profoundly tolerant examination of human behavior, along with an expansive understanding of both external and internal realities. Her “luminous wisdom” remains unparalleled. B.    As An Autobiographical Novel The Mill on the Floss is often described as an autobiographical novel, though it would be more accurate to call it a novel with autobiographical elements. When Marian Evans (later known as George Eliot) was just four months old, her family moved to a house where she would spend the next twenty years. The surroundings of this home left a lasting impression on her, shaping her deeply. The Warwickshire fields, a nearby pond, and a canal were undoubtedly in her mind when writing the first volume of the novel. However, these were merely inspirations—suggestions that her imagination transformed within the framework of her story. The same applies to the characters in the novel; while there are a few factual similarities between Marian’s childhood and that of Maggie Tulliver, fiction, even when it draws on real-life experiences, is not history. A fictional character, if it is to be truly alive, must be created rather than simply remembered. Like Maggie, Marian was the youngest child in her family and deeply attached to her parents. She was also very fond of her older brother, Isaac, who was three years her senior, and the two were inseparable. As a child, Marian followed Isaac everywhere, much like Maggie follows her brother, Tom, in the novel. The resemblance between Tom and Isaac is particularly striking—both were strong-willed, sometimes affectionate, but also prone to handing out discipline. Similarly, Maggie and Marian shared an emotional and affectionate nature, constantly seeking love and validation. In its spiritual and psychological essence, if not in every event and character, the story of Tom and Maggie reflects the real-life relationship between Marian and Isaac. Isaac, like Tom, was rigid in his beliefs and unforgiving. When Marian defied social conventions by living with George Henry Lewes without marriage, Isaac was deeply offended and cut ties with her completely, just as Tom disowned Maggie for her perceived transgressions. However, while The Mill on the Floss presents a dramatic reconciliation between Tom and Maggie before their tragic deaths, Marian and Isaac’s real-life relationship did not mend so easily. Isaac only reconnected with Marian when she was sixty and, after Lewes’ death, officially married John Walter Cross, a man much younger than her. Despite this divergence, literary critic Baker suggests that Maggie Tulliver embodies the spirit of George Eliot herself. This personal connection is what makes the novel feel like a spiritual autobiography. Both Marian and Maggie share a strong desire for love and a yearning to break free from the limitations imposed by their environments. The novel’s portrayal of childhood has been widely praised. Dallas remarked that no other writer had captured childhood in such realistic detail. Marcel Proust was deeply moved by the novel, admitting that just two pages of The Mill on the Floss could bring him to tears. Henry James also admired its depiction of childhood, calling it one of the most truthful and touching in literature. While the novel benefits from the depth of its autobiographical influence, it also reflects the limitations of this approach. The early chapters are vivid because they are drawn from real-life memories, but the second half of the novel is more detached from autobiography. One notable critique is that Stephen Guest, the man Maggie falls for, is unworthy of her. He is portrayed as vain, self-absorbed, and shallow, making it difficult to believe that Maggie would be drawn to him. However, Maggie has spent much of her life deprived of affection, working as a schoolteacher. When Stephen, an attractive and charming man, expresses interest in her, she finds it difficult to resist his advances. Critic Gerald Bullett argues that beyond its autobiographical themes, The Mill on the Floss is marked by George Eliot’s deep moral vision and commitment to truth. Eliot was a moralist at heart, though her morality was not about excusing faults but distinguishing between a person and their actions. She believed in the Christian ideal of loving the sinner while condemning the sin. This aspect of her character is evident in her ability to forgive others, even those who rejected her. After beginning her life with Lewes, she wrote to her friend Caroline Bray, explaining that she neither desired nor could live by “light and easily broken ties.” Though she believed she had done the right thing in choosing Lewes, she did not hold resentment toward her brother Isaac, despite his harsh treatment of her. This ability to separate personal pain from moral judgment is reflected in her portrayal of Tom and Maggie’s relationship—while Tom resembles Isaac in many ways, Eliot presents him with compassion rather than bitterness. Despite its autobiographical influences, The Mill on the Floss is more than a personal narrative; it is also a keenly observed depiction of English family life. Eliot portrays this world with both humor and sharp insight. Mrs. Tulliver, for instance, represents the dominant influence of the Dodson family—an imposing presence that her husband often resents but cannot always defy. Aunt Glegg embodies the unyielding Dodson values, commanding respect from her relatives and standing firm in her sense of moral superiority. She may criticize Maggie harshly, but when Maggie faces disgrace, it is Aunt Glegg who ultimately offers her shelter. The Dodsons, as portrayed by Eliot, epitomize the English middle class. Their core beliefs are deeply rooted in tradition: respect for elders, loyalty to family, hard work, honesty, thrift, and a firm sense of propriety. They are unwavering in their customs, ensuring that household items are well-maintained, that financial resources are preserved, and that they produce only the best goods for the market. Above all, they believe in the saying that “blood is thicker than water.” In the end, The Mill on the Floss stands as a testament to George Eliot’s literary genius. It seamlessly blends personal experience with broader social and moral themes, making it one of the most profound and emotionally resonant novels of its time. C.    Imagery Imagery enhances any artistic creation. Even in The Mill on The Floss, George Eliot employs imagery to embellish and intensify her work. The river in this narrative exists as a tangible element and significantly influences the lives and fates of all the characters. It is the cause of Mr. Tulliver's downfall. It serves as a source of income for Bob Jakin. A vast array of images associated with the river can be identified. Maggie's fate, then, remains concealed and we must anticipate its emergence like the path of an undiscovered river. We only acknowledge that the river is full and swift; and that all rivers inevitably lead to the same final destination. (VI. 6). This type of imagery is supported by frequent phrases like 'flood of emotion', 'current of feeling', and 'stream of vanity'. These minor images accumulate a form of emotional energy in the language that only manifests at a pivotal moment through the fully realized image. In Book III, Chapter 2, the Tulliver family faces devastation; the bailiffs have entered their home and their possessions are set to be sold. Mrs. Tulliver is particularly troubled about her household linens: "To think of these clothes as I spun myself," she continued, picking items up and examining them with an excitement that was even more peculiar and heartwrenching because the robust blonde woman was typically so subdued; if she had been disturbed earlier, it was only on the surface: "and Job Haxey wove them and carried the piece back on his back, as I recall standing at the door and watching him approach, long before I ever considered marrying your father. And they’re all to be sold - and go into unfamiliar people's homes and perhaps be damaged with knives and wear out before I’m dead. You’ll never have one of them, my boy. "Mrs. Tulliver's words indicate an imperfect yet genuine understanding of what ruin signifies. On a shallow level, her speech reveals the complexity of relationships within the Tulliver family, but symbolically it conveys the profound significance of a materialistic mindset that permeates the society depicted in the novel. The entire scenario serves as a representation of what devastation in such a society entails: amid the bailiffs in the home and the linens to be sold to strangers, there is the disintegration of normalcy and a traditional way of life that has once held the household together.The imagery in The Mill on the Floss, it seems, primarily revolves around the river; the remainder of George Eliot's images appears arbitrary and ineffective, stemming more from the author's perspective on her novel than from any life inherent in the narrative. D.    