---
title: "Complete Book 0"
book: "M.A. MENG 101"
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publisher: "Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd."
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According to Latest Syllabus
Read For Sure Success
In University Examination
RATAN
TEXT BOOK
ENGLISH
(HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE
FROM CHAUCER TO 1800...)
M.A.English
(Sem-I)
Dr. Kuldeep Yadav
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Block-1
Unit- 1
14th-Century England: Socio-Political Upheaval, Economic Shifts, Literary Renaissance

1.1    Introduction

1.2   Learning Objectives

1.3   A Glimpse into 14th-Century England: Kings, Wars, Plague, and Power
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.4.   Chaucer's Age: A Comprehensive Analysis
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.5.    Socio-Political Conditions and Literary Expression in 14th-Century England
Self-Check Exercise-III

1.6.   Summary

1.7.   Glossary

1.8.   Answers to Self-Check Exercises

1.9.   Suggested Readings/ References

1.10.  Terminal Questions

1.1    Introduction
Dear readers, as we start on a journey to become intimately acquainted with English literature's history. Our voyage commences with a glimpse into the 14th century, a period marked by fascinating interplays of power, war, plague, and transformative shifts in governance. As we probing into the intricacies of this era, we witness the emergence of key figures, societal forces, and literary expressions that have left an indelible mark on the course of English literature. Our exploration begins by examining the complex socio-political and economic conditions that served as the backdrop for literary creativity. This century witnessed not only the reign of monarchs but also the tumultuous impact of the Hundred Years' War, the grim shadow of the Black Death, and the nascent inklings of parliamentary influence. Amidst these changes, the importance of the nobility's role, the rise of parliamentary authority, and the transformative aftermath of the Black Death sculpted the very fabric of the era's politics. Join us as we unravel the intricate threads that wove the political tapestry of 14th-century England and set the stage for the literary and intellectual marvels that would follow.

1.2.    Learning Objectives
This unit aims to facilitate a comprehensive understanding of the historical, socio-political, and literary intricacies of 14th-century England. Through a meticulous exploration of monarchial dynamics, the Hundred Years' War, the transformative effects of the Black Death, and the emergence of parliamentary institutions, our objective is to provide readers with a nuanced perspective on the epoch's profound impact. By investigating into the interplay between power dynamics and societal changes, we intend to illuminate how these factors coalesced to shape the literary and intellectual landscape of the era. Thus, our endeavor is to engage readers in a journey of discernment, equipping them with the knowledge to fathom the profound interconnections between the socio-political milieu and the literary expressions that emerged in 14th-century England.

1.3.    A Glimpse into 14th-Century England: Kings, Wars, Plague, and Power
The way England was ruled in the 14th century was like a woven picture with lots of important parts. At the beginning of the century, a king named Edward II had trouble with strong nobles who had a lot of power. This caused changes in who was in charge. Then, Edward III became king and did some big things. He went to France for battles, which changed what
England wanted politically. The rich and important people, called nobles, were very important in this time. They had to be careful because they wanted power but also needed to help the king. Something new called "parliament" started to become important. This was a way for regular people to have a say in the government. There was also a long war with France called the Hundred Years' War. This made how England dealt with other countries very important. A bad sickness called the Black Death also came and changed a lot of things. People died, and jobs and money got all mixed up. This made the way the country was run differently. With all this happening, how the king acted, what the nobles did, how regular people got to talk in government, the big war, and the sickness, everything together made the rules and how things worked in England a long time ago.
Monarchy and Leadership:
The 14th century marked a period of both continuity and change in England's monarchy. Edward II's reign (1307-1327) was marked by struggles with powerful barons, resulting in his eventual deposition. His son, Edward III, assumed the throne and embarked on ambitious military campaigns in France, shaping England's political priorities.
Nobility and Power Struggles:
The nobility remained central to political power in 14th-century England. Edward II's conflicts with nobles like Thomas of Lancaster highlighted their influence. Edward III's reign saw a balance between the monarchy and nobility, with the latter supporting his military campaigns for the most part. However, tensions still arose, often due to differing opinions on military strategy and financial matters.
Emergence of Parliament:
The 14th century witnessed the evolution of the English Parliament into a more established political institution. Edward I's Model Parliament in 1295 laid the foundation for representative assemblies. Edward III's reign saw Parliament's increased involvement in financial matters, as the monarchy required funding for wars. The Commons gained leverage, granting them a voice in taxation.
Foreign Relations and the Hundred Years' War:
The Hundred Years' War with France dominated the political landscape. Edward III claimed the French throne, igniting a protracted conflict. Military campaigns strained
resources, leading to increased reliance on Parliament for funding. The war's impact on society, economy, and politics was profound, shaping a sense of national identity.
Black Death's Political Impact:
The Black Death, which struck in the mid-14th century, had significant political consequences. The widespread death and labor shortages weakened the feudal system. Peasants and laborers gained leverage, demanding better treatment. This shift influenced the political dynamics as ruling elites grappled with a changing social order.
Royal Council and Governance:
Both Edward II and Edward III relied on councils to assist in governance. Edward III's council became increasingly important due to his focus on the Hundred Years' War. The council's composition evolved, including clergy, nobles, and professional administrators, shaping decision-making and policies.
Legal and Administrative Changes:
Edward III's reign saw legal reforms that enhanced the monarchy's authority. The development of common law courts helped standardize legal proceedings. Administrative offices like the Chancellor and Treasurer gained prominence, contributing to efficient governance.
Local Governance and Justices of the Peace:
Local governance continued to be overseen by sheriffs and manorial courts. Justices of the Peace emerged as important figures, responsible for maintaining law and order. Their role in local administration contributed to centralized governance.
Political Unrest and Transition:
The latter half of the 14th century saw political unrest. The Good Parliament of 1376 challenged the monarchy's control over finances. Richard II's reign (1377-1399) witnessed conflicts with nobles, leading to his eventual deposition and the rise of the Lancastrian dynasty.
The 14th-century political condition of England was characterized by the monarchy's struggles to maintain authority, the ongoing power dynamics with the nobility, the evolution of Parliament's role in financial matters, the impact of the
Hundred Years' War, and the transformative effects of the Black Death on the feudal system. These factors collectively shaped the political landscape of the era, laying the groundwork for subsequent developments in England's governance and political structures.
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.    What marked the beginning of the 14th century's political changes in England?

2.    How did the emergence of Parliament influence political affairs?

3.    What major event reshaped England's foreign relations during the 14th century?

1.4.    Chaucer's Age: A Comprehensive Analysis
The era encompassing Geoffrey Chaucer's life and works is a fascinating amalgamation of contrasting epochs, transitioning between the medieval and modern worlds. Spanning from the late 14th to the early 15th century, this period is characterized by significant historical events, social transformations, and literary innovations. In this comprehensive exploration, we delve into the key aspects of Chaucer's age, including the Hundred Years' War, the Age of Chivalry, the Black Death, Peasants' Revolt and Labour Unrest, the role of the Church, and the literary and intellectual tendencies that shaped this transitional period.
Medieval and Modern Nexus:
Chaucer's age, often referred to as the late Middle Ages, exists at the crossroads of medieval traditions and nascent modernity. This duality is evident in both the continuity of feudal structures and the emergence of new socio-political and cultural currents. While remnants of chivalric norms persist, signs of an evolving, more humanistic worldview become discernible. This tension between the medieval and modern lays the foundation for the dynamic landscape of Chaucer's era.
The Hundred Years' War:
The 14th and 15th centuries were marked by the Hundred Years' War, a prolonged and transformative conflict between England and France. Initiated by Edward III's claim to
the French throne, this war significantly impacted the political and social fabric of Europe. Military innovations, like the longbow, reshaped warfare, while economic strains affected societies across both nations. This war also influenced Chaucer's writings, as he navigated themes of nationalism, loyalty, and the complexities of power.
Age of Chivalry:
Chaucer's age witnessed the twilight of the Age of Chivalry, a period that celebrated knightly ideals of honor, courage, and courtly love. The romance tradition, epitomized by tales of King Arthur and the Round Table, maintained its influence. However, the Hundred Years' War introduced a pragmatic view of warfare, challenging the romanticized notions of chivalry and valor. Chaucer's exploration of knights, like the noble yet flawed Knight in The Canterbury Tales, reflects this transition.
The Black Death
The Black Death, a devastating pandemic that swept through Europe in the mid-14th century, had a profound impact on Chaucer's age. The widespread mortality reshaped demographics, economics, and even cultural attitudes toward life and death. Chaucer's writing echoes the palpable sense of mortality and the contemplation of the transient nature of existence, often found in the literature of this era.
Peasants' Revolt and Labour Unrest:
Social upheavals like the Peasants' Revolt of 1381 exposed the tensions inherent in medieval societies. Peasants, burdened by oppressive labor conditions and taxes, rose against their feudal overlords. Although the revolt was quelled, it highlighted growing aspirations for social justice and the evolving roles of common people. Chaucer's depiction of characters from various social strata in The Canterbury Tales underscores his engagement with these societal shifts.
The Church
The Church's influence was pervasive in Chaucer's age, but it was also a subject of critique. Chaucer's writings reflect the complex interplay between religious piety and criticism of ecclesiastical corruption. The emergence of Lollardy, a reformist movement critical of certain Church practices, underscored the growing dissent within religious
spheres. Chaucer's The Pardoner's Tale and The Summoner's Tale exemplify his satirical take on the Church's moral shortcomings.
Literary and Intellectual Tendencies
Chaucer's age witnessed a surge of intellectual curiosity and literary experimentation. The translation of classical works, especially those of Boethius and Cicero, enriched English literature. Chaucer himself drew from Italian poetic forms, contributing to the development of English as a literary language. The rise of the humanist movement also signaled a shift toward a more human-centered worldview, influencing Chaucer's exploration of individual character and motivation in The Canterbury Tales.
Hence, Chaucer's age encapsulates a multifaceted era of transformation and continuity. The interplay of medieval traditions and nascent modern ideas, the complexities of the Hundred Years' War, the evolving concept of chivalry, the impact of the Black Death, social unrest, religious dynamics, and the burgeoning literary and intellectual currents collectively shaped the tapestry of Chaucer's world. Through his writings, Chaucer captures the essence of a transitional epoch that would lay the groundwork for the Renaissance and beyond.
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.    What major historical event shaped Chaucer's age?

2.    How did the Black Death impact the society of Chaucer's era?

3.    What was the significance of the Peasants' Revolt in Chaucer's age?

1.5.    Socio-Political Conditions and Literary Expression in 14th-Century England
The 14th century in England was characterized by a complex interplay of socio-political and economic conditions that greatly influenced the literary landscape of the era. The period was defined by significant events such as the Hundred Years' War with France, the devastating impact of the Black Death, and the socio-economic tensions exemplified by the Peasants' Revolt. These circumstances reshaped the societal fabric, leading to shifts in power dynamics, labor structures, and the distribution of wealth.
Amidst these challenges, the emerging literacy and intellectual curiosity of the time gave rise to a flourishing literary culture. Writers and poets of the era navigated the intricate sociopolitical landscape through their works. Geoffrey Chaucer, renowned for his masterpiece "The
Canterbury Tales," stands out as a prime example. Chaucer's collection of stories, featuring a diverse array of characters from different social backgrounds, provided a vivid portrayal of the evolving complexities of English society. By offering insights into the thoughts, behaviors, and aspirations of characters ranging from pilgrims to knights, he captured the nuanced social dynamics of the period.
Additionally, John Wycliffe emerged as a notable figure who engaged with the socio-political issues of the time through his writings. Wycliffe's religious and social reformist ideas challenged the authority of the Church and advocated for greater equality and justice. His translation of the Bible into English enabled a broader readership to access religious texts, contributing to the dissemination of ideas beyond the ecclesiastical hierarchy.
The socio-political and economic turmoil of the 14th century thus provided a fertile ground for literary expression. Writers like Chaucer and Wycliffe not only reflected the complexities of their society but also contributed to shaping the narrative of the time. Their works remain invaluable records of an era marked by transformation, offering insights into the challenges, aspirations, and ideals that characterized 14th-century England.
Self-Check Exercise III

1.    How did the Black Death influence 14th-century English literature?

2.    What role did John Wycliffe play in the literary landscape of 14th-century England?

1.6.    Summary
Hope you enjoyed this Unit, Hence, in Summary it can be said that the 14th century in England was braided with intricate threads of socio-political transformation, economic upheaval, and literary invention. The interaction of kings, nobles, and rising parliamentary institutions changed the power structure, while the Hundred Years' War reshaped international relations and national identity. The Black Death's chilling impact altered society, affecting labor patterns, and encouraging contemplation on the fleeting aspect of life. During these revolutionary forces, the literary works of personalities such as Chaucer and the growth of reformist ideals caught the essence of a transitional age, reflecting the complexity, ambitions, and conflicts that distinguished 14th-century England.

1.7.    Glossary
Woven Picture: A complex and interconnected portrayal of 14th-century England's socio-political landscape.
Edward III's Ambitions: The strategic initiatives and battles pursued by King Edward III, shaping England's political priorities.
Parliamentary Evolution: The gradual development of Parliament into a crucial political institution, enabling broader representation and financial involvement.
Black Death's Consequences: Profound societal and economic changes catalyzed by the devastating impact of the Black Death pandemic.
Chaucer's Crossroads: The convergence of medieval traditions and emerging modern ideas during Chaucer's era, captured through his works.
Socio-Political Upheavals: The transformative effects of the Peasants' Revolt and other social tensions on medieval English society.

1.8    Answers to self-Check Exercises
Self-Check Exercise I

1.    Edward II's reign grappled with clashes between the monarchy and powerful barons, leading to shifts in leadership dynamics.

2.    The emergence of Parliament gradually amplified the common voice in political affairs and provided a way for regular people to participate in the government.

3.    The Hundred Years' War, a prolonged conflict with France, played a pivotal role in shaping England's interactions with other countries.
Self-Check Exercise II

1.    The Hundred Years' War, a prolonged conflict between England and France.

2.    The Black Death caused widespread death, reshaped demographics, and influenced cultural attitudes toward mortality.

3.    The Peasants' Revolt highlighted social tensions and aspirations for justice among the common people.
Self-Check Exercise III

1.    The Black Death led to significant social and economic changes, which were reflected in the literary works of the time.