Art of Characterization George Eliot's mastery in characterization is evident in her nuanced portrayal of complex, evolving individuals. In "The Mill on the Floss," she delves deeply into her characters' inner lives, focusing on their psychological landscapes rather than external traits. This emphasis on internal motivations and moral dilemmas classifies her as a psychological novelist. Unlike Thomas Hardy's characters, who often appear ensnared by fate, Eliot's protagonists exercise free will and bear responsibility for their actions. She crafts scenarios that test her characters' moral fiber, revealing their inherent flaws and capacities for growth. E.M. Forster's distinction between "flat" and "round" characters aligns with Eliot's approach; her characters are dynamic, maturing through their experiences. In "The Mill on the Floss," the Tulliver family exemplifies Eliot's skill in depicting intricate familial relationships. Maggie Tulliver, mirroring aspects of Eliot herself, is portrayed with depth, highlighting her emotional intensity and yearning for affection. Her brother, Tom Tulliver, contrasts with Maggie through his rigid sense of duty and unforgiving nature. Despite his sternness, Eliot presents Tom without malice, offering a balanced view of his character. Eliot's minor characters, such as Bob Jakin, are vividly sketched, each possessing distinct individuality. Bob, a peddler, stands out for his generosity and practical wisdom, providing a counterpoint to the more affluent yet less compassionate Dodson family members. His acts of kindness towards Maggie underscore themes of empathy and social disparity. Stephen Guest, another pivotal character, is depicted as charming yet morally ambiguous. His interactions with Maggie lead to ethical conflicts, testing her resolve and highlighting societal expectations. Philip Wakem, in contrast, elicits sympathy through his physical deformity and intellectual connection with Maggie, adding layers to the narrative's exploration of love and acceptance. Through her impartial and compassionate portrayal of human nature, George Eliot invites readers to engage deeply with her characters' inner struggles, fostering a profound understanding of the human condition. Self-check Exercise-I Q1 Name important characters of the novel The Mill On the Floss. Q2 Who represents the Dodson family? Q3 What kind of imagery is found in the novel? Q4 What, according to George Eliot, brings about the fall of an individual? 17.4    Summary The novel was introduced to you succinctly, dear students, in this lesson. As noted in the previous lesson, George Eliot was a moralist, which was demonstrated in the autobiographical novel section. Additionally, you should have grasped how imagery permeates this text and how various characters contribute to the novel's plot. 17.5    Glossary •    Exaggerate -      represent (something) as being larger, better, or worse than it really is. Overstate, overemphasize •    Reckless - rash, careless •    Religiosity - strong religious feeling or belief •  Shrewd  - having or showing sharp powers of judgement •  Thrift - the quality of using money and other resources carefully and not wastefully 17.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-Check Exercise-I Ans 1. Tom, Maggie, Mr. Tulliver, Philip Waken Ans 2. Mrs. Tulliver Ans 3. The imagery revolves around the river. Ans 4. She understands that it is not a hostile destiny but the failure of the individual to be true to the bestthat is within him that brings his fall. 17.7    References/Suggested Readings •    Twentieth Century Views Series George Eliot: A collection of critical essays Ed. George R. Creeger. •  George Eliot: Walter Allen. •  George Eliot: Simon Dentith. •    Putzell, Sara M. “An Antagonism of Valid Claims”: The Dynamics of The Mill on the Floss.” Studies in the Novel 7.2 (1975): 227. Academic Search Premier. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. •    Wasserman, Reanata R. Mautner. “Narrative Logic and the Form of Tradition in The Mill on the Floss.” Studies in the Novel 14.3 (1982): 266. Academic Search Premier. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. •    Aristotle. "Poetics." The Internet Classics Archive. 20120322. . •    Kathryn Hughes. "Rereading: George Eliot's Mill on the Floss." The Guardian. 20100326.                                                20120427. . 17.8    Terminal Questions Q 1 Do you think The Mill on The Floss has overtones of George Eliot’s personal life? Q 2 Eliot presents characters coming out of life as she found it. Illustrate from the text. Q 3 Eliot’s work is full of imagery. Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer. Q 4 Elaborate the Eliot’s art of characterization as discussed in the present Unit. Unit-18 Major Critical Concerns in The Mill on the Floss Structure 18.1    Introduction 18.2    Learning Objectives 18.3    Major Critical Concerns Self-check Exercise-I 18.4    Summary 18.5    Glossary 18.6  Answers to Self-Check Exercise 18.7  References/Suggested Readings 18.8    Terminal Questions 18.1    Introduction In works of storytelling, conflict represents the challenge that primary characters must address to accomplish their objectives. Traditionally, conflict serves as a significant literary component of narrative or dramatic structure that introduces obstacles in a story by instilling doubt about whether the goal will be attained. A narrative is not confined to a singular conflict. Although conflicts may not always find resolution in a narrative, the resolution of a conflict provides closure or satisfaction, which may or may not take place at the conclusion of a story. A conflict in a book entails a situation or interaction among characters that leads to challenge and opposition. These differences rely on specific narrative contexts; however, there are instances in which you should identify a total of seven distinct categories of narrative conflict - Man vs. Self, Man vs. Man, Man vs. Society, Man vs. Nature, Man vs. Machine, Man vs. Fate/Supernatural. Social structure refers to the enduring arrangement of institutions through which individuals in a society engage and coexist. Social structure is frequently examined alongside the idea of social change, which concerns the dynamics that alter the social structure and the organization of society. 18.2    Learning Objectives Dear students, there are additional important aspects that will help you understand the novel more effectively. This lesson addresses the conflict, theme, and plot of the novel. The aim is to evaluate George Eliot as a novelist. 18.3    Major Critical Concerns A.    Narrative Technique The Mill on The Floss presents a third-person omniscient narrator, who occasionally shifts to the first-person singular pronoun I. The narrator consistently provides commentary on the unfolding events of the story, often adopting an ironic tone. The narrator's use of verbal irony throughout the novel ranges from playful and humorous to sharply biting and bitter. Eliot assigns a male persona to the narrator, although many critics highlight the closeness of the author to her protagonist, Maggie Tulliver. Consequently, the narrator occasionally appears overly sympathetic toward Maggie to the extent that he fails to perceive her clearly. The narrator engages the reader by sometimes referring to himself and the reader collectively using the first-person plural pronoun we.. B.    Narrator The unnamed narrator recounts the story both as a person recalling Dorlcote Mill during Maggie's lifetime and as an all-knowing narrator who possesses greater insight into the characters' thoughts and motivations than any individual could. This latter approach is the prevailing style, with the use of the first person being infrequent. The narrator exhibits a sense of humor that is quite satirical. The narrator reflects on the Tullivers' lives thirty years after the deaths of Tom and Maggie. C.    Conflict in the Novel Brother Sister Conflict serves as the foundation of The Mill on the Floss. The lives of Maggie and Tom Tulliver illustrate their moral development, demonstrating how their abilities and surroundings compel them to act in a certain way. Tom, resembling the Dodson family, is practical and inflexible, fitting seamlessly into his environment, despite Stellng's attempts to mis-educate him. He experiences minimal internal conflict, as he is so emotionally tied to the Dodson realm that he cannot imagine any alternative. On the other hand, Maggie, caring and imaginative, has her moral character anchored in the connections created by her father during her childhood. Her attempts to control her egotistical urges, culminating in the rejection of Stephen Guest, illustrate a model of moral evolution. The conflict within the story represents tragedy. It is the tragedy of Maggie’s anguish and the sluggish pace of social and moral advancement, where the instigators may also become its victims; it is also the tragedy of the society where the practical and the affected—the just and the imaginative—can only reconcile when the usual conditions of the Dodson environment are momentarily disrupted by the flood. Through this conflict, George Eliot delves into the depths of human motives and errors, as well as the relentless flow of cause and effect in human actions. The heart of the tragic irony lies in the dichotomy between what an individual's will aims to accomplish and what it ultimately achieves, highlighting the discord and clash between desire and realization. Maggie, embodying the tragic heroine, experiences a continual struggle in a threefold conflict: the battle within her own divided self, between impulse and reason, and later between passion and obligation; the friction between her temperament and Tom's; and the clash with her surroundings and external circumstances that lie beyond her control. All of these factors converge to result in the tragic conclusion. The behavior is formed in early life. Maggie is by no means mistreated at home. She is blessed with a loving father and a compassionate, albeit uncomprehending, mother. She experiences distress due to her dreamy and forgetful nature, her impulsiveness, her oversensitivity, her intellectual maturity, and the fact that her brother, whom she commands, lacks these traits. Tom’s rabbits passed away because she neglected to feed them. Tom retaliates by refusing to take her fishing, leading Maggie to rush to the attic in tears, where she keeps her treasured possession and old wooden doll, which she punishes for her unfortunate circumstances by hammering nails into its head, followed by comforting and pampering it when her mood shifts. As childhood disputes eventually conclude in reconciliation, Maggie and Tom are soon friends once more. However, their personalities are already formed. Maggie is fervent and affectionate but perpetually makes the wrong choices; Tom is