2.    John Wycliffe translated the Bible into English, challenging Church authority and promoting social reform through his writings.

1.9    Suggested Readings/ References
The Concise Cambridge History of English Literature, 3rd edition CUP, New
Delhi, 2005 Sampson, George
History of English Literature, Cambridge University Press, London, 1968 Legouis and Cazamian
An Outline of History of English Literature, G. Bell and sons, London, 1930 Hudson, W.H.

1.10 . Terminal Questions

1.     How did the socio-political conditions of 14th-century England, including
struggles within the nobility and the emergence of Parliament, shape the overall governance and power dynamics of the era?

2.     Discuss the profound impact of the Hundred Years' War on England's foreign
relations, economy, and sense of national identity during the 14th century.

3.     In what ways did the Black Death alter the societal structure, labor dynamics,
and economic landscape of 14th-century England, and how did these changes influence literary and artistic expressions of the time?

4.     Analyze the role of the Church in 14th-century England, considering both its
pervasive influence and the emergence of reformist movements like Lollardy. How did this dynamic religious environment influence literary works of the period?
Unit-2
The Age of Geoffrey Chaucer

2.1    Introduction

2.2.   Learning Objectives

2.3.   Geoffrey Chaucer: Life, Career, Achievements, and Works
Self-Check Exercise-I
Self-Check Exercise-II

2.4.   The Canterbury Tales
Self-Check Exercise-III

2.5.   Summary

2.6.   Glossary

2.7.   Answers to Self-Check Exercises

2.8   Suggested Reading/References

2.9.   Terminal Questions

2.1    Introduction
The age of Chaucer represents the late Middle Ages in the history of English literature. We sometimes think of poets as living outside the pressures and problems of everyday life, concerned only with artistic creation in a remote world of their own. Nothing could be less true of Geoffery Chaucer, the first great English poet. He lived at the centre of affairs of his day, having been, among other things, a soldier, a courtier, a royal emissary to Europe, a controller of customs, a justice of the peace, and a member of Parliament.

2.2 . Learning Objectives
The objective of this unit is to provide an idea of the social, cultural, and political background of Chaucer’s age. It also talks about the life of Chaucer and his contribution to English Literature. It tells about his literary achievements.

2.3    Geoffrey Chaucer: Life, Career, Achievements, and Works
Life
We cannot positively date Chaucer’s birth but the evidence suggests he was born between 1340 and 1344 in London. His father, John Chaucer, a minor official in the court of Edward III, was responsible for the transmission and disposal of wines for the various royal households. The young Chaucer must have spent much of his time at the wharves, watching the unloading of the great casks of “the wyn of spaigne that crepeth subtilly”, or the “whyte wine of Oseye and red wine of Gasciogne” and listening the tales of the
British dockhands. Chaucer’s introduction to the rank and file of society, which he was later to use as his material in his poetry, began early. John Chaucer’s position was a respectable one, and his son was awarded a position of page in a household of royal rank that of prince Lionel, one of the sons of Edward III. Although the exact extent of Chaucer’s education is unknown, to be a page in such a household was a preparation
for entrance into court society and it was through and valuable education. He was exposed to French and Latin, which were, respectively, the language of the court and the church. He had encountered the elegant code of manners and the elaborate ceremonies of court life.
In 1359 Chaucer went with the king’s army to France, where he saw enrolled the brilliant pageant of medieval war, as the French Chronicler Froissart has pictured it at a time when chivalry courtesy, had flamed into their greatest splendor. He beheld the unsuccessful siege of the city of Rheims was captured by the French and was held as a prisoner of war until ransomed of March 1, 1360.
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.     Who is the father of English Literature?

1.     Chaucer      3. Donne

2.     Shakespeare  4. Langland
Career
On his return to England, he became an esquire of the King’s Bedchamber, and spent the next ten years at Edward’s court, then one of the most brilliant in Europe. The court of Edward still had all the atmosphere of a French court, and Chaucer, although he decided to use his native tongue, became practically a French love poet writing in the English language. Aside from the use of eight-syllable lines, rhyming in couplets, the conventions of the French school which are most evident in Chaucer’s work are those which belong to the system of courtly love and those structural principles observable in the love visions which preceded and were contemporary with Chaucer. The conventions of the system of courtly love, indeed, permeate nearly all medieval non-religious literature. The lover, compelled to be a faithful ‘servant’ of his lady and of Cupid, must languish in amorous pallor, toss sleepless on his couch, swoon, boast of his lady’s beauty and compose ballads in her honour, and fight for the glorification of her token. The lady must be as cold as ice, must impose on her lover incredible trials of his courage and fidelity. After many years of hopeless service, the lover may be accepted, not because of any merit of himself or of his deeds, but purely because of the lady’s boundless compassion. There are the rules of conduct governing the actors in the love- vision-poems in which the lover, exhausted by the play of his emotions, falls asleep at dawn to the music of birds and the melody of brooks, amidst flowers and perfumes, and dreams of knights wooing their ladies. The most famous work of this
French school was the Roman de la Rose, an elaborate allegory, placed in a dream setting of love, the rose, growing in a mystic garden, warded by Symbolic powers from the lover’s approach and provoking endless disquisitions, serious or satirical, such as the later Middle Ages loved to spend upon the subtleties of sentiment. Chaucer manifested his enthusiasm for this work by translating a portion of it in to English verse. Less than two thousand lines of his translation have survived; indeed, the whole may never have been completed. But the Roman de la Rose and other poems of its school left a profound impression upon Chaucer’s work and for years, he thought and wrote in the atmosphere which they created for him. During these years of French influence he wrote, for the knights and ladies of king Edward’s court, those “ballads, roundels, virelays, by which his fellow poet Gower says” the land fulfilled was over all.” The most important work which remains to as from his purely French period, however, is the Boke of the Duchesse written in 1369 to solace John of Gaunt the King’s fourth son, for the death of his wife, Blanche. Though working in the strict tradition of the French love visions and borrowing freely from poems by Guillaume de Machaut, Chaucer gave his elegy freshness and seeming sincerity.
Between 1368 and 1387 Chaucer made several journeys on official business to Flanders, to France, and to Italy. Although these journeys are not marks of special favour. Chaucer must have been successful as a diplomat and certainly, the opportunities afforded by wide travel for converse with many types of men, for observation of widely varying mariners and especially for becoming familiar with Italian literature, were of the utmost importance in his poetic education.
Achievements/ Titles
During the remainder of his life, Chaucer-like many others of the King’s esquires- held various official positions some of which were probably in the nature of political sinecures, for much of the time his work was performed by deputies. From 1374 to 1386 he was the controller on the customs on wool, leather, and skins at the port of London. For a while he was simultaneously controller of the petty customs at the same port, In 1386 he represented the county of Kent as “Knight of the Shire,” a post he held for two years. In 1389 he was appointed clerk of the King’s works at Vestminister, the Tower, Windsor Castle, and other places, from 1391 until his death he apparently served as deputy forester of the royal forest of North Fetherton. Most of the time during the last thirty years of his life we find him also drawing a pension from the
national treasury, as well as the money equivalent of a daily pitches of wine from the King’s cellers. For several years he and his wife (whom he had married about 1366) also received pensions from John of Gaunt. Chaucer died in 1400.
The one event in Chaucer’s life which probably produced the most profound effect on his literary career was his first visit to Italy, in 1372. Italy was then approaching the Zenith of her artistic energy in the full splendor of that illuminist which had followed the intellectual twilight of the Middle Ages, and which we know as the Renaissance, or “New Birth,” Each of her little city-states was a centre of marvelous activity, and everywhere were being produced those masterpieces of painting, sculpture, and architecture which still make Italy a pious pilgrimage for all lovers of art. The literary activity was equally great, at least in Tuscany. Dante had been dead for half a century, but his poetry was just beginning to be widely recognized as one of the major efforts of the human imagination. Petrarch, the grave, accomplished scholar, and elegant poet, was passing his closing years at his villa of Argua, near Padua, Boccacio, poet, tale-writer, pedant and worlding, was spending the autumn of his life among the cypress and laurel slopes of Fiesole, above Florence. The world which lay open to Chaucer’s gaze when he crossed the Alps was, therefore, one calculated to fascinate and stimulate him to the highest degree.
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.    Which of the following works of Chaucer are colored with Italian renaissance?
1.     House of fame      3. Roman de la Rose

2.     Parliament of fowls     4. Boke of the Duchess
Works
From Chaucer’s poem we get only an occasional glimpse of his life. One of these reveals his eagerness for study, which after the day’s work was done, would send him home, regardless of rest and ‘new things’ to sit “as dumb as any stone” over his book, until his eyes were dazed. The unquenchable curiosity of the men of the Renaissance really began to effect England. His, too, was their thirst for expression. The great books he had come to know in Italy made him produce very largely in emulation of the Italian masters, The House of Fame, The Parliaments of Foules, Troilus and Crisede and The Legend of Goode Women, one version of which was dedicated to the young Queen, Anne of Bohemia, whom Richard II had married in 1382.
Both the House of Fame and Parliaments of Foules are coloured with Italian reminiscence; but the chief fruit of Chaucer’s Italian journeys aside from his increased literary power through his emulation of the Italian poets was the long poem adapted from Boccaccio’s Filostrato (The love-stricken One), entitled by Chaucer Troilus and Criseyde. The story of the love of the young Trojan hero for Cressida, and of her desertion of him for the Greek Diomedes, had been elaborated during the Middle Ages by some writers before Boccaccio gave it an animated but ornate treatment in facile verse. Chaucer, though pretending only to translate, radically changed the structure and emphasis of the story. Instead of an almost unmotivated recital of a mere intrigue, Chaucer had written a psychological novel in verse, analyzing minutely the action and reaction of character and situation upon the leading persons. In his hands the lover’s go between, Pandarus, is transformed from a glided youth of Troilus’s own age and temperament to a middle-aged man, plausible good-matured, full of easy worldly wisdom and materialistic ideas-a character as true to type and as vitally alive as Shakespeare’s Pandarus in his cynical Trolius and Cressida. The growth of the lovepassion in Cressida’s heart is raced through its gradual stages with a subtlety entirely new in English poetry. The action dialogue and setting of the poem are all created with the magic realism of a master of narrative art. Though the scene is ancient Troy, though the manners and customs are those of medieval knights and ladies, through the texture of the whole is stuffy brocaded with conventions of courtly love, we seem, in many passages to be looking at a modem play or reading from a modem novel, so intimate and actual does it appear.
The Legend of Goode Women, a kind of secular imitation of a collection of saints’ lives, is chiefly interesting because of its prologue. In the body of the poem Cleopatra, Dido, and other famous women are celebrated for their steadfastness in love, possibly as a covert tribute to the wifely virtues of the young Queen. These stories are adopted from a Latin work of Boccaccio, De Claris Mullierbus. But the long prologue, original with Chaucer, is the most winning of his many passages of personal confession and self- revelation. In this poem, Chaucer uses the heroic couplet for the first lime. He represents himself as wandering in the fields on Mayday, the only season that can tempt him from his books. The birds are singing to their mates their songs of “blessed by Seynt Valentyn” and Zephyrus and Flora as “god and goddesses of the flowery made”, have spread the earth with fragrant blossom. But the poet has eyes only for one flower, the daisy, the “emperice (empress) and Hour of floures alle,” All day long he leans and
pores upon the flower; and when at last it has folded its leaves at the coming of night he goes home to rest, with die thought of rising early to gaze upon it once more. He makes his couch out of doors, in a little arbor, “for deyntee of the new someres sake,” and here he has a wonderful dream. He dreams that he is again in the fields, “kneeling by the daisy, and sees approaching a procession of bright forms. First comes the young god of love, clad m silk embroidered with red rose leaves and sprays of green, his “gelt hair” crowed with, light, in his hand fiery darts, and his wings spread angle-like. He leads by the hand a queen, clad in green and crowned with a fillet of daisies under a band of gold. She is Alcestis, the type of noblest wifely devotion. Behind her comes an endless tram of women who have been “trewe of love” They kneel in a circle about the poet, and sing with one voice honour to women’s faithfulness and to the daisy flower, the emblem of Alcestis. The love-god then flowers angrily upon Chaucer and upbraids him for having done despite to women, in translating the Roman de la Rose with its satire upon their foible; and in writing the story of Cressida, so dishonorable to the steadfastness of the sex. Alcestis comes to his rescue and agrees to pardon his misdeeds if he will spend the rest of his life in making a glorious Legend of Goode Women, and will send it, on her behalf to the English queen. Chaucer promises solemnly, and as soon as he wakes, he betakes himself to his task.
In the House of Fame, where, he sets out in search of “Loves, Tidings,” as well as in the Legend of Goode Women Chaucer had apparently entered upon the task of construction a work which would constitute a setting for a group of tales but after starting, he left both these attempts unfinished. Yet the ambition to crown his life with some monumental work remained. The drift of his genius, as he grew older, was more and more towards the imaginative presentation of real life. He had wide experience with men of many ranks and conditions and he had been storing up for years, with his keenly observant, quiet eyes, the material for literary presentation of contemporary society upon a great scale. Moreover, while Chaucer was growing up, England had been growing conscious of herself. The struggle with France had unified the people at least into a homogeneous body, no longer Norman and Saxon, but English; and the brilliancy of Edward Ill’s early reign had given to this new people their first intoxicating draught of national pride. The growing power of parliament tended to foster the feeling of solidarity and self-consciousness in the nation. As a member of parliament, as a government officer, as an intimate member of the court, Chaucer felt these influences
to the full. It must have seemed more important to him that the crowning work of his life should in some way represent the brilliant spectacle and complex culture of the actual society in which he moved.

2.4.    The Canterbury Tales
With the happy fortune of genius he hit, in his Canterbury Tales, upon a scheme wonderfully adapted to the ends he had in view. Collections of stones, both secular and sacred, articulated into a general frame work, has been numerous and popular in the Middle Ages, and the early Italian Renaissance, which inherited the taste for them, had managed their scope and humanized their content. Boccaccio had furnished one example of throwing a graceful trellis work of incident and dialogue about the separate stories of a collection. In his Decameron a company of aristocratic young people are represented as having taken refuge, from the plague raging in Florence, in a villa on the slopes of Fiesole. They wander through the valleys of oleanders and myrtles of sit beside the fountains of the villa gardens and beguile the time with tales of sentiments and intrigue. Another Italian, Giovanni Sercambi, had pictured a pilgrimage composed of many classes of people, presided over by a leader or governor, and entertained on their journey with songs, dances, and the telling tales by an official story-teller who is Sercambi himself. As in The Canterbury Tales, the stories are linked together by transitional passages, in which the tales are frequently the subject of comment. Chaucer, while adopting a similar framework, made his setting much more national and racier; individualized his characters so as to make them a gallery of living portraits of his time, varied his tales so as to include almost all types of narrative known to literature at the close of the Middle Ages; and most important of all, put his tales into the mouths of the separate pilgrims.
He represents himself as alighting, one spring evening, at the Tabard Inn, in South work, a suburb at the southern end of London Bridge, where the famous Elizabethan playhouse, Shakespeare’s among them, where afterward to arise. South work was the place of departure and arrival for all South-of-England and travel, and especially for pilgrimages to the world-renowned shrine of Thomas Becket, at Canterbury. A Company went on such a pilgrimage Chaucer find it gathered in the inn: he makes their acquaintance, and joins himself with them for the journey. Counting the poet, they are thirty in all. There is a Knight lately come from the foreign wars, a man who has fought in Prussia and in Turkey, jousted in Tramisene; and been present at the storming of Alexandria a high minded, gentle manned, kingly adventurer, typical of the
courteous, war loving chivalry which was passing rapidly away. With him is his son, a young Squire. Curly-haired and gay, his short, white lived gown embroidered like a mead with red and white flowers he is an epitome of the gifts and graces of the young courtly lover. Their servant is a yeoman, in coat and hood of green, a shaft of peacockarrow under his belt, a mighty bow in his hand ,and a silver image of Saint Christopher upon his breast; he is the type of that sturdy English yeomanry which with its grey goose shafts mumbled the pride of France at Crecy and Agincourt. There is a whole group of ecclesiastical figures, representing in their numbers and variety the diverse activities of the medieval Church. Most of them are satirical portraits, in their worldliness and materialism only too faithful representative of the ecclesiastical abuses against which Wyclif struggled. First of all there is a Monk, who cares only for hunting and good cheer, his bald head shines like glass, his bright eyes roll in his head; he rides a sleek brown palfrey, and has “many a dainty horse” in his stables; his sleeves are trimmed with fine fur at the wrists, his hood is fastened under his chin with a gold loveknot as a companion figure to the hunting Monk, Chaucer gives us the gently satirized” madam Eglantine,” the prioress; she is a teacher of young ladies, speaks French “after the school of Straford-attebowe,” is exquisite in her table-manners, imitating as well as she can the stately behaviour of the court. Other ecclesiastics are there, hangers on and caterpillars of the church; the Flair, intimate with hospitable franklins; innkeepers, and worthily women, and despising beggars and Lazers; the summer, a repulsive person with ‘fired chrubim face,” the pardoner, with his bag full of pardons “come from Rome all hot,” and of buts of cloth and pig’s bones which he sells as relics of the holy saints. Chaucer’s treatment of those evil churchmen is good natured and tolerant; he never takes the tone of moral indignation against them. But he does better; he sets beside them, as the type of true shepherds of the church, a “poor parson,” such as partly under Wyclif’s influence had spread over England, beginning that great movement for the purification of the church which was to result, more than a century later, in the Perforation. Chaucer paints the character of the Par son, poor in this world’s goods, but “rich of holy thought and work,” with a loving and reverent touch. The parson’s brother travels with him, a Plowman, a “true swinker and a good”, who helps his poor neighbors and loves them as himself; he reminds us of Piers Di Plowman, in the wonderful vision which in the antitype of Chaucer’s work. A crowd of other figures fill the canvas. There is shipman from tire west country, a rep presentative of those adventurous seamen, halt merchant sailors, half smugglers and pirates, who had already made England’s name a
terror on the seas and paved the ways for her future naval and commercial supremacy. There is a poor clerk of Oxford, a theological, student, riding a horse as lean as a rake and dressed in thread bare cloak, who spends all that he can beg or borrow upon his duties; he represents that passion for learning which was already astir everywhere in Europe, and. which was awaiting only the magic touch of the newfound classical literature to blossom. There is Merchant, in a Flemish beaver hat, on a high horse, concealing, with the grave importance of his air, the fact that he is in debt. There is a group of guild members, in the livery of their guild; all worthy to be elder man together with the merchant, they represent the mercantile and manufacturing activity which was lifting England rapidly to the rank of a great commercial power. There is the wife of Bath, almost a modem feminist figure, conceived with masterly husband five at church door,” and through “somdel deaf”, hopes to live to wed several others; she rides on an ambler with spurs and scarlet hose on her feet and on her head a hat as abroad as a buckler.
These and a dozen others are painted in vivid colours, and with a psychological truth which reminds us of the portraits of the Flemish painter. Van Eyck, Chaucer’s contemporary. Taken they represent almost the entire range of English society in the fourteenth century, apart from the highest aristocracy and the lowest order of villains or serfs.
At supper this goodly company hears from the host of the Tabard a proposition that on their journey to Canterbury, to be guile the tedium of the ride, each of them shall tell two tales and on the homeward journey two more. He agrees to travel with them, to act as master of ceremonies, and on their returns to render judgement as to who has told the best story, the winner to be given a supper at the general expense. So, it is agreed. The next morning, they set out bright and early on their journey southward to the cathedral city. They draw lots to determine who shall tell the first tale. The lot falls to the knight, who tells the chivalric romance of Palamon and Arcite. When it is finished the Host calls upon the Monk to follow. But the Miller, who is already drunk and quarrelsome, insists on being heard, and launches forthwith into a very unedifying tale about a carpenter. The Reeve, who had followed that trade in his youth, is so angry that he retaliates with a story of an unsavory intrigue in which a miller is badly worsted. The Host rises in his stirrups and calls on the Parson for a story “by Goddess dignities”. The Parson reproves him for swearing whereupon the Host cries that he smells a Lollard in the wind “(the followers of Wyclif were called Lollards) and bids them prepare for a
sermon. This is too much for the shipman who breaks impatiently. When the Host calls upon the prioress, he changes bluff manner to correspond with her rank and her excessive management, speaking with polite circumlocution, “as courteously had been a maid.” The prioress responds graciously, and the story of a little “clergion,” or school boy, who after, his coat has been cut by the wicked Jews and his body thrown into pit, still signs with clear young voice his Alma Redemptory’s to the glory of the Virgin. Overwhelmed with oftener adopting and working his matter freely. Any such thing as “originality” in the modem sense was undreamed of in the Middle Ages, the material literature was common property, and the same stories were cordlessly repeated. Whoever would learn the “source” from which Chaucer drew must ransack the storehouse of medieval fiction, and examine no little of medieval science and philosophy. But what is more important is that Chaucer improved whatever he borrowed and stamped it with his work which we value most, however, such as the prologues to the Legend of Goode Women and to The Canterbury Tales, was original in every sense, and some of the Tales have been so radically and vitally remodeled that they stand as genuinely original. Redemptories to the glory of the Virgin. Overwhelmed with emotion, the company rides silently along when the Host, to break the awe-struck mood, turns to Chaucer, and begins to joke him upon his corpulence:
“What man artow?” quod he;
Thou lookest as thou wouldest find a hare. Forever upon the ground I see thee stare. Approach near, and look up merrily.
Now ware you, sirs and let this man have place He seemed elvish by his countenance
For unto no weight doeth he dalliance.
Chaucer, thus rallied, begins a travesty of those doggerel rhymes of knightly adventure to which many of the romances of chivalry had in his day degenerated. The Rhyme of Sir Thomas is a capital burlesque of the metrical romances which Chaucer himself had come to supplant. He has not got for before the Host cries out upon the “drafty rhyming”, and Chaucer meekly agrees to contribute instead “a little think in prose,” a “moral tale,” and he proceeds with the long story of Melibeus and his wife a very tedious story indeed from the modem point of view. The Squire’s tale, as befits his years and disposition, is highly coloured oriental tale of love adventure, and magic, in which figure a flying horse of brass and other wonders. The Pardoner, called on far
“some moil think”, relates a vivid and vigorous short story about three “rioters” who go in search of Death, and who find him in a pile of gold.
So, the stories continue, the transition passages constantly picturing the vivid dialogue and action of the pilgrims, at times on theme being carried through several tales in succession. The Wife of Bath, after a long prologue in which, she describes the vigorous measures by which she has ruled her five husbands, tells a tale the point of which is that martial happiness results only if sovereignty in marriage is vested in the wife. After the Friar and the Summoner have, told vulgar stories about each other, the clerk of Oxford resumes the theme introduced by the wife, with the story of the incredible patience of Griselda under the tests imposed by her husband Walter- a tale borrowed from the Latin tales of Petrarch who had translated it from Boccaccio’s Decameron. Finally, Franklin tells a tale of gentilesse, in which the husband and the wife, exhibiting mutual forbearance and courtesy, appear to solve the problem most satisfactorily of all.
In the sixteenth century and later, when owing to the changes in pronunciation (especially the loss of the final “e” from thousands of wards and grammatical forms), the secret of Chaucer’s verification was lost, he was regarded as barbarous writer ignorant of prosody, and with no ear for the melody of verse. The exact contrary of this was really the case. He was an artist in verse effects, who not only write with a metrical accuracy, fluency, and variety that have rarely been surpassed, but also paid constant and delicate heed to the niceties of rhythm and tone-colour. In a half-humorous address to his scrivener Adam, he calls down curses upon that unworthy servant for spoiling goods verses by bad copying, and in Troilus he beseeches his readers not to “mismetre” his book.
From his very earliest poems his work is almost faultless and as he progressed in skill his music became constantly more varies and flexible. His early manner reaches its height in the exquisite roundel, intricate in form but handled with great simplicity of effect, which brings the Parliaments of Foules to a melodious close. A good example of his later music may be found in the description of the temple of Venus in the Knight’s Tale; or, as a study in a graver key, in the ballad “Flee for the Press,” which marks so impressively the deepening seriousness of Chaucer’s mind in his last years.
Chaucer employed three principal meters: the eight-syllable line, rhyming in couplets, as in the Bake of the Duchesse; the disyllabic line, also rhyming in couplets,
as in the prologue to the Canterbury Tales: and the same lip arranged in seven line stanzas (known later as “rhyme royal)”, as in Troilus. The heroic couplet he introduced in English verse; the rhyme royal he invented. In his shorter poems he made, however, endless metrical experiments, and showed a mastery of intricate verse form remarkable even in an age when the French had made-verse-written a matter of almost gymnastic skill.
As for his material, Chaucer did not hesitate to take what suited him; wherever he found it. Sometimes borrowing wholesale without change, oftener adopting, and reworking his matter freely. Any such thing as “originality” in the modern sense was undreamed of in the Middle Ages, the material of literature was common property, and the same stories were endlessly repeated., Whoever would learn the “source” from which Chaucer drew must ransack the storehouse of medieval fiction, and examine no little of medieval science and philosophy. But what is more important is that Chaucer improved whatever, he borrowed and stamped it with his individuality of thought and style and structural skill. That part of his work which we value most, however, such as the Prologues to the Legend of Goode Women and to the Canterbury Tales, was original in every sense, and some of the Tales have been so radically and vitally remodeled that they stand as genuinely original.
Self-Check Exercises-III

1.    How many pilgrims are there in ‘Prologue to Canterbury Tales’ excluding the poet?

1.      twenty-eight 3. thirty

2.     twenty-nine   4. thirty-one


2.5.    Summary
Geoffrey Chaucer was an English poet and author. Widely considered the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages, he is best known for The Canterbury Tales. Chaucer has been called the ‘’Father of English Literature” and was the first writer buried in Poet’s Corner of Westminster Abbey. Chaucer also achieved fame in his lifetime as a philosopher and astronomer for his ten-year-old son Lewis. He maintained an active career in the civil service as a bureaucrat, courtier, and diplomat. Among Chaucer’s many other works are The Book of the Duchess, The House of Fame, The Legends of Good Women, and Troilus and Criseyde.

2.6.    Glossary
Splendor -Great light, luster, or brilliance.
Rheims - A city in the Champagne- Ardenne region of France.
Zenith - The point in the sky vertically above a given position or observer; the point in the celestial sphere opposite the nadir.
Castle - A large building that is fortified and contains many defences; in previous ages often inhabited by a nobleman or King.

2.7   Answers to Self-Check Exercises
Self-Check Exercise-I
(l),
Self-Check Exercise-II
(1,2),
Self-Check Exercise-III
(2)

2.8  SUGGESTED READINGS/ REFERENCES

A Critical History of English Literature by David Daiches
History of English Literature by Edward Albert

2.9.    Terminal Questions

1.      Discuss Chaucer as a story teller of 14th century.

2.     Discuss various ideas in The Canterbury Tales.
Unit-3
The Age of Chaucer: Chaucer’s Contemporaries

3. 0   Learning Objectives


3.1    Introduction

3.3   Chaucer's Contemporaries


3.3.1    John Gower
Self-Check Exercise-I

3.3.2    John Wyclif
Self-Check Exercise-II

3.3.3    William Langland
Self-Check Exercise-III

3.3.4    Metrical Form
Self-Check Exercise-IV

3.4   Summary

3.5    Glossary

3.6 .   Answers to Self-Check Exercises

3.7 .   Suggested Readings/ References

3.8 .   Terminal Questions

3.1.    Introduction
Chaucer lived and wrote in a world where the half-shadows of the Middle Ages were only beginning to scatter before the clear dawn-light of modern culture. He was the first man to react to that stimulating and emancipating movement called the Renaissance, as it stirred in the souls of men belong the Alps; and his artistic consciousness escaped from the rigid bonds, the cramping conventionalities, the narrow inhibitions of the Middle Age. From them he emerged into the world of living actualities that he exhibits in this powerful later work. In this he was far beyond his age. The full force of his originality is most evident when he is compared with John Gower to whom he dedicated his Troilus..

3.2.    Learning Objectives
The objective of this Unit is to familiarize you with Chaucer and his contemporaries like John Gower. John Wycliffe. William Langland etc. and their contribution to English Literature.