ordinary, self-righteous, and not inclined towards any extremes. Maggie never pauses to consider the consequences of her behaviors prior to taking action. Provoked to madness by her aunt’s comments about her unruly black hair, she rushes upstairs and chops it off; ridiculed for her brown complexion and intensely envious of her tidy little blonde cousin, she forces Lucy into the mud; the uproar from that incident prompts her to run away to the gypsies. Furthermore, she feels excruciatingly lonely as no one in her vicinity shows any interest in her passion for reading. She holds affection for the disabled Philip Wakem, but the roots of tragic irony are embedded in that relationship. Destiny orchestrates events in such a way that his father becomes the lawyer to whom Mr. Tulliver attributes his degradation and vows revenge. Left to her own devices after her father's financial collapse, since Tom has gone to work for his uncle Deane, she sadly discovers a fleeting tranquility in reading The Imitation of Christ by the fourteenth-century mystic St. Thomas a Kempis, a gift from Bob Jakin. She commits herself to self-denial and the repression of self-love. However, that unnatural tranquility is shattered when Philip Wakem encounters her again and gradually undermines her moral hesitations by arguing for the importance of self-improvement rather than self-denial. He tells Maggie, “It is sheer cowardice to search for safety in negation - you will eventually be thrust into the world, and then every rational desire of your nature that you currently reject will attack you like a wild craving. ” Maggie and Philip share innocent secret encounters. Philip has feelings for her, but Maggie remains unaware. It is only her compassion for him that leads her to vow to marry him if circumstances allow. When Tom becomes suspicious, he finds Maggie heading to their meeting, and she is forced to promise never to see Philip again. However, when Tom mocks Philip for his physical deformity, Maggie confronts Tom more fiercely than she ever has before. “You have been blaming other people your entire life. If you were at fault...... I would feel sorry for the pain it caused you.... But you have always found pleasure in punishing one.... You show no compassion. . . You are nothing more than a Pharisee who thanks God only for your own merits. ” These words originate from Maggie, who consistently played a subordinate role to Tom during her childhood. It is evident she has matured and undergone a transformation. Up to this moment, The Mill of the Floss is nearly flawless. Action, setting, and character have merged to create a rich texture, rendering the progression of events inevitable. However, objections have been voiced concerning the melodramatic conclusion, particularly on the grounds that Stephen Guest is not the type of man Maggie could have genuinely fallen in love with and that it diminishes her to do so. George Eliot admitted that she did not plan her material effectively and that the tragic ending was not as she had envisioned it. Nonetheless, she strongly refutes the idea that her psychological insight was misguided in portraying Maggie's love for Stephens: “If I am wrong there. . . if I really did not know what my heroine would do under the circumstances in which I deliberately placed her, I ought not to have written the book at all. ” She further states that Maggie is a character “essentially noble but liable to great error” and that she must depict her accurately. George Eliot is quite justified in her assertion regarding the possibility of Maggie being overwhelmed by an attraction to a man who was practically engaged to her dearly beloved cousin Lucy, but to Philip. However, when George Eliot had Philip tell Maggie that suppressing her natural inclinations would later impact her like “savage appetite,” she prepared us to anticipate that Maggie’s subsequent conflict would involve both physical and moral dimensions. Maggie’s attraction to Stephen is rendered psychologically credible. There is a certain irony in the fact that the river trip had been arranged with Philip. But since Philip is unwell, Stephen takes his place. The lovers are swept along by the current and “The dreamy gliding of the boat” until, when Maggie becomes aware of their situation, it is too late. Although Maggie decides that she cannot proceed with marriage to Stephen and is truly innocent of any sexual wrongdoing, Tom refuses to accept it: “You shall not come under my roof. It is enough that I have to bear the thought of your disgrace: the sight of you is hateful to me. ” George Eliot recognized all the harshness of strict societal judgment. In the final book of The Mill on the Floss, she explores this topic extensively regarding Maggie’s shame in the perspective of St. Ogg’s and encapsulates her own opinion on stringent intolerance and universal norms “applied without the effort of exercising patience, discernment, and fairness. ” It is possible she was aware of the wrongs inflicted upon her by her brother Isaac, and her retribution was to highlight Maggie’s ultimate victory, which is the acknowledgment by Tom of her greater nobility of character. As they are carried away by the river Floss to their deaths together, the magnificence of her sacrifice enlightens his limited understanding. He is “pale with a certain awe and humiliation” and appropriately passes away in that state of mind. A.    Social Structure George Eliot understands the entire interconnected social fabric of the area as its method of existence. We receive a final view of these individuals within their residence. Mrs. Tulliver is depicted crying in her storeroom, surrounded by the household valuables that must be sold; her linens, her silver teapot. We observe Mr. Glegg at breakfast without his fuzzy front of false curls. Mrs. Pullet is portrayed unlocking the first door, then a shutter, and then a wardrobe, to showcase her sister the splendors of a new bonnet. George Eliot is aware of all the social dynamics and pressures functioning among the different hierarchies: the Miss Guests recoiling at the prospect of any matrimonial link with such individuals as the Gleggs and the Pullets; the disdainful pity of the Gleggs and the Pullets for the inept, striving Mosses; the pretentiousness of the dubious lawyer Wakem “who always knew the stepping stones would carry him through very muddy bits of practice” but considers it beneath his son to marry Maggie. She comprehends all the various language styles, their principles, and their customs. More specifically, she both analyzes and dramatizes the personalities of the rural Tullivers and urban Dodsons, contrasting the picturesque backdrop of the mill and the historical legacy of the town of St. Oggs with the nature of their current residents. George Eliot illustrates scene after scene where all these individuals expose themselves in tangible dramatic ways. The childhood episodes of family life, the aunts and uncles convened to discuss Tom’s education, and most notably the tragicomedy when Mr. Tulliver has lost his case regarding the water rights and is declared bankrupt. When George Eliot has completely established the social context through description and narrative action, she declares: It is a sordid existence, you assert, this life of the Tullivers and Dodsons, lacking any sublime attributes, no romantic dreams, no proactive selfdenial. I share this feeling of oppressive confines with you, but it is essential for us to experience it if we wish to comprehend how it influenced the lives of Tom and Maggie. In The Mill of the Floss, society operates as a negative entity, where the customs and principles of the Dodsons and Tullivers, the provincial middle class, act as a significant impediment to the growth and development of Maggie and Tom. Her own development and moral identity are shaped by associations that gather around her past - “If the past is not to bind us, where can duty lie? ” she inquires as she dismisses Stephen. There exists a parody of religious practice in the narrative. Aunt Pullet’s and Mrs. Tulliver’s perception of the sacred has become linked with the merely trivial and fashionable. Their level of religious understanding is primitive. Throughout the story, the housekeeping practices of the Dodson sisters become the subject of mockery, and their linens and crockery also turn into objects of fetishistic veneration. In the novel, she initiates ideas and representations. Additionally, there is a counteracting failed attempt to redeem the Dodson sisters. For instance, a sense of honor and integrity . . . was a proud heritage in such families - a legacy that has constituted the essence of our provincial society? Aunt Glegg is redeemed when her familial loyalty compels her to support Maggie in her disgrace. Yet, the Dodsons, along with St. Ogg’s, continue to resist Maggie’s genuine nobility. After her return to St. Ogg’s from the unfulfilled relationship with Stephen, Maggie faces ostracism from the town and rejection from Tom. This town's and Tom's rejection symbolizes the lack of a pathway toward something beautiful, great, or noble. Ultimately, in the fantastical realm of the flood, the constraints lift from Tom’s eyes, and he too recognizes the truth. B.    