3.3    Chaucer’s Contemporaries


3.3.1    John Gower
John Gower (1330-1408) was an aristocratic, conservative, landed gentleman, with rich manors in Kent and elsewhere. He was known at court where his poetry met with many appreciations. He was extremely pious; he became blind in his old age and resided not far from the tabard Inn which Chaucer had made famous. He wrote the Speculum Meditantis in French, the Vox Clamantis in Latin, and the Confession Amantis in English. This diversity in the choice of language shows clearly the opinion of the age-that the English tongue was not, yet, obviously the only instrument of literary expression. For two centuries after his death, Gower was regarded as the equal of Chaucer and Lydgate, some think that he was probably more truly representative of his age than Chaucer.
The Speculum Meditanits, or Mirour del’ Omme, consists of an elaborate allegory of the attacks of the seven deadly sins and their offspring’s upon mankind’s; a complete review of the state of the world and of its corruptions from the time of Rome, in which are vividly pictured the wickedness of London, is draw shops, its chatting merchants and shopkeepers, its slothful monks and friars, its vulture-like lawyers, and its lazy and rebellious labourers; finally, there is presented a plan of salvation, consisting of the intervention of the Virgin Mary, whose history is narrated, together with the whole story of the gospel narrative. The work is systematically conceived and executed. The tone
of moral earnestness, and the vignettes of con temporary life are painted with colour and vigour.
The Confessio Amantis, like The Canterbury Tales, is a collection of stories. A lover makes confession to a priest of Venus, a learned old man named Genius, and the stories narrated by this priest for the purpose of illustrating the seven deadly sins. Though the design is occasionally marred by digressions, in general the structure of the poem is carefully planned and executed; each of the seven deadly sins, with five branches, is shown to be applicable to love and lovers, and one or more stories are told to some of the tales is rather forced, the collection is noted for the number and variety of its excellent stories. The Confessio Amantis was Gower’s most popular work, and still exists in three versions in forty-three manuscripts. In one version. Chaucer, who had decided his Troilus and Criseyde to “Moral Gover” is urged in his later age to write a testament of love.
The Vox Clamantis is interesting for historical reasons. The second half of the fourteenth century was a time of revolutionary changes among the peasants of England. Four terrible attacks of the Black Death, the first in 1348, the last in 1375, swept over the country, destroying over a third of the population. For a long time, the old feudal system known as “villeigns”, according to which all agriculture was carried on for the lord of the decay, giving way to a combination of renting to free farmers (like Chaucer’s Plowman) and of hiring landless labourers, who wandered from district to district, wherever attracted by high wages. The destruction of such a huge number of labourers by the plague resulted in an enormous decrease in the labour market due to the demand of workers, villeinage practically disappeared. The condition of the survivors, however, was not very greatly improved, for the short crops, the long periods of idleness between harvest and plowing, and especially the statues, passed by parliament, attempting to reduce wages to the facile prevailing before the plague, produced wide-spread hunger and discontent. The exactions of die church, the extravagances of Edward III, and the heavy cost of his foreign wars added to the burden of the distracted peasantry. The fearlessness with which the Oxford reformer, John Wyclif, attacked the corruptions of the clergy and questioned the fundamental rights of property was like flame to the fuel of discontent. In 1381 nationwide uprising of the peasants occurred, under the leadership of Wat Tyler, Jack Straw, and a socialist priest of Kent, named John Balle. They marched on London, sacked the Tower as if the throne and the whole social order where about to be overturned. It was this state of things which prompted Gower to write
his Vox Clamantis. As a landowner in Kent, he felt the full brunt of the disturbances. He writes from an aristocratic point of view, representing the common people as beasts, oxen, dogs, flies, and frogs because of the evil magic of the time. But he does not hesitate to blame King Richard II for this neglect of his duties and he agrees on occasion with Wyclif and Lollards, although he warns his readers against them. The poem is full of horror and dismay at the social volcano which had opened for a moment, and threatened to engulf the nation.
Self- Check Exercise-I

1.     Who is the writer of Vox Clamantis?

1.     John Gower 3. William Langland

2.     John Wycliffe 4. Shakespeare

3.3.2    John Wycliffe
John Wyclif (1320-1384), the man who by his teaching had helped, though unintentionally, to foment the peasant revolution was primarily a theologian and religious reformer. His connection with English literature is, in a sense, accidental, but nevertheless very important. He attacked the temporal power of the church, advocating, partly in the interest of the overburdened poor, the appropriation by the state of all church property, especially of land. While waging a war of theory on his and other ecclesiastical questions, he planned and carried out a great practical movement, known as the Lollard movement, for arousing the common people to a more vital religious life. He sent out simple devoted men to preach the gospel in the native tongue, and to bring home to their hearts the living truths of religion which the formalism of the medieval church had obscured. These “poor priests”, dressed in coarse russet robes and carrying staves, travelled through the length and breath of the land, as Wesley’s preachers travelled four centuries later, calling men back to the simple faith of early apostolic times.
Wyclif and his Lollard priests began the great protestant appeal from the dogmas of the church to the prime authority of the Scriptures which culminated in the sixteenth century, in Luther and the Reformation. In order to make this appeal effective with masses, Wyclif not only wrote numerous tracts and sermons in homely, vigrous speech for the common people but also urged the translation of the Bible into English. The task
was completed by Nicholas of Hereford and a corps of assistants before Wyclif’s death in 1384. The translation Wyclif had inspired was revised and rendered into more idiomatic language a few years later by John Purvey, and received its final form some time before the end of the century. It is one of the first great prose monuments in English, and its wide popularity despite the occasional stiff and unidiomatic “translation English” rendered in influential in gaining for the vernacular a position of dignity and honour.
.      Self- Check Exercise-II

1.     Who is known as ‘‘Morning star of Reformation”

1.     William Langland    3. John Wycliffe

2.     Shakespeare 4. John Gower

3.3.3    William Langland
The peasant rebellion and the Lollard agnation give us glimpses of an England which Chaucer, despite the many sidedness of his work, did not reveal. The Canterbury Tales contains few references to the plague, only one to the peasant revolution, and only one to Lollardy, and these references are casual or jesting. Chaucer wrote for the court and cultivated classes, to whom the sufferings of the poor were a matter of utmost indifference. He is often serious, sometimes nobly so; but intense moral indignation and exalted spiritual rapture were foreign to his artistic, gay, tolerant disposition. In his graceful world lines, his delight in the bright pageantry of life, he shows himself to be an adherent of the nobility of life, he shows himself to be an adherent of the nobility, a follower of the Norman-French literary school; the other side of the English nature its somber, puritanical, moralizing side found expression in a group of poems which have recently been ascribed to one author William Langland, and which have been called the Vision Concerning Piers the Plowman. Although the question of the unity or diversity of authorship of these poems is still involved in controversy, the position of the adherents of the older view has been so seriously undermined that we are now obliged at least to discard completely the inferential biography of the author, which had been based solely on half hints and imagination details contained in the poems. The three poems comprise of an ordinal version and two successive revisions, the two latter being about three times as long as the former. It is profitable to consider the earliest version (1362) first.
The poem is a series of dreams or visions such as the Roman de la Rose had made fashionable. On a May morning the tired poet leans beside a brook in the Malvern hills, and, lulled by the soft music of the water, falls sleep. In a dream he sees a high Tower in the east, a dark Dungeon in a deep dale in the west, and in between a fair Field full of fold, working and wandering. There are plowmen and masters, proud ladies and gentlemen of fashion, hermits, peddlers, minstrels, lazy beggars, lying pilgrims, preaching friars, a fraudulent pardoner, absentee priest, unscrupulous law years, barons, townspeople, and serfs; some are good, some are wicked, most are greedy, lazy rapacious. Suddenly a lovely Lady, Holy church, descends from the mountains, and explains to the dreamer that the Tower is the abode of God the Father, who is the spirit of truth. Truth, she says, consists in loving God and being charitable to men. From the Tower the dreamer turns to die Dungeon, from which streams a retinue of rascals in the train of falsehood, the son of Wrong, who is the lord of evil. Falsehood is about to marry Lady Meed, the allegorical representative of the greed of the people in the Field, but Theology forbids the marriage, and in order to obtain leave Meed and Falsehood are required to go to the King’s court. On their way the king orders the arrest of the mob of rascals, who disperse in a panic, and Lady Meed is brought to trial. Here she attempts to marry the King’s greatest Knight, who is named Conscience but the latter refuses until she obtains the consent of reason. Before reason can render judgement, Meed is caught red handed in the act of bribing the king’s officials to release a criminal, and in a stinging speech of denunciation by Reason is forever debarred from pleading before the king. Reason concludes with the assertion that the royal domain can be made righteous and happy only if he and Conscience rule over it. Immediately the dreamer sees Conscience and Repentance preaching to the Field full of folk, who in the form of personified. Deadly Sins, confess, repent, and promise to seek, Truth. But no one knows the way thither, nor even a palmer who has visited every shrine on earth, till Peirs, the old, faithful plowman, ventures to tell them how to find and follow the path. It leads through Meekness, Conscience, love of God and man and the Ten Commandments (represented as almost impassable rivers, mountains, and forests), after which will be seen the Tower of, surrounded by a most of Mercy, and guarded by Grace. Entrance can be secured only through the seven Virtues the antitheses of the Deadly sins. The pilgrims’ despair over the difficult and beg Piers to lead them, but he refuses until he was finished his plowing, sowing, and harvesting, and in the meantime commands them all to assist him. Many refuse to work and Piers calls, Hunger, who beats them and feeds
them only on beans, barley bread, and water. At the harvest some become arrogant and refuse to work save for high wages in spite of the renewed warnings of Hunger. Finally, Truth sends Piers a pardon, under the terms of which only those who aid him are to be admitted to the Tower, the pardon reads, “Those who do good shall enter eternal life, but those who do evil suffer in eternal fire.” In a dispute over the meaning of the pardon Piers and the priest talk so loudly that the dreamer awakes.
Even to the shortest form of the poem as just given several cantos were added, which however, in vigor and structural power, fall for below the work of the first writer. Twice afterward (1377, 1386-1398) the poem was augmented by many more cantos, and was extremely remodeled. A planned allegory, with the systematic action of its living and moving figures, however, was beyond the power of the latter writers. Neither did they see or understand the social abuses so clearly, nor could they propose so definite a remedy. Their work is full of poetic lines find powerful short passages but it lacks form and structure.
The name of Piers the Plowman was used as revolutionary cry in the peasant uprising. But the poem aims not at revolution but at reform. Its remedy is neither physical violence nor an ascetic with drawl form the social conflict, but the gospel of Truth, Love Duty, and Work. The poet’s sense of equality of all men before God, his hatred of social falsities and hypocrisy, his belief in the dignity of labour given an almost modem tone to his poem, in spite of its archaic metrical form and its medieval allegorical machinery. His deep religious sense and the power of his feeling of social duty are neither ancient nor modem, but of all time.
Self- Check Exercise-III

1.     Who writes Piers and Plowman?

1.     Shakespeare         3. John Wycliffe

2.     William Langland   4. John Gower

3.3.4 Metrical Form
The metrical form which the poet chose again contrasts him sharply with Chaucer. Chaucer threw in his lot from the first with the new versification imported from France, depending upon regular accent, a fixed number of syllables, and rhyme; and he developed this in such a way as to produce with it a rich and finished music. By
his choice of the French system, he puts himself in line with the future of English verse, even though the tradition he began was lost for a time in the fifteenth century. The author of Piers the Plowman, because he knew that his popular audience would be more deeply moved by the ancient and traditional would be more deeply moved by the ancient and traditional rhythms of the nation, or because these were more natural to himself, adopted the old system of native versify cation which depended upon a fixed number of accents (four) and alliteration for its metrical structure, and allowed great irregularity both in the position of stressed syllables and the number of syllables in the line. The opening vases of the poem will serve as a specimen;
In a summer season. When soft nm we sonnet, I shape me in shroudes, as I am shepe were In habit as a hermit, unholy of workers; went wide in this world wondres to here.
The caesura, or heavy pause in the middle of each line, is marked by a dot. The alliterative syllabus of which there are usually two in the first half, and one in the second half, are stressed. There are normally four stresses in the line.
This matter, is heigh a modem ear, somewhat monotonous and uncouth. It adapts itself much better to recitation than reading with the eye. However, we account for it, the fact that the Vision is written in this antique and rapidly dying verse from has told against it. From Chaucer, form France and Italy, flows the whole stream of later verse. Peirs and Plowman has had to modem literary offspring, though it was considered one of the most valuable pieces of literature in English and was imitated a number of times in its own and the following century.
But the work of the poet who wrote the earliest version has suffered most in modem criticism because it has not been carefully distinguished from that the later continuators and adapters. Their work is confused in plan, bewildered with detail full of reeks and structureless transitions. Its total effect is majestic only because of the force of imagination behind it, but is not artiste. It lacks the clear, firm outline and the harmonious proportion, which the first poet attained, and which likewise Chaucer’s supreme artistic sense enables him to attain in his later years. But it is probably the greatest piece of Middle English literature, except for The Canterbury Tales.
Self-Check Exercise-IV
1. How did Chaucer's choice of versification contrast with that of the author of "Piers the Plowman"?

3.4    Summary
The period between 1343 and 1450 is known as the Age of Chaucer. It marked the first significant literary Age in English Literature.
It heralded a new era of learning. Chaucer’s age also witnessed many social, political, arc religious challenges. There was a strong dislike for the Papal or Church’s interference, which previously been the citadel of moral authority, social prestige but now suffered from corruption turpitude and superstitions. There were strong nationalistic passions due to the 100 year’s war between England and France.

3.5    Glossary
Culminate - heavenly body, to be at the highest point, reach its greatest altitude.
Engulf - overwhelm
Feudal or relating to feudalism -A social system based on personal ownership of resources and personal fealty between a suzerain (lord) and a vessel.

3.6.    Answers to Self-Check Exercises
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.(1),
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.(3),
Self-Check Exercise-III

1.(2)
Self-Check Exercise-IV

1.    Chaucer used the French system of regular accent and rhyme, while the author of "Piers the Plowman" used traditional alliterative verse with irregular syllables.

3.7.    Suggested Readings/ References

A Short History of English Literature by Harry Blamires
History of English Literature by W.H Longfellow

3.8.    Terminal Questions

1.     Discuss the literary contribution of Chaucer’s contemporaries.

2.     Discuss the metrical forms used by Chaucer and his contemporaries
***
Unit-4
Chaucer’s Imitators and The Fifteenth Century

4.0   Learning Objectives

4.1    Introduction

4.3   Contemporaries of Chaucer


4.3.1    John Lydgate
Self-Check Exercise-I

4.3.2    Thomas Occleve
Self-Check Exercise-II

4.3.3    James I
Self-Check Exercise-III

4.3.4    Bishop Percy
Self-Check Exercise-IV

4.3.5    Thomas Malory
Self-Check Exercise-V

4.4   Summary

4.5    Glossary

4.6 .   Answers to Self-Check Exercises

4.7 .   Suggested Readings/ References

4.1    Introduction
That Chaucer was far in advance of his time becomes clear when we note how persistently his fifteenth-century successors turned back to him for inspiration, as to their “Fader dere and master reverent,” and found themselves unable to do more than awkwardly or pallidly imitate him.

4.2.    Learning Objectives
The objective of this Unit is to make you familiar with the imitators of Chaucer and their contribution to English Literature. It also explains the social, political, and literary features of fifteenth century.

4.3.   Contemporaries of Chaucer


4.3.1    John Lydgate
The chief among these imitators was John Lydgate, a monk of Bury St. Edmunds, began making verses before Chaucer’s death, and died before the outbreak of the Wars of the Roses. Lydgate, who was primarily a translator and compiler, was the most voluminous medieval English poet. His major works were the Troy Book the Falls of Princes, The Temple of Glass, The pilgrimage of the Life of Man, and The Story of Thebes. His Story of Thebes, based on Boccaccio and Statius, pretends to be told as one of the Canterbury Tales; the poet in his prologue feigns to have joined the pilgrims at Canterbury, and at the Host’s request tells the story on the homeward journey. The device illustrates clearly the lack of originality of Lydgate and his brother poets.
Lydgate’s verse, moreover, is markedly halting and tuneless. But in his own day he was ranked with Chaucer and Gower as a brisk teller of stories.
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.     The Falls of Princes is written by?

1.     Bishop Percy        3. Thomas Occleve

2.     Thomas Malory     4. John Lydgate

4.3.2    Thomas Occleve
In this respect Thomas Occleve (or Hoiccleve, 1373-1450) a better disciple. He perhaps had the benefit of Chaucer’s personal acquaintance and instruction, loved and mourned his deeply, and preserved, in manuscript of his Governail of Princes of De Regimine principum (written for the Prince of Wallon, afterward Henry V), the well known portrait of Chaucer as a grey-haried old man, hooded and gowned. This treatise on courtly morals and manners is probably his major work.
Self-Check Exercise-II
1. What is considered Thomas Occleve's major work?

4.3.3    James
A third poet who continued the master’s tradition (with a good sprinkling of Gower, to be sure) has lived in literary history as much by the picture sequences of his personal story has by his poetry, which is nevertheless charming in his own style of presentation. This is the young Stuart prince, afterward James I of Scotland, who was captured by English sailors in 1405, and spent the next nineteen years in England, as a prisoner in the Tower of London, Windsor Castle, and other strong holds. At the time of his capture he was a child of eleven. As he grew up in solitude, he turned for division to poetry and music arts in which the Scottish kings were traditionally proficient. One day, from the windows of Windsor Castle, he saw a beautiful young girl walking in the garden below, as Palamon saw the fair Emile in the Knight’s Tale. The story of his love for Jane Beau fort and its happy outcome the young prince told with tenderness and fancy in his King’s Quair. It is written in the seven- line pentameter stanza invented by Chaucer and repeatedly used by him, though, in deference to the princely poet, it has since been known as “rhyme royal.” Both the style and plan of the King’s Quair are limited from the artificial French poetry from which Chaucer more and more departed
as he grew in original power, but from which neither Gower nor the failure of these imitators delivered themselves. It is significant of the failure of these imitators to perceive the immense originality of Chaucer’s later work, that they frequently put Gower on level with him. In the Envoy of the King’s Quair James recommends his “little boke, nakit of eloquence.”
Unto the ympnes (hymns) of any matsters dere Gowere and Chaucers, that on stappies satt Of rhetorike will they were lyvand here Superlative as poets laureate.
And he brings the poem to a close with a prayer that their souls may together enjoy the bliss of heaven. When in 1424 the prince, on the eve of his release from his long activity, was married to the lady whom he had celebrated in King’s Quair, his reverence for Gower prompted him to have the wedding held in the church of St Saviour’s where the old poet lay buried, James’s assassination at Perth in 1437 is the subject of Rossetti’s literary ballad, The King’s Tragedy.
The fifteenth century is often characterized as a period barren of poetic production. This is true only so far as it implies the absence of genius. Quantitatively the fifteenth century was more prolific of English poetry (and prose) than any preceding century. The enormous growth of English commerce and industry, and consequent rise of the middle classes in number, wealth and leisure resulted in a voracious public appetite for the output of literary mediocrity, a large part of which is purely utilitarian. The number of third- rate writers is very large the works of over three hundred have been quantity of their output is surprising. But the fact remains that the freshest and most spontaneous work is of popular origin. Songs and carols, ballads and new and remodeled plays of all sorts constitute the finest literature of the century.
The English popular ballad used to be regarded as a variety of folk-art communally produced. It was then defined as a narrative poem without any known author or any marks of individual authorship, such as sentiment and reflection, meant in the first instance for singing, and connected, as its name implies, with the communal dance, but submitted to a process of oral tradition among people free from literary influence and homogeneous.” In recent years, scholars have emphasized the importance of the individual, though usually an unknown author and have minimized the communal element. These ballads appeared to have flourished luxuriantly among the fold in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, after which their composition ceased.

1.     The King’s Quair by James 1 of Scotland is the story of
his love for?

1.     Emile         3. Cleopatra

2.     Blanche      4. Jane Beaufort

4.3.4    Bishop Percy
Over three hundred of them, in 1300 versions, have survived, and have been collected and printed, the earliest collection being that in Bishops Percy’s Reliques of Ancient Populat Poetry, the publication of which in 1795 aroused the keenest interest. These ballads in the main are of two different types one presenting an emotional situation, often tragic, in short stanzas, with a refrain and with much repetition; the other, as in the case of the Robin Hood ballads offering a rather extended narrative in stanzas of four lines, the second and fourth lines rhyming. The first type-the fold balladshows some signs of group composition although the originals were probably composed by individuals. The second type the minstrel ballad is certainly the result of individual composition. The former may be illustrated by the following: Lully, lulley, lulley, lully,
The jaw con hath born by make male away. He bare-hym up, he bare hym down. He bare hym into on orchard browned Refrain) In that orchard there are an halle, That was hanged with pupil and pall. (Ref) And in that hall there wm a bede;
Hit was hanged with gold so rede.(Ref) And in that bed there lythe a knyght. His wownd is bledyng and unght.(Ref) By that bede side kneleth a may (maid). And she wepeth both nyght and day.(Ref).
One of the best known of the Robin Hood ballads, entitled Robin Hood and the Monk, opens with the following musical and picturesque stanzas:
In somer, when the shawes (groves) be sheyne (beautiful), And leaves be large and long, Hit is full mery (pleasant) in feyure foreste To here the foulys (little birds) song.
To se the dere drawe to the dale, And leve the leaves hee(high) And shadow hem in the leaves grene, Under the grenewood tre.
The ballad has a well-constructed plot, with fighting, imprisonment, disguise, and escape. Interest in the ballads is one of the features of the romantic period and from that period date most of the “literary ballads” poems written consciously in the manner of the ancient ballad.

1.    When was Bishop Percy's "Reliques of Ancient Popular Poetry" published?

4.3.5    Thomas Malory
In prose the fifteenth century produced one work which has much of delevation and imaginative splendour of great poetry the Morteh d’ Arthur (The Death of Arthur) of Sir Thomas Malory. Malory was a knight, a gentleman of an ancient house, with its seat at New bold Re veil, Warwickshire. As a young man he served in France, in the military retinue of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, a warrior in whom lived again the knightly ideal of a former age, and who was known by the romantic title of “Father of Courtesy.” Malory himself seems to have had an unusually turbulent and contentious carrier, but it did not disqualify him from the task of combining in one great prose mosaic almost all the legends and tales of King Arthur and his knights of the Round Table, which had been richly elaborated by the poets and prose-writers of England and France. Here, in an enchanted realm, detached from actuality, we hear of high deeds of love, loyalty, and revenge performed by tire great personifications of chivalry-Gawain, Lancelot, Percival, and Galahad. Very largely by virtue of his imitating the style of his French originals, Malory became the master of a simple, flowing English primitive in structure, but capable of considerable flexibility and falling into pleasant nature rhymes. The morte ‘d’ Author was finished by 1470; it was printed in 1485, when Caxton, the first English printer, published it with an interesting preface from his own hand.
Self-Check Exercise-V

1.     Who wrote the famous poetry Morte d’ Arthur?

1.     James I              3. John Lydgate

2.    Thom as Malory 4. Gower

4.4.   Summary
Geoffrey Chaucer was one of the most prominent poets. Widely considered the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages, he is best known for The Canterbury Tales. Other writers from Chaucer’s time were William Langland author of Piers Plowman. John Gower was another close contemporary of Chaucer’s. Boccaccio was an Italian, Several of Chaucer’s poems notably his Trodus and Criseyde and The Knight’s Tale, are based on the works of Boccaccio. Thomas Occleve, Bishop Percy, and Thomas Malory were a few more important writers of fifteenth century.

4.5.   Glossary
Imitate- to copy.
Gowned- A loose, flowing upper garment.
Solitude- Aloneness. state of being alone, by oneself.
Leisure- Freedom provided by the cessation of activities.

4.6.    Answers to Self-Check Exercises
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.  (4),
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.    Thomas Occleve's major work is his treatise "Governail of Princes" or "De regimine principum," written for the Prince of Wales, who later became Henry V.
Self-Check Exercise-III

1.   (4)
Self-Check Exercise-IV

1.    Bishop Percy's "Reliques of Ancient Popular Poetry" was published in 1795.
Self-Check Exercise-V

1.       (2)

4.7.    Suggested Readings/ References
.      A Short History of English Literature by I for Evans
The Short Oxford History of English Literature by Andrew Sanders.

4.8.    Terminal Questions

1.    What is the social religious and political background of the Age of Chaucer?

2.    Who was Chaucer’s Contemporaries?

3.    What is the modern note in the age of Chaucer?
Block – II Unit-5
The Renaissance: General Introduction

5.1    Introduction

5.2 . Learning Objectives

5.3    Renaissance
Self-Check Exercise-I

5.3.1    Its Birth in Italy
Self-Check Exercise-II

5.3.2    Birth of New Culture of Humanism
Self-Check Exercise-III

5.3.3    New Philosophy
Self-Check Exercise-IV

5.4    The Reign of Stability
Self-Check Exercise-V

5.5   Summary

5.6    Glossary

5.7 .   Answers to Self-Check Exercises

5.8 .   Suggested Readings/References

5.9 .   Terminal Questions

5.1.    Introduction
In the history of English literature, the period from 1516 to 1660 is variously designed by different critics. It has been called the Age of Shakespeare. Though Shakespeare was born in 1554, and started his career towards the end of the sixteenth century, yet his works are fully representative of the political, social and literary tendencies of this great age. It is designated as the Elizabethan Age because queen Elizabeth was responsible for the unity, security, and strength of England. She was possessed of strong judgement, tact, and prudence with a remarkable insight into the psychology of her subject, which made her a living symbol of English patriotism and national aspirations. Very often it is referred to as the age of English Renaissance because it was during this period only that the full impact of the great intellectual movement known as the renaissance was felt on the social, culture, and intellectual life of the English people.

5.2.    Learning Objectives
In this Unit we will tell you about the birth of Renaissance and life and contribution of Shakespeare. Some aspects of Humanism, Age of Enlightenment and literary features of 15th century will also be discussed.

5.3.    Renaissance
Whatever name we may give to this age, the fact remains that this is one of the most significant periods in the literary and social history of England. We see an England totally different from that of Middle Ages. Many factors were responsible for giving a new personality to the English men who now followed a different set of ideals in their personal, social, and political life. A new intellectual and social climate was there and hence the literature produced during this age is also tremendously different from whatever was written before. A proper appreciation of the literature of his age is possible only if we acquaint ourselves with the age first.
Attempts have been made to divide this period into three parts. The first part is the time of preparation for the Renaissance (1516 to 1578); the second is the flowering of the Renaissance (1578 to 1625); the final part closes with the deterioration of literature on account of lack of inspiration.
The word Renaissance means revival or rebirth. It was the human spirit that was reborn or awakened after the long slumber of the Middle Ages. The idea of the rebirth of the arts, or of letter and learning goes back of the fourteenth century and was part of the consciousness of the very first generation of Renaissance humanists and artists. The term “Renaissance” is however, used to cover the whole movement whose essence was according to Taine, that man, “so long blinded had suddenly opened his eyes and seen. “It is specially used to denote the great spiritual and mental rebirth which marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the modem world. In the words of Joseph Anthony Mazzeo in his Renaissance, and Revolution,” Renaissance was a process of recovery of past achievements, a search for pristine ideals. Of Course, much that was new was coming to birth during the Renaissance, but it was validated, not as a fresh creation but as the resurrection of some better ancient teaching, institution, moral or aesthetic idea.”
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.    When did Renaissance started and when did it end?
1. 1500-1600 3. 1553-1589

2.    1516-1660 4. 1516-1600

5.3.1    Its Birth in Italy
Renaissance had its birth in Italy. From Italy it came to Germany and France and then to England. Dante (1265-1321) is the last representative of the Middle Ages. In his Divine Comedy he roams through heaven and hell and purgatory, Petrach (130474) his immediate successors, changed all that. He turned away from such gloomy subjects and wrote of more agreeable thinks of love, of nature, and of the glories of ancient Rome. He was soon joined by his young friend Boccacio (1313-75) who delighted his countrymen with rollicking stories of love and laughter, and poems of romance and passion.
Petrarch and Boccacio had a tremendous interest in the past achievements of their country, the relics of ancient buildings the beautiful statues. Simultaneously another event took place which gave a further fillip to the revival of classical learning. In 1453 Constantinople, the last stronghold of Greek language and Greek culture, fell to the Turks. The Greek and Latin scholars with their precious manuscripts of ancient learning field from there and found welcome in Italy, particularly in Florence. The Italians who had only heard of the great names of Homer, of Plato and Aristotle, and were anxious to know them first hand, now satisfied their curiosity at the feet of the refugee scholars. Classical learning was by no means totally defunct in the Middle Ages; Latin was the official language of the church and of the world of scholarship; Plato and Aristotle were dominant influences on the great philosophers and classical mythology, had already invaded the religious as well as the secular life of the Christian world and started the process of moral and religious interpretation of the old myths. Virgil and Cicero came to command great respect as important links between the classical and the Christian outlooks of life. But the wave of Renaissance coloured the thoughts and idea of the Elizabe than people in shades and hues unknown to the Middle Ages.
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.     . Where had the Renaissance started?