Theme of Determination All the primary themes of The Mill on The Floss are connected to determinism. The novel unfolds as Tom and Maggie mature. Their roles and personalities are shaped by society and family, evolving in response to the influences of inheritance, and “charts their fates sequentially from love, to separation, to Unity in death. ” The straightforward narrative progression is gradual and emphasizes the unavoidable reliance of every action and thought on the actions and thoughts that came before them. Aside from the defining theme of “the adjustment, or our individual needs to the dire necessities of our lot,” Maggie’s narrative is also one of anguish. Maggie’s tragedy represents that of the independent spirit ensnared in a materialistic world. It is a realm completely governed by the notion of ownership, by self-interest, and by familial pride. George Eliot’s portrayals of the Dodson women illustrate how family itself is regarded as a means for the preservation and transfer of wealth. The pursuit of Unity—social, familial, and personal—is incredibly strong. Socially, the pursuit is for Unity between societal expectations and personal feelings. Maggie’s relationship with public opinion differs because the society in which she exists is in an early developmental phase. The Mill on The Floss highlights the influence of public opinion and the necessity to elevate it to a more advanced level of social framework. All facets of the theme of Unity are encapsulated in three of Maggie’s pivotal moments of choice: her discussion with Philip Waken in the Red Deeps, her revelry with Stephen Guest, and her refusal to remain with Stephen after they reach Mudport. The first two illustrate that Maggie has not attained the personal Unity that is vital to moral health. Nor has Maggie accomplished this by the moment she encounters Stephen Guest. Maggie's actions concerning Stephen are influenced by a history in which self-centeredness and personal obstinacy prevent her from achieving moral integrity. In truth, Maggie’s desperate desire to be admired and loved is one of the key factors contributing to her downfall. Due to Maggie yielding during the second moment of her choice with Stephen, she finds herself in a predicament. Her resolution cannot be passive at this point: it relies on her comprehension of the specific situation and cannot be dictated by societal norms. She is unable to even decide based on the potential outcomes of her actions since the harm has already occurred and suffering would result from either option. Therefore, in making the third choice, Maggie reaches the highest degree of awareness that a St. Ogg’s resident can attain. She acknowledges both the irreversibility of her action and the truth that it “must blot her life” and inflicts sorrow on lives that were “knit up with hers by trust and love. ” Acknowledging this loss and its perils, Maggie strives to return to the past and inherited customs. If the past is not to constrict us, she tells Stephen, “where can duty lie: We have no law but the inclination of the moment. ” Through the past, she seeks to overcome the fragmentation of the self that has made her susceptible to the incomprehensible forces of the past. Self-Check Exercise-I Q 1 How does the novel end? Q 2 How does the society function in the novel? Q 3 Name three major themes of the novel 18.4    Summary Dear students, you have compiled sufficient information to comprehend this novel. The primary issue of this text is the conflict between siblings. Additionally, you have grasped the societal norms of that era, which were traditional in character. I trust you can now address any question regarding this work. 18.5    Glossary •    Instigate-bring about or initiate (an action or event) •    Precocious-having developed certain abilities or inclinations at an earlier age than is usual or expected •    Provincial-concerning a province of a country or empire •    Vulnerable-exposed to the possibility of being attacked or harmed, either physically or emotionally 18.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-Check Exercise-I D.    Novel ends with Maggie and Tom being swept by the river Floss to death together. E.    In The Mill of the Floss society functions as a negative organism, where the habits and values of the Dodsons and Tullivers, the provincial middle class, operate as a powerful check on the development and growth of Maggie and Tom. F.    These are a.    The adjustment with the society b.    Tale of human suffering c.    Quest for Unity- social, familial and personal 18.7    References/Suggested Readings •    Twentieth Century Views Series George Eliot: A collection of critical essays Ed. George R. Creeger. •  George Eliot: Walter Allen. •  George Eliot: Simon Dentith. •    George Eliot: Her Beliefs and Her Art - Neil Roberts •    The Art of George Eliot: W.H. Harvey. •    Putzell, Sara M. “An Antagonism of Valid Claims”: The Dynamics of The Mill on the Floss.” Studies in the Novel 7.2 (1975): 227. Academic Search Premier. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. •    Wasserman, Reanata R. Mautner. “Narrative Logic and the Form of Tradition in The Mill on the Floss.” Studies in the Novel 14.3 (1982): 266. Academic Search Premier. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. •    Aristotle. "Poetics." The Internet Classics Archive. 20120322. . •    Kathryn Hughes. "Rereading: George Eliot's Mill on the Floss." The Guardian. 20100326.                                                20120427. . 18.8    Terminal Questions Q 1 The brother-sister conflict is the core of the novel. Discuss. Q 2 Discuss various themes in the text. Q 3 The plot of The Mill on The Floss is not properly structured. Do you agree? Support your answer with reasons. Q 4 How does George Eliot use the symbols of the river, "The Pilgrim's Progress," the Red Deeps, Maggie's hair, and the legend of St. Ogg to enhance the themes in "The Mill on the Floss"? Unit-19 Major and Minor Characters in The Mill on the Floss Structure 19.1   Introduction 19.2    Learning Objectives 19.3   Characters: Major and Minor Self-check Exercise-I 19.4  Summary 19.5  Glossary 19.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise 19.7    References/Suggested Readings 19.8    Terminal Questions 19.1    Introduction The Mill on the Floss," written by George Eliot (the pen name of Mary Ann Evans), is a rich and complex novel that explores the dynamics of family relationships, personal aspirations, societal expectations, and the struggles of individual characters. Set in the early 19th century, the novel revolves around the Tulliver family and the impact of their fortunes and misfortunes on the lives of the central characters. Key characters in the novel include Maggie Tulliver, Tom Tulliver, Mr. Tulliver, Mrs. Tulliver, Philip Wakem, and Stephen Guest. Each character is intricately developed, reflecting Eliot's deep understanding of human nature and society. 19.2    Learning Objectives Dear students, in this Unit you will learn about the techniques George Eliot used to create the narration and character in the present novel. 19.3    Important Characters of the Novel: Major and Minor A. Major Characters Maggie Tulliver Maggie is the very intelligent, very conflicted protagonist of The Mill on the Floss. When the novel begins, she is young, clever, imaginative, adoring of her brother, and always getting into trouble. As she grows up, she regularly feels conflicted between acting how her extended family and commUnity would want her to, and following her own desires. The strong pull of both means she is often indecisive, and though she tries to find peace in renouncing all desire for education, music, love, literature in the end this only makes her feelings stronger. Even when she chooses based on her desire, though, as when she starts to elope with Stephen, she ultimately feels the pull of her family and commUnity too strongly, and can’t bear to follow through on gaining happiness at their expense. She is the protagonist of the novel and one of Eliot's most memorable creations. Intelligent, passionate, and sensitive, Maggie is a character who longs for love and understanding but is often thwarted by the rigid conventions of her time. From a young age, Maggie shows a deep thirst for knowledge and a strong emotional intensity, which sets her apart from the conventional expectations of women in her society. Her relationship with her brother Tom is central to her life; she idolizes him and seeks his approval, even when it conflicts with her own desires. Maggie's intellectual aspirations and emotional depth lead her into conflicts with her family and commUnity. Her friendship with Philip Wakem, the son of her father's enemy, and her subsequent romantic entanglement with Stephen Guest, illustrates her struggle between societal expectations and personal fulfillment. Maggie's tragic fate, culminating in her death during a flood while trying to save Tom, underscores the novel's themes of sacrifice, love, and the inexorable force of nature. Tom Tulliver Tom is Maggie’s older brother by four years. He is athletic, prideful, obsessed with justice, and usually rather unforgiving. He has very little booksmarts but he is practical, determined, and willing to sacrifice everything to regain his family’s honor. His success comes at the expense of real human companionship and his insistence on justice and distrust of Maggie drives a wedge between them until just moments before they both die. Tom is a character marked by his strong sense of duty, practicality, and loyalty to his family. Unlike Maggie, Tom is not intellectually inclined but is hardworking and determined. His loyalty to his family and especially to his father, Mr. Tulliver, drives many of his actions throughout the novel. After the family faces financial ruin due to Mr. Tulliver's failed lawsuit, Tom takes on the responsibility of restoring the family’s fortunes. Tom's character is defined by his adherence to social norms and his rigid sense of right and wrong. This rigidity often leads to conflicts with Maggie, especially regarding her relationships with Philip and Stephen. Despite his stern demeanor and sometimes harsh judgments, Tom's deep love for Maggie becomes evident in the novel's climax when he perishes with her in the flood. Their tragic end highlights the complexities of sibling bonds and the devastating impact of rigid moral codes. Mr. Tulliver Mr. Tulliver is Maggie and Tom’s father. At the beginning of the novel he is the proprietor of Dorlcote Mill, which has been in his family for generations. He is