1.      Italy           3. Paris

2.     Germany    4. England

4.3.2 Birth of New Culture of Humanism
This rediscovery and reinterpretation of antiquity gave birth to a new culture that of humanism. It had two main forms” the classical humanist sought to revive the art, literature and learning of antiquity, while the Christian humanist, using the new
philological and historical discipline procreated by the secular humanist sought to return to the authentic pristine Gospel, unencumbered by the massive complexities of scholastic theology. Humanism, broadly defined and understood, is the master key for the understanding of the civilization of the Re naissance.
The term “Humanism” was coined only during the nineteenth century to refer to the revival of classical learning which began in the fourteenth century. Humanism was, in fact an educational movement in the broadest of the term. The great humanists of the Renaissance were impelled to revolutionize the curriculum out of the conviction that the classical world had been through a complete cycle of human experience-moral intellectual and imaginative and that the ancients had given a luminiously intelligent account the experience in perfect form in imperishable works of thought, art and literature. Thus, the entire curriculums of studies in Renaissance was based on the ancient Greek and Latin culture as against the old professional scholastic curriculum developed during the Middle Ages. The Renaissance humanist chose a new set of subjects for study and teaching and formulated a new curriculum whose highest intention was to make the liberally educated man the citizen, fit to perform with distinction the duties of peace and war. This curriculum was based mainly on Grammer, rhetoric, poetry, history, and philosophy.
Self-Check Exercise-III

1.    What were the two main forms of humanism during the Renaissance?

5.3.3 New Philosophy
By turning away from “divine” literature the humanist deliberately altered the focus of intellectual and moral concern. They emphasized a new, scholar philosophy of life. This philosophy was directly opposed to the ascetic philosophy of the Christian Church. While the Christian outlook was other worldly, based upon the vanitatum of earthy pomp, power and glory and horror of the world, the Flesh and the devil and die manifold temptations of the senses, the Renaissance humanism on the contrary was practically a glorification of human life on the planet; of material property success and comforts. They placed their emphasis on man, man as he is revealed in the written records, intellectual and imaginative. They discussed questions like the dignity of man, the conditions and possibilities of happiness in human efforts and ability to contact it. Whether the highest human activity was to be found in contemplation
or in a life of political and social action, the relative merits of different kinds of government, whether government by one or by many under the new creed life no longer seemed a penance to be endured by good Christians in preparation for heaven. People begin to take interest in this life and stove hard to make it larger and happier.
So long the discussion has been regarding the great intellectual movement which swept over the whole continent changing the attitude of masses as well as of classes towards human life in general. The people of England came under its influence and saw life from an entirely different angle hitherto unknown to them. Apart from the foreign influences the political and religious situation in England did contribute tremendously in creating the new spirit of the age.
Self-Check Exercise-IV

1.    How did Renaissance humanism differ from the Christian outlook?

5.4 The Reign of Stability
“In the Age of Elizabeth all doubt seems to vanish from English history,” says W.J. Long. England did not enjoy political stability in the reigns of Edward and Mary. England had to face defeat and humiliation abroad and persecutions and rebellion at home. When Queen Elizabeth I came to the throne it was like the sunrise after a long night. In Milton’s words, we suddenly see England, “a noble and Puissant nation, rousing herself, like a strong man after sleep and Shaking her invincible locks.” Elizabeth loved England and England’s greatness. She inspired all her people with the unbounded patriotism which exults in Shakespeare and with the personal devotion which finds voice in the Fairie Queene. Under her administration the English national life progressed by gigantic leaps and English Literature reached the very Zenith of its development. Her Court showed an uninhibited interest in intellectual pursuits and she herself had failing regard for learning and literature. She was surrounded by a band of brilliant courtiers, products of the humanist education, adept in the art of peace and war, patrons of the mysteries of the creative literature. Southampton, Pembrok, Earl of Oxford, Raleigh, Sir Philip Sidney, and the Earl of Essex.
The queen’s physical decline and her ultimate death caused waning of this glory. With the accessions of King James during the early years of the 17th century a mood of disillusionment, cynicism and boredom entered the English court. Consequently, it had its repercussions on output also. The last phase of Renaissance, which is sometimes
designated as the Jacobean period, marked the phase of sobriety and realism, The mind descended from the height of exaltation to the solid earth underfoot, high hope yielded place to de spair, cynicism and melancholy, passion for life gave way to brooding upon death, on ever the corpses in the grave undergoing the process of decay and putrefaction. The atmosphere was congenial for the growth of satire and the creative minds turned to the exposure of the follies and corruptions of the age, of the insatiable lust for gold that had permeated the whole society.
Catholic vs Protestants
Queen Elizabeth’s influence was responsible for another great characteristic of the age—the comparative religious tolerance. At the time of the Queen’s accession to the throne the whole kingdom was divided against itself. A strong controversy between the Catholics and Protestants was raging. The north was largely Catholic, while the Southern countries were staunch Protestants. The Queen’s Court had members of both groups who vied with each oilier to gain the royal favour. Elizabeth favoured both the religious parties and created an atmosphere where the Catholics and Protestants acted together as trusted counselors of the Queen. Men’s minds were free from intense religious questions and controversies, fears, and persecutions. They now had the lime and energy to turn to other forms of activity. Tins religious tolerance provided great stimulus to literary activity and the development of great national literature. The renaissance brought a new spirit of inquiry into the ideals of the Church. Saturated with the new spirit of the renaissance, the religious minded men civilization the faith of the Church in the light of their new reading of Christian scriptures. Thus, gradually came into being a schism from Rome and the supreme authority of the Pope was questioned and challenged. This spirit of reformation forced men to think in terms of nationality. The Church of Rome had held Western Europe together throughout the Middle Ages. But as the Middle Ages drew to their end men stopped giving primary importance to this common spiritual allegiance. England when its people took pride in their being Englishmen, no longer wanted to be subservient in religion to Rome. Naturally a growth of a national spirit meant a great deal to literature, the spiritic of England undoubtedly pervades the final work of Chaucer. But when in the last quarter of the century, English literature shows the full effect of the Renaissance, there can be no denying that the work produced has the stamp of English
nationality well marked on it. University of Shakespeare has not stopped him from being an Englishman through and through.
Age of Enlightenment and Discovery
It was an age of comparative contentment, in strong contract with, the days of Langland. The rapid increase of manufacturing towns gave employment it thousands who had been idle and discontented before me. Increased trade brought enormous wealth to England. The increase of wealth improved the living and gave confidence and contentment to the people. These factors also account for the great literary activity of the period.
It was an age of dreams, of adventure, of unbounded enthusiasms springing from the new lands of fabulous riches revealed by English explorers, it was an era of adventurous knights and enterprising navigators and sea dogs who set out to explore new lands, plant new colonies, plunder enemy shops and returned home with heaps of treasures and incredible reports about remote lands. While her poets created literary works for the fountain of Youth her poets created literary works that are young forever.
From the intellectual point of view the age of Elizabeth was a transitional period. Medievalism was breaking but the medieval ideas and beliefs still had some hold on the minds of men. Belief in the influence of stars of comments and eclipses; in the completion of human personality, out of the blending of the four humours; belief in magic, in witchcraft, in ghosts and fairies had not yet vanished completely. The medieval picture of the cozy universe, with its chain of being and universal order and interpretation of natural and super natural was being challenged from different directions. The new discoveries in the field of astronomy were not accepted suddenly and totally. Copernicus, Montague, and Machiavelli are the three great personalities who made men see the hollowness and falsity of many a belief. Copernicus initiated a revolution in the field of Astronomy by discovery that the hub of the universe was the sun and the earth was a tiny and dark planet spinning round that luminary; Montague, the French sceptic directed his polished irony against the proud position of man and his belief m the inability of his reason.
The noble picture of the universe where the king was the representative of God, the fountain of justice and mercy to his subject; who were duty bound to obey and respect him, was being demolished by Machiavelli, the author of The Prince. Machiavelli saw men as they are. His basic assumption, like that of Hobbes was that
they are bad by nature and can most effectively be governed by force and fraud, the force of the lion and the fraud of the fox. Machiavelli was a monster in the eyes of many, He was denounced in public but read in private by those who wanted to learn the art of the statecraft. He was political teacher to people like Bacon.
Printing, which Caxton had introduced in the previous age, and new literature, was welcomed by the people.
Hence, this period is generally regarded as the greatest in the history of English literature. Historically, there is in this age the tremendous impetus received from the Renaissance, from the reformation, and from the exploration of the new world. It was marked by a strong national spirit, by patriotism, by religious tolerant, by social content, by intellectual progress, and by undrowned enthusiasm. Man made sincere and fruitful attempts to free himself from the rigid institutions of the Middle Agesteudalism and the church and to assert his right to live, to think and to express himself in accordance with a more flexible secular code. As men gained this freedom, they felt less inclined to ascribe to the medieval view that this life should be sacrificed to the future one. They turned more and more to the present world, to the problem of gaining mastery of it through wealth or Statecraft, of discovering its secret through exploration and scientific experiment, of heightening its enjoyment through art and literature.
Literary Features
The literature produced during this age was greatly different from the literature of the earlier ages. Because of the influence of the New Learning, there was an ardent revival in the study of Greek and Latin. It had its impact both on the style and the themes. The rudeness of English language was polished and tempered.
Original though the great period of the English Renaissance was, it had its rise in a multitude of ancient or foreign influences and translations. In the words of Emile Legous. ‘’The rich soiled was fertilized by the deep layer of translations. By 1579 many of the great workers of ancient and modem times had been translated into English almost all of them by 1603; the end of Elizabeth’s region” many of the translations enjoyed as great a popularity as if they had been original works. This was true of Pultarch’s Lives, translated by Thomas Nor, and of Elono’s translation of Montaigues Essays. These translations helped to make supple the prose and verse of English writers as well as to enrich the minds of the people.
The prodigal literary output of the age of Shakespeare is simply amazing. The historical and intellectual tendencies of the age encouraged the dramatic writings and hence the maximum number of plays were produced in this age. But even other forms of literature like poetry, prose and even pamphlet writing were quite popular.
The age of Shakespeare is regarded as the great romantic epoch of literature. The romantic quest is for the remote, the wonderful and the beautiful, and all these desires were abundantly fed during the age of Shakespeare.
Italy exerted by far the greatest possible influence on, English mind and literature. Elizabethan “literature,” before it became the expression of the national genius, had its inspirations in Italianism. Italy gave the key note to the new culture and theories and style to the new literature. The development of the theatre and of the English novel owes much to the stories and lively dramatic tales of Boccacio, Cinihio, Bandello, Straparolia and others.
Though there was considerable influence of foreign literature, yet the strict application of the rules was overlooked. The writer set at naught tyrannical rules of grammar and versification and attempted new styles and manners.
All the important literary genre like Poetry, Drama and Prose became popular and advanced with rape speed. The social, historical, and intellectual climate England in this age proved especially beneficial for the growth and development of drama. Various types of dramas were produced in great abundance.
Self-Check Exercise-V
1. What impact did Queen Elizabeth I's reign have on English national life and literature?

2.    How did Queen Elizabeth's influence affect religious tolerance in England?

5.5    Summary
The English Renaissance was a cultural and artistic movement in England which dated from the late 15th century to the early 17th century. It is associated with the pan-European Renaissance that is usually regarded as beginning in Italy in the late 14th century. As in most of northern Europe. England saw’ little developments until more than a century later.

5.6    Glossary
Slumber - A very light state of sleep, almost awake.
Antiquity- Ancient times; faraway history; former ages.
Pomp- Show of magnificence; parade; display; power.
Zenith-The point in the sky vertically above a given position or observer; the point in the celestial sphere opposite the nadir.

5.7.    Answers to Self-Check Exercises
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.  (2)
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.    (l)
Self-Check Exercise-III

1.    The two main forms of humanism during the Renaissance were classical humanism and Christian humanism.
Self-Check Exercise-IV

1.    Renaissance humanism emphasized the glorification of human life, material success, and intellectual achievements on Earth, in contrast to the Christian outlook, which focused on otherworldly concerns and asceticism.
Self-Check Exercise-V

1.    Queen Elizabeth I's reign led to unbounded patriotism and significant progress in English national life and literature, reaching the zenith of its development.

2.    Queen Elizabeth's influence created an atmosphere of religious tolerance, allowing Catholics and Protestants to act together as trusted counselors and stimulating literary activity.

5.8.   Suggested Readings/ References
History of English literature by Edward Albert.
English Literature (Third Edition) by Andrew Sanders.

5.9.    Terminal Questions

1.     What are the characteristics of Renaissance literature?

2.     Why was literature important during the Renaissance?

3.     How did literature impact the Renaissance?
Unit-6
The Renaissance: Drama

6.1    Introduction

6.2.   Learning Objectives

6.3   Beginning of The Drama
Self-Check Exercise-I

6.4.   The Revival of Classical Drama


6.4.1  Comedy and Tragedy
Self-Check Exercise-I

6.5.   University Wits
Self-Check Exercise-I

6.6.   Summary

6.7.   Glossary

6.8   Answers to Self-Check Exercises

6.9   Suggested Readings/ References

6.10.  Terminal Questions

6.1    Introduction
In the early stages of English theatre, minstrels, jesters, and players entertained with their stories and performances, despite the Church's reservations. The Church, paradoxically, reintroduced drama to teach Christian principles through liturgical plays. Over time, these plays evolved from religious to secular, becoming a communal activity organized by medieval guilds. Four main cycles of plays, mysteries and miracles, added depth to religious narratives. Morality plays followed, depicting abstract virtues and vices. The University Wits like Lyly, Peele, and Kyd expanded the drama's horizons, while Marlowe's grandiose works, notably "Tamburlaine," revolutionized English theatre through bold themes and the introduction of blank verse.