hottempered, stubborn, and litigious, although also intelligent, though uneducated, and very generous and loving towards Maggie and his sister, Mrs. Moss. He is proud of Maggie’s intelligence, although he isn’t sure what use it will be to a girl. He is also prideful, especially when he comes in conflict with his wife’s very opinionated sisters, and this along with his tendency to “go to the law” leads to him losing all of his assets, including his mill and farm. He believes that all of his troubles are caused by lawyers, particularly Mr. Wakem, and paying back all of his debts and punishing Mr. Wakem become his two obsessions after he loses everything until the moment he dies. Mr. Tulliver, the head of the Tulliver family, is a passionate and somewhat imprudent man whose pride and stubbornness lead to the family's downfall. His feud with Mr. Wakem, driven by personal grievances, culminates in a disastrous lawsuit that results in the loss of the family mill and his financial ruin. Mr. Tulliver's character embodies the themes of pride, vengeance, and the tragic consequences of stubbornness. Despite his flaws, Mr. Tulliver's love for his children, particularly Maggie, is evident. His deep regret over the family's misfortunes and his eventual physical decline illustrate the emotional and psychological toll of his decisions. Mr. Tulliver's character serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of letting pride and personal vendettas dictate one's actions. Mrs. Bessy Tulliver Mrs. Tulliver is Maggie and Tom’s mother. She is a blond, comely woman, who is very simple, and though she loves her children, she greatly favors Tom and wishes Maggie were blonder and simpler herself. She is very proud to be a Dodson and is particularly devastated by the loss of her household goods and furniture when Mr. Tulliver goes bankrupt. She shows herself to have more depth than originally expected towards the end of the novel, when she leaves Tom and the mill to live with Maggie in her shame. She, in contrast to her husband, is a practical and somewhat superficial woman who is primarily concerned with social status and material comfort. Her preoccupation with appearances and her frequent laments about the family's declining fortunes provide a contrast to Mr. Tulliver's passionate nature. Despite her seemingly trivial concerns, Mrs. Tulliver's resilience and dedication to her family in times of hardship reveal her underlying strength. Mrs. Tulliver's character adds a layer of domestic realism to the novel, highlighting the everyday struggles and concerns of a woman trying to maintain her family's dignity in the face of adversity. Her interactions with her children and her relatives provide insight into the social dynamics and expectations of the time. Philip Wakem Philip is the son of Mr. Wakem. Due to an accident in infancy, he is crippled and though he is very intelligent and talented, he feels bitterness over physical inferiority. He is a student with Tom at Mr. Stelling’s, and though he never comes to be good friends with Tom, he is immediately drawn to Maggie and ends up loving her for his whole life. Though he is clever, very well educated, and a talented artist, he believes that his breadth of interests and talents mean that he is not particularly talented at any one thing. He is a complex character whose intelligence, sensitivity, and physical disability set him apart from others in the novel. As the son of Mr. Tulliver's enemy, he occupies a conflicted position, particularly in his relationship with Maggie. Philip's deep love for Maggie and his intellectual companionship with her offer a glimpse of an alternative path for Maggie, one that values inner beauty and emotional connection over societal approval. Philip's character represents the themes of inner strength and the transformative power of love and friendship. Despite his father's enmity with the Tullivers, Philip remains compassionate and understanding, showing a depth of character that contrasts with the more rigid and judgmental figures in the novel. Stephen Guest Stephen is Mr. Guest of Guest & Co.’s only son. When he appears in the novel he is 25, handsome, rich, clever, and conceited. He plans to be a politician. He is very good friends with Philip and tacitly, although not explicitly, engaged to Lucy, who he thinks will be a charming wife. When he meets Maggie, however, he is overcome and quickly falls in love with her. He does not appear in the novel until after Mr. Tulliver’s death. He is another important figure in Maggie's life, representing the allure and danger of passion. As a charming and affluent young man, Stephen becomes infatuated with Maggie, leading to a scandalous and ultimately doomed relationship. His character embodies the themes of temptation and the conflict between personal desires and social propriety. Stephen's relationship with Maggie highlights the novel's exploration of the complexities of love and the consequences of actions driven by unchecked emotions. His ultimate decision to part ways with Maggie, despite their mutual attraction, underscores the novel's tragic elements and the societal constraints that dictate the characters' lives. Lucy Deane Lucy is Maggie’s cousin. In childhood, she is the epitome of everything Maggie is not pleasant, quiet, passive, dolllike and never troublesome. As an adult, she is pretty, kind, and generous, although she has never had any true difficulty to test her spirit except for her mother’s death and, eventually, Maggie and Stephen running away together. Mr. Wakem Mr. Wakem is the lawyer who represents Mr. Pivart in Mr. Tulliver’s case against him, who embodies all the worst aspects of the legal profession in Mr. Tulliver’s mind. In reality, he is shrewd, somewhat vindictive, and selfish, but he is a very good father to Philip. D.    Important Minor Character Mrs. Jane Glegg Mrs. Tulliver’s oldest sister, Mrs. Glegg is Tom and Maggie’s least favorite relative when they are children. Although she and her husband are welltodo, she takes a great deal of pride in frugality. Like all the Dodsons, and probably more so than anyone else, she believes firmly in pride of family. Though she is not very generous with the Tullivers when Mr. Tulliver loses everything, going so far to say that it is a judgment from God, she is later one of Maggie’s strongest defenders after her scandal with Stephen. Bob Jakin Bob is a childhood friend of Tom Tulliver’s from a poorer family, until Tom thinks Bob tried to cheat him and can’t forgive him for it. Later, after Mr. Tulliver loses everything, Bob comes to offer the Tullivers the award he earned for putting out a fire. Though they don’t accept, they greatly appreciate this offer, and he becomes a friend of the family again, eventually housing both Tom and Maggie at different times. He is a successful peddler and leads Tom to his first speculation opportUnity, which eventually allows him to repay all his father’s debts. He is kind and generous, and particularly taken with Maggie he names his daughter after her. Mr. Deane Mr. Deane, Mrs. Deane’s husband, is a successful businessman with Guest & Co. who is thought of very highly in St. Ogg’s. He gets Tom his first job, and ends up being a mentor towards him as he rises in the world of business. Like the other uncles, he made his fortune through hard work over a long period of time and was not educated. Mrs. Sophy Pullet Mrs. Pullet is Mrs. Tulliver’s favorite sister. She is very prone to crying and seems to be a hypochondriac, going frequently to the doctor and obsessed with everybody’s physical ailments. Mrs. Susan Deane Mrs. Deane is Mrs. Tulliver’s sister and Lucy’s mother. Mrs. Glegg resents her for being too showy with money, for Mr. Deane becomes more and more successful throughout the novel, and Mrs. Deane is not as subtle with her finery as Mrs. Glegg believes a Dodson should be. Mrs. Deane dies while Maggie is away teaching after Mr. Tulliver’s death. Rev. Walter Stelling Mr. Stelling is an Oxford graduate and a clergyman whose desire for the finer things means his expenditures outweigh his income, so he begins to take on students to supplement this. He is welleducated, selfconfident, and ambitious, though he doesn’t have the flexibility of approach that would make him a good teacher for Tom. He gives the impression of shrewdness to the uneducated Mr. Tulliver and his parishioners, but other clergymen believe him to be dull. Dr. Kenn Dr. Kenn is the clergyman of St. Ogg’s. Although he seems cold, he is wellrespected by those who realize he is deeply generous. He gives most of his income to charity and takes good care of his parishioners, including Maggie even after her scandal, which happens around the same time that his wife dies. E.    Other Minor Character Mr. Glegg Mr. Glegg is Mrs. Glegg’s husband. He is a retired wool dealer, and doesn’t take anything very seriously now that he is done working. He is an avid gardener in his retirement. He married Mrs. Glegg because he made his fortune by slowly saving money, and he thus liked her thriftiness and thought they would be compatible. Though he is cheap, it is in a kindhearted and evenhanded way he would go out of his way to save a few dollars for anyone, not just himself. Mrs. Gritty Moss Mrs. Moss is Mr. Tulliver’s sister. She married a man with no capital and had eight children, and so ends up being rather a burden on Mr. Tulliver. She is patient and loving, and Maggie’s only aunt who treats her kindly in her youth. Mr. Pullet Mr. Pullet is Mrs. Pullet’s husband, a gentleman farmer with “a great natural faculty for ignorance.” He is very unassuming. Mr. Moss Mr. Moss is Mr. Tulliver’s brotherinlaw. He is a poor farmer with a knack for losing money, and so is greatly indebted to Mr. Tulliver, who opposed his sister’s marriage to him. Luke Moggs Luke is the head miller at Dorlcote Mill. He is very kind to Maggie and Tom, and generous and loyal to the entire Tulliver family. Mr. Riley Mr. Riley is an auctioneer and appraiser, and a good friend of Mr. Tulliver. He is highly educated and goodnatured, and passionately recommends Mr. Stelling to Mr. Tulliver as a teacher for Tom, although he really doesn’t know much about him. When he dies fairly early in the novel, he leaves a lot of debt, which Mr. Tulliver inherits from him. Kezia Kezia is the Tulliver’s housemaid. She is loyal, goodhearted, and badtempered, and stays with the family even after they can’t afford to pay her. Mrs. Stelling Mrs. Stelling is Mr. Stelling’s young wife. She is haughty and expects Tom to help her take care of her daughter, so Tom dislikes her, even though he quite likes the baby. Mr. Poulter Mr. Poulter is the schoolmaster of King’s Lorton who is employed at Mr. Stelling’s to drill Tom on his bearing. He fought against Napoleon’s army, and has many stories one doubts their veracity about his prowess in doing so. Mrs. Prissy Jakin Prissy is Bob’s wife, a tiny woman who is very kind to Maggie. Lizzy Moss Lizzy is Maggie’s younger cousin who Mrs. Moss believes will be clever like Maggie. Mrs. Moggs Mrs. Moggs is Luke’s wife. Mr. Turnbull Mr. Turnbull is the Tullivers’ doctor. Self-Check Exercise-I Q1 Who are the main characters in "The Mill on the Floss"? Q2 What is the significance of the mill in the novel? Q3 How does Maggie's relationship with Tom evolve throughout the novel? Q4 How does Maggie's intellectual and emotional nature affect her life? Q5 What role does Philip Wakem play in Maggie's life? 19.4    Summary In The Mill on the Floss, George Eliot crafts a rich tapestry of characters, each contributing to the novel's exploration of themes such as familial duty, societal expectations, personal aspiration, and the tragic consequences of rigid moral codes. Maggie Tulliver's passionate and tumultuous life, Tom Tulliver's stern sense of duty, Mr. Tulliver's pride, Mrs. Tulliver's practicality, Philip Wakem's sensitivity, and Stephen Guest's charm all intertwine to create a narrative that is both deeply personal and broadly reflective of the human condition. Through these characters, Eliot offers a profound commentary on the struggles and complexities of life in a changing society. 19.5    Glossary •    Omniscient - Having complete or unlimited knowledge, awareness, or understanding. •    Satiric - Using humor, irony, or exaggeration to criticize or mock. •    Protagonist - The main character in a novel, play, movie, etc. •    Indecisive - Not able to make decisions quickly and effectively. •    Renouncing - Formally declaring one's abandonment of a claim, right, or possession. •    Elope - Run away secretly to get married. •    Prideful - Having a high opinion of oneself; arrogant. •    Unforgiving - Unwilling to forgive or show mercy. •    Proprietor - The owner of a business or a holder of property. •  Litigious - Prone to engage in lawsuits. •  Vindictive - Having or showing a strong desire for revenge. •    Crippled - Unable to walk or move properly; disabled. •    Tacitly - Understood or implied without being stated. •    Hypochondriac - A person who is abnormally anxious about their health. •    Peddler - A person who goes from place to place selling small goods. 19.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-Check Exercise-I Ans 1. The main characters are Maggie Tulliver, Tom Tulliver, Mr. Tulliver, Mrs. Tulliver, Philip Wakem, and Stephen Guest. Ans 2. The mill represents the Tulliver family's livelihood and heritage. It is central to their identity and symbolizes both their prosperity and their struggles. Ans 3. Maggie and Tom share a close but complicated sibling relationship. Maggie idolizes Tom, but their differing values and Tom's rigid sense of duty create tension. Despite conflicts, their bond remains strong, culminating in their tragic deaths together. Ans 4. Maggie's intellectual and emotional nature sets her apart from societal norms and leads to conflicts with her family and commUnity. Her desires for love and understanding result in tragic romantic entanglements and societal rejection. Ans 5. Philip Wakem is Maggie's close friend and intellectual companion. Despite his father's enmity with the Tullivers, Philip's love and understanding offer Maggie a potential path to happiness, although societal pressures prevent their relationship from flourishing. 19.7    References/Suggested Readings •    Allen, Walter. “The Mill on the Floss.” Modern Critical Views: George Eliot. Ed. Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1986. •    Eliot, George. The Mill on the Floss. Ed. Carol T. Christ. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1994. •    Federico, Anette R. “Being Torn: The Mill on the Floss.” LIT: Literature Interpretation Theory 12.4 (2001): 359. Academic Search Premier. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. •    Putzell, Sara M. “An Antagonism of Valid Claims”: The Dynamics of The Mill on the Floss.” Studies in the Novel 7.2 (1975): 227. Academic Search Premier. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. •    Wasserman, Reanata R. Mautner. “Narrative Logic and the Form of Tradition in The Mill on the Floss.” Studies in the Novel 14.3 (1982): 266. Academic Search Premier. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. •    Aristotle. "Poetics." The Internet Classics Archive. 20120322. . •    Kathryn Hughes. "Rereading: George Eliot's Mill on the Floss." The Guardian. 20100326.                                                20120427. 19.8    Terminal Questions Q 1 Detail analysis of key characters of the novel Mill on the Floss? Q 2 Give a critical analysis the technique of narration and characterization used in the novel. Unit-20 Major Themes and Symbols in The Mill on The Floss Structure 20.1    Introduction 20.2    Learning Objectives 20.3    Major Themes Self-Check Exercise-I 20.4  Symbols Self-Check Exercise-II 20.5  Summary 20.6  Glossary 20.7  Answers to Self-Check Exercise 20.8  References/Suggested Readings 20.9    Terminal Questions 20.1    Introduction In George Eliot's The Mill on the Floss, themes and symbols play a pivotal role in deepening the narrative and enriching the reader's understanding of the characters' inner lives and societal constraints. The novel delves into themes such as the conflict between individual desires and societal expectations, the struggles of gender roles, and the impact of family loyalty. Symbols such as the river Floss and the mill itself are intricately woven into the story, representing the constant flow of life and the burdens of familial duty and tradition. These elements not only enhance the plot but also offer profound insights into the human condition and the complexities of personal growth and relationships. 20.2    Learning Objectives Dear students In this chapter we will understand the major themes in The Mill on The Floss and how they reflect the societal and personal conflicts of the characters and explore how George Eliot uses themes and symbols to convey deeper messages about human nature, societal norms, and personal identity. 20.3    Major Themes in the Novel A.    Loss of Innocence Loss of innocence is a major theme in The Mill on the Floss. From the beginning of the novel, the narrator makes it clear that there is a strong demarcation between living in childhood, as Maggie and Tom are doing, and looking back on it, as she is doing. With sentences like, “Childhood has no forebodings; but then, it is soothed by no memories of outlived sorrow” (72), or “Very trivial, perhaps, this anguish seems to weatherworn mortals who have to think of Christmas bills, dead loves, and broken friendships” (56), the narrator repeatedly calls to attention the great distance between the perception of children and the perception of adults. When Mr. Tulliver loses all his assets and his senses, it becomes clear that the divide between child and adult is not necessarily slowly created over time, but that, for Maggie and Tom at least, it is created in a single episode of rending a loss of innocence. With powerful imagery, Eliot shows Maggie and Tom going “forth together into their new life of sorrow,” “the thorny wilderness,” as “the golden gates of their childhood had for ever closed behind them” and they will “never more see the sunshine undimmed by remembered cares” (159). The knowledge of their family’s great hardships to come is “a violent shock” that separates them permanently from their edenic in comparison, at least childhood. B.    Communal versus Individual Interests The theme of communal versus individual interests, which could also be called duty versus desire, is of central importance to The Mill on the Floss, and is essentially what drives the plot. Maggie, with her unusual looks, her intellectual prowess, her driving curiosity, and her passionate desires, does not naturally fit into the commUnity of St. Ogg’s at all. Her family continually fears what will become of her, she is often misunderstood and almost never taken seriously, and she is certainly never given the praise for her cleverness that she so desires. To fulfill her individual desires, then, is to break out of any role the commUnity is willing to offer her, and so to go against it. Though Maggie yearns for this at times, in the end she is far too bound to her past, her family, and the broader commUnity to be willing to relinquish it. Though it would seem that marrying Stephen offers her the best opportUnity for happiness, she chooses to leave him and, she believes, all future chances of happiness to return to St. Ogg’s. Once there, even the understanding Dr. Kenn, who appreciates her Christian values in staying close to her roots, tells her it would be best for her to go, but still, she stays. When she dies, it is in a boat on a current taking her towards home, so this becomes her final choice, and she has ultimately given her life to stay in the commUnity; she loses her individuality in the most profound sense. C.    