6.2.    Learning Objectives
Learners here in this Unit we will explore the evolution of drama in early English theatre through Unit 6. Beginning with minstrels and players captivating audiences despite Church opposition, learners will delve into the Church's role in reviving drama for religious instruction. They will trace the progression from liturgical plays to secular forms, understanding the transition facilitated by medieval guilds. By studying mystery, miracle, and morality plays, learners will discern the societal and moral aspects embedded in these performances. They will then focus on the contributions of the University Wits, including Marlowe's transformative impact on drama. Ultimately, learners will develop a comprehensive understanding of the historical, social, and artistic factors that shaped the early English theatrical landscape.

6.3.    Beginning of the Drama
The beginnings of the drama in England are obscure. The earliest records of acting in the Middle Ages are concerned not with plays, but with individual players, jesters clowns, tumblers, coal, the minstrel must have been a familiar and welcome figure. He could be found at the king’s court, in castles, at tournaments and weddings or in the market places, gathering a crowd and speeding or singing his stories, But the church was against him.
Though the Church did not look kindly upon the minstrels and their less reputable companions, yet it was the Church itself that brought back the drama in England. The drama arose in England; as in other catholic countries of Europe, in the attempts of the clergy to teach the masses the tenets of the Christian faith by dramatizing the services of the Church at Christmas and Easter, The plays were in Latin, the language was of the liturgy, and the actors were priests. At first, the Liturgical play was merely a part of the church service with the sole
intention of making it more impressive or to emphasize moral lessons. By the thirteenth century such a spectacle was witnesses by many for the sake of the specracle only. The church, which had reintroduced the drama, was discovering that the dramatic element was growing stronger than its religious purpose. Between the thirtieth and fourteenth centuries the drama became secularized. The church authorities when they found that the drama which they had created was an embar rassment, removed it from the church itself to the precincts. Thereby, after a number of changes, it became elaborated and secularized. The language was no more. Latin, but English, and instead of the brief liturgical speeches, a longer drama script was invented around the Biblical narratives. The actors were no longer clergy, but members of the medieval guilds, with each guild usually responsible for one play. The guilds, as a cooperative effort prepared for certain Feast Days, notably for the festival of Corpus Christ!, a series of Biblical plays to be performed at various ‘Stations’ in a town. Each play would be mounted on a platform, fitted with wheels, and so could be drawn from one ‘station’ to another. These religious plays made drama a genuine social activity, a cooperative enterprise, maintained by guilds of craftsmen employing their own members as amateurs.
Four Cycles of Drama
This sort of dramatic activity was very popular in those days. Four main cycles of such plays have survived, those of Chester York, “Townely” or Wakefield and Koventry.
Mystery Plays
These plays vary in dramatic skill, though they all show sincerity and independence, with pathos present at times, as in the play of ‘Abraham’s Sacrifice of Issac.
Miracle Plays
“Frequently, homely, and comic characters were introduced, as in the treatment of Noah’s wife, as a shrew. These cycles of plays are called “Miracles” or “Mysteries”. A distention is sometimes made between ‘mysteries’ and ‘miracles,’ the former denoting plays dealing with the life of Christ and the latter dealing with the lives of the saints. This distinction is true of France, not of England, where all plays were indiscriminately called miracles, later than these religious dramas were the morality plays, in which the characters were abstract vices and virtues. These plays were less lively entertainment than the Miracle plays.
Morality Plays
The earliest morality the Castle of Pre-service date back to the early fifteenth century. The morality was a sort of allegory of human life showing man struggling between Good and Evil. The morality plays were effective and successful in the fifteenth century is proved by the long continued success of every man which was been recently revived in England and America. The subject of the play is the summoning of every man by Death; and the moral is that nothing can take away the terror of the inevitable summons, but an honest life and the comforts of religion. In its dramatic unity it suggests the pure Greek drama, there is no change of time or scene, and the stage is never empty from the beginning to the end of the performance. Other well known Moralities are the Pride of Life, Hyckescorner and Castle of Perseverance.
John Skelton, the writer of Magnificence and Sir David Lidsay, “the poet of die Scotch Reformation” are the two best known authors of moralities. They satirized the abuses of Church and State and introduced living personages thinly disguised as allegories; so that the stage became a power in shaping events and correcting abuses.
Interludes
Apart from the morality plays, there exited short plays named” Interludes.” These were not popular pieces like the religious plays nor were they allegorical as were the moralities. They were mainly pieces to be performed in the houses of the more intelligent Tudor gentry. These dramatic scenes were given sometimes at banquets and entertainments where a little fun was wanted and sometimes to enliven the audience after a solemn scene. Often the humour was crude, the action clumsy and the road back towards moralizing and allegory ever open. One of the simplest and amusing is John Heywoods. The Play of Whether (1533) in which Jupiter tries to please all the contradictory wishes of mankind.
All these early plays were written, for the most part, in a mingling of prose and wretched doggerel, and add nothing to our literature, their great aim was to train actors, to keep alive the dramatic spirit, and to prepare the way for the real drama further. The Miracle plays, the Moralities and the Interludes remained popular even when the new, ambitious drama had captured the stage.
When we reach the middle of the sixteenth century some changes of far-reaching importance take place in the social and intellectual life of the English people. Two very different forces, the growth of the national spirit and the establishment of permanent the Atres, combined to influence the group of dramatist immediately preceding Shakespeare. The Renaissance approach tended to break down the medieval hierarchy of classes, and to substitute it by a compact national body with the throne as the head and centre of its life. It was natural that the growing national spirit should leave its mark on literature, and it should give an impetus to the forces that were for native growth. Secondly, in the year 1576, the Corporation of London banned theatrical performance in the public within the city bounds. In this way regular theatres sprang into existence. The first playhouse in London was established in the year 1576 in Shereditch, well beyond the reach of the Civic authorities. The other Theatres, the Rose, the Globe, the Fortune, and the Swan were built either in the Shereditch area or to the south of tire Thames.
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.    What were the earliest records of acting in the Middle Ages concerned with?

2.    How did the Church contribute to the reintroduction of drama in England?

3.    What caused the drama to become secularized during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries?

4.    What were the main cycles of plays that survived from this period?

5.    How did morality plays differ from mystery plays and miracle plays?

6.4   The Revival of Classical Drama
The revival of interest in Classical drama went a long way in bringing about the artistic stage in the development of the English drama. The Classical example gave dramatists a boldness and elevation of purpose which the native drama had not been able to achieve. The artistic drama differed radically from the morality and miracle drama as its chief purpose was not to point a moral, but to represent human life as it is.
Comedy and Tragedy
The Classical drama gave examples both tor comedy and tragedy, and as far as England is concerned these models were, with negligible exceptions, Latin English Comedy might well have developed without any Latin instruction, and what is best in it remains native to the end. Tragedy, on the other hand, could not well have grown out of the Miracle plays and the Moralities, and here a new start is made in the sixteenth century with the help of Latin models. The Latin models for Comedy were Terence and Plautus. The English tragedy developed from the classical models’ of Seneca.
The first true play in English, with a regular plot divided into acts and scenes, is probably the comedy. Ralph Roistor Doyster, Nicholas Udall, master of Eton, wrote at around 1556. The play is an adaption of the “Miles Glorious,” a classical comedy by Plautus. ‘Lie story is that of a concerted for in love with a widow, who is already engaged to another man. Though much of its humour, parallels the ‘interludes’, the classical model has helped Udall to build a fulllength play, instead of a comic dialogue dependent on a few tenuous situations. The next play Gammer Guton’s Needle by William Stevenson was published in 1575. This play shows how strong the native element has been in the field of comedy. It is a domestic comedy, a true bit of English realism, representing the life of the peasant class. The central situation in the play is trivial and farcical the loss and discovery of a needle, But the dramatist had a gift for dialogue, a knowledge of rustic life, and a dim not power in creating characters which include the farm labourer Hodge, a firmly drawn, comic figure natural and lifelike.
In the field of tragedy, the main model was Seneca a philosopher and author of a series of Closet dramas.
He had employed the Greek mythological stories but the religious element in the Greek drama he eliminated, and for the conception of fate he substituted the more, human motive of revenge. The action, which was usually sanguinary, was conducted by the reports of messengers, and this classical economy allowed room for his long rhetorical speeches, in which his taste for moral discourse could be exploited. Seneca was an appealing model to the Elizabethan mind. Their own interest in crime, violence and atrocity was confirmed fully in this classical authority.
Seneca’s own plays were translated published and five of them performed between 1559and 1581. Meanwhile in 1562 there was acted before Queen Elizabeth in the Inner Temple, the first extant tragedy in English, Gorboduc by Thomas Sackvilla and Thomas Norton. Through Senecan in manner, the play has an English theme and its main motive of the dangers that follow an unsettled succession could be of topical interest in Elizabeth’s reign. It is remarkable not only as the first tragedy, but as the first play to be written in blank verse, the style best suited to the genius of English play wrights. The plan of the play follows the classical rules of Seneca. There is very little action on the stage, bloodshed and battle are announced by the messenger, and the Chorus of four old men of Britain, sums up the situation with few moral observations at the end of each of the first four acts.
Most important of the Senecan plays was Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy, which was followed by Deniel’s Cleopatra Philotas. The Revenge play, started by Kyd, had many features of the Senecan plays. Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Richard IV and Macbeth show a strong Senecan influence.
The English drama which began with, Schoolmasters, like Udall was further developed by regular play wrights, Kyd, Nash, Lyly, Peele, Greene, and Marlowe. They brought English drama to the point where Shakespeare began to experiment, upon it. These dramatists are known as University Wits because of their being associated with Oxford and Cambridge. These dramatists rescued the English drama from the chaotic condition resulting from the struggle between the will formed chill of the classicists and a structureless enthusiasm of the popular dramatist. They were able to unite the classical conception of the drama and enthusiasm and fervour of the popular dramatist. They came with their poetry and their passion and their academic training which gave to Shakespeare a pliable and fitting medium for the expression of his genius. Edward Albert sums up the common features of their plays as follows: (a) There was a fondness for heroic themes, such as the lives of great figures like Mohammed and Tamburlaine.

(b)    Heroic themes needed heroic treatment, great fullness and variety; splendid descriptions, long bombastic speeches, the handling of violent incidents and emotions.

(c)    The style was also ‘heroic.’ The chief aim was to achieve strong and sounding lines, magnificent epithets, and powerful declamation. This again led to abuse and to mere bombast, and in the worst cases to nonsense. In the best examples, such as in Marlowe, the result is quite impressive. The best medium for such expression was blank verse, which was sufficiently elastic to bear the strong pressure-of these expensive moods.

(d)    The themes were usually tragic in nature for the dramatists were as a rule, too much in earnest to give heed to what was considered to be the lower species of comedy. The general lack of real humour in tire early drama is one of its most prominent features. Humour when it is early drama is one of its most prominent features. The only representative of the writers of real comedies is Lyly who in plays such as Alexander and compaspe, Endymion and The Women in the Moon gives us the first example of romantic comedy.
During the Elizabethan Age theatre was open of all; the whole town was attracted by it and felt enthusiastic for it. Even die court was greedy of dramatic representation and some play-wrights addressed themselves to satisfying the most refined tastes of the Queen and the Countries. It was naturally at the Court or before the Court that truly artistic drama was first attempted.
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.    How did the revival of interest in Classical drama impact the development of English drama?