Gender Disparity The gender disparity in the world of The Mill on The Floss is vital to understanding Maggie’s story. She is an intelligent and fascinating woman, but the world she is born into offers nothing for her to do with her talents; women are assumed to be more interested in gossip than reading, adherence to custom is valued more highly than intelligence or knowledge, and whether women are even capable of amassing a depth of knowledge is a subject of debate. In this world, Maggie’s many talents do nothing for her except make her feel all the more dissatisfied with what is available. This context is crucial to understanding why choice is so difficult for her, why she is pulled so strongly between duty and desire. Her desires would lead her to a masculine pursuit, which is not available to her in any meaningful way and would require a great sacrifice of duty. But duty offers little of interest to someone with her creativity and sharpness, and so is a much harder choice than it is for, for example, Lucy Deane, who can play the appropriate feminine role perfectly. Maggie’s struggles, then, which the author so directly associates with progress, are not just for the general progress of culture away from the previous generation’s comfort with “ignorance” (101), but progress towards greater freedom of possibility for women like Maggie women like George Eliot. D.    The Difficulty of Choice Throughout The Mill on the Floss, the individual is pitted against the commUnity, especially in reference to Maggie Tulliver. To make the decision to inhabit her individuality would be, in many ways, the more difficult path, as the book shows us that with the freedom of individuality comes the responsibility to make choices, and for Maggie, at least, such decisive action is never easy. If Maggie were to subjugate her will to the greater commUnity, choices become meaningless she just has to do what everyone does, follow tradition and custom, and so the only choices she would have to make are minor and insignificant because they are within these set bounds. If instead Maggie were to assert her individuality, as she tries to at various points, the choices she makes define who she is, how she will live, how her commUnity will see her, and in some cases, how those around her will live. Though Maggie is deeply intelligent and passionate and has clearly defined desires, she finds this nearly impossible. She tries to choose between Philip and Tom, fails, and in trying to have both, hurts them both. She tries to choose between Stephen and the commUnity, regrets her decision, but in regretting it after the fact, finds she has already alienated most of the commUnity. The difficulty Maggie finds in making choices, sticking to them, and facing the consequences, leads her to subjugate her will to the commUnity completely. E.    Renunciation and Sacrifice Renunciation and sacrifice are at the heart of the major actions of Maggie and Tom’s lives. After his father’s losses, Tom dedicates his life to repaying his father’s debts, and then to getting the mill back from Mr. Wakem. To this end he gives up all socializing so that he won’t be tempted to spend any of the money he makes, and he works so hard that when he gets home every night, he is too tired to even converse with his family. He thus essentially sacrifices human interaction to regain his family’s honor. Maggie also becomes fixated on renunciation, but whereas Tom sacrifices pleasure for a specific, concrete aim, Maggie’s renunciation is a spiritual attempt to find peace in a world ill suited to her. Maggie finds the weight of the “conflict between inward impulse and outward fact, which is the lot of every imaginative and passionate nature” (225) too much to bear, and so “renunciation seemed to her the entrance into that satisfaction which she had so long been craving in vain” (237). Because her sacrifice has no active realm in which to act, as opposed to Tom’s, she finds it much harder to adhere to. She lapses from it repeatedly, but in the end, returns to it in her plan to finally renounce a chance for love and happiness with Stephen. Though at that point, the damage has already been done and to marry him would likely not cause any more harm, she does not allow this for herself, because she believes renunciation is right for its own sake, regardless of what is being renounced or the potential consequences. F.    Nostalgia Tom and Maggie are cut off from their childhood by their loss of innocence caused by their father’s troubles, but that does not mean the ties created in their childhood are severed. The narrator repeatedly makes it clear that “old inferior things” always have a special meaning when you grow up with them, and almost all of her passages describing the mill and the surrounding area are riddled with nostalgic musings. The nostalgic frame for the past makes the loss of innocence all the more poignant, for the present can never be as good as the nostalgic past, since even the reality of the past was not as good as one remembers. Nostalgia is important not just in that it distinguishes the adult looking back on childhood from the child, but in that it provides a counterbalance to the human “striving after something better and better in our surroundings” (127). The “deep immovable roots” created by the past and made more strong by nostalgia allow for progress that is tempered and controlled, progress that looks to promote the commUnity where these nostalgic ties are located, and not just the individual. G.    Progress versus Tradition The tension between progress and tradition is central in The Mill on the Floss. In many ways, it is embodied in Maggie. The pull she feels between her individual desires and her communal duties is very much a pull between progress and tradition, as those communal duties are highly traditional, and her individual desires are far more suited to a more progressive world. There is a clear distinction between generations in the novel, and, especially because the narrator is looking back from a more progressive present to the traditional past, it is clear that the novel’s setting, “a time when ignorance was much more comfortable than at present,” is on the verge of transformation. But the novel, though it presents a world which is unfit for Maggie, still does not want uninhibited progress. The “striving after something better and better in our surroundings” is essential, “but heaven knows where that striving might lead” without the tempering influence of tradition. It is easy to imagine that Maggie might have been much happier had she followed through on her elopement with Stephen, ignoring what tradition asks of her, but had she, she would not have had her final reconciliation with Tom, nor given her mother and Mrs. Glegg the opportUnity to show how staunchly they would defend her in a time of trouble. Dr. Kenn believes the world is moving away from adhering to the obligations created by tradition with the rise of the individual over the communal, but Maggie is an example of someone with individual desires who still adheres to the duties her past has created. Though she is unable in the end to find the right balance, her struggle is emblematic of the greater societal pull between progress and tradition. Self-Check Exercise-I Q1 How does George Eliot portray the theme of fate and destiny in the novel? Q2 What message does the novel convey about gender inequality? 20.4    Symbols used in the Novel A.    The River The river is the central symbol and motif of the novel, and it variously represents life and the journey of life as well as Maggie's emotions. The river motif is echoed throughout the novel in the narrator's numerous references to metaphorical channels. People travel in their own channels, and they form habits that are like deep channels in their minds, forcing them to repeat certain actions and patterns, almost independent of their wills. The river is Eden (paradise) when two children, Maggie and Tom, play beside it and watch the eagre (tidal wave) make its way down the Floss in the spring; when they fish in the Round Pool created by the river, they are completely at ease and contented. The river makes life possible when millers harness its power to turn the wheel that grinds the grain or when the farmer uses its water to irrigate the fields. The river becomes the face of the Grim Reaper at the end of the novel, flooding the land around it and threatening lives—finally taking the lives of Maggie and Tom. At the end the river overflows, like Maggie's destructive emotions, which cannot be contained. She uses the river to get to her brother in an effort to save him, but in fact the river kills him. He probably would have survived if he had stayed in the attic and not come down to meet Maggie for the final reconciliation that she demanded. B.    The Pilgrim's Progress The Pilgrim's Progress by John Bunyan, a wellknown and beloved Christian classic, is "background music" for Pilgrim Maggie's journey through life. Maggie is both the pious Christians in the Bunyan story, Christian and Christiana, as well as the demon Apollyon. She attempts to follow a strict path of Christian renunciation, yet her unmet unconscious desires wreak havoc on the people around her. Maggie's dual nature is seen early on, when Mr. Riley counsels her to put aside a text by English writer Daniel Defoe (most wellknown for the adventure story Robinson Crusoe, 1719) and read a more appropriate book, and she grabs the Bunyan text. But the first thing she shows him is Christian battling the devil, who has been so nicely painted by her brother. Book 4 is called "The Valley of Humiliation," recalling the same valley that Christian and Christiana separately traverse. This is also where Christian meets the demon Apollyon and escapes from him. But in this section of the novel, Maggie is exposed to another exemplary text, The Imitation of Christ, and twists its message of renunciation into a pernicious gospel, which ends up hurting her as well as the people she loves. The pilgrimage for Maggie is as treacherous as those described in Bunyan's classic, and she succumbs to many pitfalls along the way. It is difficult to say how the author viewed the ending of The Mill on The Floss in the light of Bunyan's allegory, but for the reader the tragic ending closes off all possibility of Maggie's reaching any significant spiritual realization. In truth, she doesn't change from the beginning to the end of the novel. C.    The Red Deeps The Red Deeps, woods near Maggie's house, symbolize sexual passion. Maggie asks Philip in their first meeting if he likes how she looks, and she is gratified when he responds that she is more beautiful than he had expected. This is the beginning of a yearlong friendship charged with sexual passion on Philip's side, even as Maggie pretends to not understand how Philip feels until he tells her directly. Even if she is not sexually attracted to him, she enjoys his worship as well as his intellectual companionship. She wants to be loved wholly and unconditionally, and this is what Philip offers. When Philip confesses his love, Maggie equivocates but leads him to believe she would be his mate if her brother did not have such strong objections. In fact, she convinces herself of this, thinking the "sacrifice" in this love would make it that much more "richer" and "satisfying." The scenes in the Red Deeps turn out to be a dress rehearsal for the sexual feelings she develops for Stephen Guest. D.    Maggie's Hair Maggie's hair symbolizes her otherness, her "uncanniness," and the demonic side of her nature, which manifests unconsciously. In Book 1, Chapter 10, when Tom rejects Maggie and plays exclusively with Lucy, the narrator refers to Maggie as a little Medusa, referencing her shorn black locks. Medusa is the snakehaired demon goddess of Greek mythology whose look turns people to stone. Maggie's hair is heavy and unmanageable, like Maggie's emotions. When she first meets Rev. Stelling, she fears he might not like her and think her hair ugly because it hung straight down her back. After Maggie temporarily masters herself under the tutelage of Thomas à Kempis, Mrs. Tulliver braids up her long black hair and turns it into a thing of beauty as a crown upon her head, but this corralling of her "massy" locks is a temporary solution. In the Red Deeps, Maggie tells Philip that she would like to avenge the darkhaired women who always lose out in novels, and he playfully opines that she might live out that fantasy someday by stealing blondehaired Lucy's beau. In fact, that is exactly what happens. Stephen is surprised by Maggie's "jetblack coronet of hair," since he was led to believe she is blonde, and, in fact, her otherness is attractive to Stephen. In the last scenes of the novel, Maggie's hair is unplaited as she steps into Bob Jakin's boat and then paddles to the mill to "rescue" Tom. Thus, Maggie in her demonic aspect goes down into the deeps with her brother while her hair is streaming. E.    The Legend of St. Ogg The story of St. Ogg and the Virgin symbolically prefigures the destiny of Maggie and Tom. According to the legend, Ogg is a ferryman who agrees to take a woman dressed in rags across the river during a bad storm. The woman is carrying a child. He agrees because he sees her "heart's need." When he gets her to the other side, she is transformed into a beautiful woman in flowing white robes, emanating light and glory. The lady blesses the ferryman and says that whoever steps into his boat will be safe from any storm. After Ogg dies his boat is said to appear during floods, with the Blessed Virgin (the mother of Jesus) at the prow shedding light to help desperate rowers find their way in the darkness. The story of Maggie and Tom is a perverse recasting of the legend. For Maggie, the Virgin is both the mother she never had as well as herself, attempting to save her brother from the storm. Tom becomes Ogg when he steps into the boat with his sister, but gets no opportUnity to guide them, since the boat is almost immediately capsized by debris. Maggie and Tom have no child because they are siblings, but neither has been able to find love and happiness with a partner. Self-Check Exercise-II Q 1 How is the rural landscape depicted in the novel? Q 2 What is the significance of the novel's title? Q 3 How does Eliot use the character of Mrs. Tulliver to explore domestic concerns? 20.5    Summary "The Mill on the Floss" explores several profound themes. The loss of innocence is a key theme, depicted through Maggie and Tom's abrupt transition from childhood to the harsh realities of adult life following their father's financial ruin. The conflict between communal versus individual interests drives the plot, with Maggie torn between her desires and her duty to family and commUnity, ultimately sacrificing her individuality. Gender disparity highlights Maggie's struggle in a society that limits her talents and ambitions. The difficulty of choice is evident in Maggie's internal conflicts and the consequences of her decisions. Renunciation and sacrifice dominate the lives of both Maggie and Tom, with Tom's practical sacrifices contrasting with Maggie's spiritual struggles. Nostalgia permeates the narrative, emphasizing the gap between an idyllic past and a challenging present. The tension between progress and tradition is central, with Maggie embodying the struggle between personal desires and societal expectations. Symbols such as the river, "The Pilgrim's Progress," the Red Deeps, Maggie's hair, and the legend of St. Ogg enrich the narrative, reflecting the characters' internal and external journeys. 20.6    Glossary •    Veracity - Conformity to facts; accuracy. •    Hypocritical - Behaving in a way that suggests one has higher standards or more noble beliefs than is the case. •    Reticent - Not revealing one's thoughts or feelings readily. •    Knack - An acquired or natural skill at performing a task. •    Shrewd - Having or showing sharp powers of judgment; astute. •    Appraiser - A person who assesses the value of something, typically a property or item. •    Auctioneer - A person who conducts auctions by accepting bids and declaring goods sold. •    Loyal - Giving or showing firm and constant support or allegiance to a person or institution. •    Haughty - Arrogantly superior and disdainful. •    Scandal - An action or event regarded as morally or legally wrong and causing general public outrage. •    Ignorance - Lack of knowledge or information. •    Complacency - A feeling of smug or uncritical satisfaction with oneself or one's achievements. •    Hypocrisy - The practice of claiming to have moral standards or beliefs to which one's own behavior does not conform. •  Subtle - Delicate or precise as to be difficult to analyze or describe. •  Ambitious - Having or showing a strong desire and determination to succeed. 20.7    Answers to Self-Check Exercise Self-Check Exercise-I Ans 1. Eliot portrays fate and destiny as powerful and often cruel forces that shape the characters' lives. Despite their efforts to control their own destinies, characters like Maggie and Tom are ultimately unable to escape the cycles of suffering and tragedy imposed by external circumstances and their own choices Ans 2. The Mill on The Floss highlights the limitations and injustices faced by women in Victorian society. Maggie's struggles against societal expectations and her ultimate downfall reflect the harsh realities of gender inequality and the constraints placed on women's lives and aspirations. 179 Self-Check Exercise- II Ans 1. The rural landscape in the novel is depicted with rich and vivid descriptions. It serves as both a source of solace and a relentless force of destruction, symbolizing the natural forces that influence the characters' lives and destinies. Ans 2. The title "The Mill on the Floss" refers to the Tulliver family's mill located on the River Floss. It symbolizes the family's connection to their land and livelihood, as well as the ongoing flow of life and the inevitable changes brought by time and circumstance. Ans 3. Mrs. Tulliver represents the domestic concerns and societal expectations of women during the period. Her focus on social status and material comfort, as well as her resilience in adversity, highlight the pressures faced by women to maintain familial and social propriety. 20.8    References/Suggested Readings •    Alice Cullina, author of ClassicNote. Completed on March 26, 2012, •  Updated and revised by Christine McKeever April 30, 2012. •  Ashton, Rosemary. The Mill on the Floss: A Natural History. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1990. •    Putzell, Sara M. “An Antagonism of Valid Claims”: The Dynamics of The Mill on the Floss.” Studies in the Novel 7.2 (1975): 227. Academic Search Premier. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. •    Wasserman, Reanata R. Mautner. “Narrative Logic and the Form of Tradition in The Mill on the Floss.” Studies in the Novel 14.3 (1982): 266. Academic Search Premier. Web. 27 Feb. 2012. •    Aristotle. "Poetics." The Internet Classics Archive. 20120322. . •    Kathryn Hughes. "Rereading: George Eliot's Mill on the Floss." The Guardian. 20100326.                                                20120427. . 20.9    Terminal Questions Q 1 How does the theme of loss of innocence manifest in the lives of Maggie and Tom Tulliver, and what impact does this transition have on their characters and their relationship? Q 2 In "The Mill on the Floss," how does George Eliot portray the conflict between communal interests and individual desires, particularly in relation to Maggie Tulliver's character? Q 3 Discuss the role of gender disparity in "The Mill on the Floss" and its impact on Maggie Tulliver's life choices and opportUnities. 180