6.5    University Wits
The University Wits wrote for die court and thus gave to the drama the qualities without which the drama could not survive as literature.
John Lyly
John Lyly’s plays were the first to provide a model of refinement. For Lyly was the first in date of the court purveyors. His first play was: indeed performed at Black Friars Theatre before it was given in the queen’s presence on 31st December 1658:, but it seems to have ‘been written with a view to Elizabeth’s pleasure, as were most of his plays. Lyly writes as a wit catering for an audience which likes what is witty, a man of letters appealing to cultivated people a courtier flattering his sovereign. He seems largely regardless of a fixed public, as a defined writer, he addresses himself to fine lords and fair ladies. He gives them the treat of hearing, on the stage, the antithetic style
and decorative similes of that prose which was, and which remained for two years, the admiration of the fashionable world.
He was the first to choose prose as a medium, and a prose which, for all its artificiality, aimed at beauty. His dramas consist almost entirely of dialogue, for his plots are usually insignificant. His first known play Compaspe (1581) is the work of humanist whose matter is almost wholly taken from antiquity but who remains independent in his construction. The play is witty and graceful in high degree and consistently, there is little construction and no passion, only a series of fine drawn conversation. In itself, as an example of an artificial genre, this play is execute the only perfect thing before Shakespeare’s plays.
In the subsequent Comedies the wit persists but it is mingled with mere fancy, and the scene is again laid in antiquity, with some dreamy romanticism. In Sapho and Phao there is again an allegory which flatters the queen and more directly than before.
In Endymion (1586) Lyly stages one of the most poetic of ancient myths which he does not rob of all its original grace. Manifestly this is another eulogy of Elizabeth, to be identified with Cynthia whom Endymion loves respectfully. The allegory is, however, more complicated than those of the earlier plays and more difficult to elucidate. The play, however, provided one of the most romantic scenes of Elizabethan drama.
When about 1590 Lyly wrote Midas, he abandoned flattery for satire. The play is hardly suited to the stage since it lacks a plot, and its value depends mainly on the skillfulness of the allegory.
In Gallathea (1587) Lyly amused himself by playing variations on the theme of love. His last plays are pastorals like Gallathea and Love’s Metamorphosis. The woman in the Moone is his only play in verse.
To Quote Legoius, “Lyly’s composition has defects; there are weak moments in his plays and ineffective complications, a mingling of the serious and the comic which connects him with the popular drama but proves his inability to blend these opposites in one plot while, however, there is a general lack of force, depth and true passion in his work, his language is invariably careful, his dialogue is artificial but pointed, retort depends mainly on play of words, but are lively and well turned and have a courtliness; there is originality in his subject, even grace and fancy in his conceptions; and his work because of its artifice and its pedantry is well fitted to the fashionable society for which it was written.”
Lyly is much inferior to Shakespeare but he clearly anticipates the Shakespeare of Love’s Labour Lost, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Much Ado About Nothing and especially As you like it.
George Peele
George Peele, the poet (1558-98) began his career as a courtier. Like Lyle he had a taste for ornament and cared for fine language. His first work, the Arraignment of Paris was played in 1580 before the queen. It is fragrant, lyrical light and melodious. His love of decoration appears even in those of Peele’s plays which were not written directly for the Court. His David and Bethsabe is link with the old religious plays. His Edward the first is a play on national history and The Old Wives Tale, a clever satire on the popular drama of the day. Peel’s theatrical activity extended over a period of fifteen years, but he was not an innovator like Lyly or Marlowe. He can scarcely be said to show the instinct of a true master, whether in plot, portraiture, or versification. But his versatility, his urbane and graceful treatment of his themes, his command of imagery and language, his freedom from the sensuous all these combine to give him an honourable place among the lieutenants, not the leaders, of Elizabethan drama.
Robert Greene (1558-92)
After getting an education at Cambridge and Oxford Greene took to writing plays in London. His plays are of sufficient merit to find a place in the development of drama. His plays are four in number: Alphonus, King of Aragon an imitation of Marlowe’s Tamburlaine, Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay, easily his best and containing some fine representations of Elizabethan life, Orlando Furiso and The Scottish Historie of James, the Fourth.
The indebtedness of the drama to Greene is by no means confined to the presentation of romantic settings only. His verse has a quality of its own and is heavily influenced by the first to draw the Roselinds and Celias of the Elizabethan times. Thomas Lodge
Thomas Lodge and Thomas Nash : These two did not contribute much to the Elizabethan drama.
They just wrote a play against the attack of Gosson in his School of Abuse.
Thomas Kyd
Daring the Elizabethan times, the majority desired romantic melodrama, and the first writer who fulfilled this desire was Thomas Kyd (1558- 94) with his Spanish Tragedies. The other of his surviving plays is Correlia, which was never staged.
Seneca’s Tragedies were his habitual reading, though Seneca’s influence on Kyd cannot be questioned, yet it did not cause his masterpiece to conform to the rules. What Kyd learnt from Seneca was how to produce terror by the ghost of his prologue who relates past events, by atrocious circumstance, and by speeches heightened with striking lyrical expressions. He makes no attempt to simplify the construction of the popular drama and he cares nothing for the unities the takes from the Latin poet only what he thinks the English audience will assimilate and leaves the loose, facile construction of the national drama intact. He owes to Seneca’s Thyestes his theme of vengeance, one capable of producing the most pathetic and most fearful effects. He learns from him to envelop his whole work with an atmosphere of gloom, and adds the use of the most powerful stage expedients known to his own experience.
The play in its original form is emphatic, declamatory, but grips a simple public. It respects neither the unity of place nor that of time, yet preserves, on the whole unity of action and it also has unity of motive, and for it all centres round revenge. It retained its popularity long into seventeenth century. He was the first exponent of the species of play called the Tragedy of Blood and foreshadowed Shakespeare’s Hamlet It gave rise to a host of similar plays. Examples of the tragedy of blood are Marlowe’s Jew of Malta, Webster’s White Devil and Duchess of Malfi and Shakespeare’s Hamlet.
Christopher Marlowe (1564-93)
He is one of the most important of the University Wits. He was born at Canterbury and educated at Cambridge. His dramatic career consists of six years, i.e., from 1587-1593. Tamburlaine, in its two parts, of which the first appealed in 1587 and the second in 1588, astonished the public. He was a young man of twenty-three, entirely without an extraordinary spirit of defiance and revolt which animated his dramatic work. Arden of Fever sham and Spanish tragedy bore the imprint of the traditional morality. From beginning to end they denounced and condemned crime, their murders cried out for vengeance. But the new playwright dared to claim admiration for the most bloodthirsty of man, to make of a demigod.
It was Marlowe, more than any other, who helped to draw English drama from the old rut of morality and rambling interlude and set it firmly on the straight road to
greatness Marlowe himself had no doubts about his mission which was to redeem the drama from its past futility:
From Jigging veins of rhyming mother wits, and such conceits as clown age keeps in pay, we’ll lead you to the stately tent of war,
Where you shall hear the Scythian Tamburlaine Threatening the world with high astounding terms And scourging kingdoms with his conquering swords.
Nothing is more characteristic of Marlowe than his choice of his first hero. His imagination was inflamed by the story of the career of this unmatched adventurer who from a mere shepherd became the most powerful in all the world. What were Alexander and Caesar beside this fourteenth century Tarter, the conqueror of Persia, and Muscovy who laid Hindustan and Syria waste, vanquished the Ottomans and died at last when he was fighting in Chine as the head of two hundred thousand warriors.
All this was so grandiose that Marlowe was dazzled. The man capable of so prodigious a destiny, of such unbridled contempt for human life, seemed to him a superior being, a superman to whom the petty rules of morality did not apply. Marlowe endows him not the boundless arrogance of an emancipated, virtuous and courageous man of the Renaissance. Marlowe transfigures him not by omitting or weakening any of his atrocities, but by exalting them. Tamburlaine is capable of extraordinary love also. He lays the earth at the feet of his Zeno crate and when death takes her from him threatens heaven with rage.
Tamburlaine is an epic rather than a drama; but one can understand its instant success with a people only half civilized, fond of military glory, and the instant adoption of its “mighty line” as the instrument of all dramatic expression, says William J. Long.
Marlowe began his career with a superb contempt for the popular rhymesters. He makes blank verse, hitherto without brightness of ring, thunder, and echo through his play like a drum that never ceases. The verse for which men had been waiting, completely formed verse, now sounded on the stage for the first time according to E. Legious.
Faustus (1588), the second play, is one of the best of Marlowe’s works. The story is that of a scholar, who longs for infinite knowledge, and who turns from Theology, Philosophy, Medicine and Law to the study of magic. In order to learn magic, he sells himself to the devil, on condition that he shall have sovereign power for twenty-four years. Like Tamburlaine it is lacking the dramatic construction but has an unusual
number of passages of rare poetic beauty. The last scenes of Faustus are among the most pathetic and most grandiose in Renaissance drama.
Marlowe’s third play is The Jew of Malta, a study of the lust for wealth, which centers about Barabas, a terrible old moneylender, strongly suggestive of Shylock in The Merchant of Venice Even Jew of Malta sometimes reveals his lyrical power.
Marlowe’s last play is Edward II, a tragic study of king’s weakness and misery. In point of style and dramatic construction, it is by far the best of Marlowe’s plays and is a worthy predecessor of Shakespeare’s historical drama.
Marlowe’s most important service to English drama is his establishment of blank verse as the Fitting metre for English poetic tragedy. Blank verse, of course, had been used in drama before Marlowe. It was introduced in Gorboduc, but it was Marlowe who first unlocked the secrets of blank verse and taught his successors how to play upon its hundred stops.” He was, indeed the first great poet who handled the new metre, besides being the first great poet who essayed the dramatic form. As Swinburne has said before this there was neither genuine blank verse nor a genuine tragedy in our language. After his arrival the way was prepared, the paths were made straight for Shakespeare.
Let us pause for a moment and look back at this rapid development of drama with a view to find out the types of plays written during the thirty years between the first regular English lay and Shakespeare’s first comedy. The variety of plays produced during this period is astonishing.
Self-Check Exercise-III

1.    Who were the University Wits and what qualities did they bring to the drama?

2.    What distinguishes John Lyly's plays and their style?

3.    What is George Peele known for in his dramatic works?

4.    What influence did Seneca have on English drama, and how did Thomas Kyd contribute to this influence?

6.6    Summary
In summary, the exploration of early English theatre in Unit 6 reveals a dynamic evolution from minstrels and players to the resurgence of drama through liturgical plays, defying Church resistance. The gradual shift towards secularization, driven by guilds, highlights the growing societal role of drama. The distinct genres of mystery, miracle, and
morality plays showcase the intertwining of religious and moral themes. The emergence of the University Wits, led by Marlowe, marks a turning point, setting the stage for innovative forms and blank verse. This journey through history offers learners a comprehensive understanding of the intricate tapestry that shaped the foundation of English drama.

6.7    Glossary
Liturgical: Relating to religious ceremonies or rituals.
Secularization: The process of making something non-religious or removing its religious influence.
Resurgence: A revival or renewal of something, often after a period of decline. Intertwining: The act of weaving or blending things together in a complex manner. Innovative: Characterized by new ideas, methods, or approaches; introducing novelty. Tapestry: A metaphorical term referring to a complex and interwoven combination of elements or factors.

6.8.    Answers to Self-Check Exercises
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.    The earliest records of acting in the Middle Ages focused on individual players like jesters, clowns, and minstrels.

2.    The Church reintroduced drama in England by using plays to teach the masses about Christian faith during Christmas and Easter.

3.    The dramatic element grew stronger than the religious purpose, leading to the secularization of drama.

4.    The main cycles of surviving plays were from Chester, York, "Townely" or Wakefield, and Coventry.

5.    Morality plays featured abstract vices and virtues, while miracle plays dealt with the life of Christ and saints.
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.    The revival of Classical drama brought boldness and purpose to English dramatists, differentiating them from morality and miracle plays. It aimed to represent human life realistically, and served as a model for both comedy and tragedy.
Self-Check Exercise-III

1.    The University Wits were writers who wrote for the court, infusing refinement into drama. They contributed qualities essential for the survival of drama as literature.

2.    John Lyly's plays offered refined wit, ornamented language, and catered to an audience of cultivated courtiers.

3.    George Peele's plays, including "Arraignment of Paris" and "Edward the First," demonstrated his taste for ornament, imagery, and melodious language.

4.    Seneca influenced English drama with themes of vengeance and gloom. Thomas Kyd's "Spanish Tragedie" exemplified the Tragedy of Blood, inspiring works like Shakespeare's "Hamlet."

6.9.    Suggested Readings/ References
History of English Literature, Tajindar Singh

6.10.    Terminal Questions

1.     How did medieval guilds contribute to the shift of drama from religious to
secular forms in early English theatre?

2.     Explain the significance of mystery, miracle, and morality plays in shaping the
early English theatrical landscape.

3.     Evaluate the impact of the University Wits, particularly Christopher Marlowe,
on the evolution of early English drama.

4.     Discuss the complex relationship between the Church and the development of
drama in early English theatre, highlighting the influence of liturgical plays.
Block-II
Unit-7
Evolution and Diversity in Elizabethan Drama: Types, Playwrights, and
Contributions

7.1.    Introduction

7.2.   Learning Objectives

7.3.   Types of Drama
Self-Check Exercise-I

7.4.   Shakespeare and his Contribution
Self-Check Exercise-II

7.5.   Other Popular Playwriter and Their Contribution
Self-Check Exercise-I

7.6.   Summary

7.7.   Glossary

7.8   Self-Check Exercise s' Answers

7.9   Suggested Readings/ References

7.10.    Terminal Questions

7.1.    Introduction
This Unit offers an immersive exploration of the diverse and dynamic landscape of Elizabethan drama. From the intricacies of Chronicle Plays rooted in historical events to the vivid depiction of everyday life in Domestic Drama, this unit invites students to unravel the layers of theatrical storytelling. Delving into Courtly Comedy's eloquent dialogues and the nuanced evolution of Romantic Comedy and Tragedy, learners will navigate the intricate web of genres that defined this era. At the heart of it all stands the towering figure of William
Shakespeare, whose experimentation and artistic brilliance reshaped the dramatic landscape and set the stage for an enduring legacy in the world of theatre.

7.2.    Learning Objectives
Unit 7 dealing with the varied types of drama during the Elizabethan era. From Chronicle Plays reflecting historical events to Domestic Drama portraying everyday life, Learners will explore the varied panorama of theatrical genres. Courtly Comedy's wordplay and wit, exemplified by Shakespeare's works, are examined, while the evolution of Romantic Comedy and Tragedy is highlighted through the contributions of different playwrights. William Shakespeare's profound influence on these genres, his experimental approach, and his role in shaping the drama of his time form a central focus, underscoring his lasting impact on the theatrical landscape.

7.3    Types of Drama
According to W.J. Long the following types of drama were written and performed during this time:
Chronicle Plays
Based upon historical events and characters showed the strong national spirit of the Elizabethan age; and their popularity was largely due to the fact that audiences came to the theatres to gratify their awakened national spirit and to get their first knowledge of national history. Some of the moralities, like Bayle’s King Johan (1538), are crude chronicle plays, and the early Robin Hood plays and the first tragedy Gorboduc, shows the same awakened popular interest in English history. During the region of Elizabeth some two hundred and twenty chronicle plays were’ written. They dealt with almost every important character in English history. Of Shakespeare’s thirty-seven plays ten are true chronicle plays of English kings.
Domestic Drama
Began with crude home scenes in the miracles and developed from the coarse humour of Gammer Gurton’s Needle to the comedy of manner of Jonson and later dramatists. Shakespeare’s Taming of the Shrew and Merry Wives of Windsor belong to this class.
The so-called Courtly Comedy represented a different kind of life and was intended for a different kind of audience. It was marked by elaborate dialogues, by jests, retorts, and an endless play on words, rather than by action. It was made popular by
Lyly and was imitated by Shakespeare in Love’s Labour Lost and Two Gentlemen of Verona.
Romantic comedy and Romantic tragedy suggested the most artistic and finished type of drama which were experimented upon by Peele, Greene, and Marlowe and were brought to perfection by Shakespeare.
In addition to the above types were classical plays modeled upon Seneca, the Melodrama, favorite of the groupings and the Tragedy by Blood, always more or less melodramatic like Kyd’s Spanish Tragedy, which grew more bloody and thundery in Marlowe.
It is interesting to note that Shakespeare tried all these varied types but since he was the supreme artist with the Midas touch, he turned into gold whatever had been but a base metal in the hands of lesser play rights. But due credit is to be given to the unguided experiments of our first dramatists who were like men first setting out in rafts and dugouts on an unknown sea. Shakespeare, no doubt, brought order out of dramatic chaos. In a few short years he raised the drama from a blundering experiment to a perfection of from and ex pression which has since been rivaled”. (W.J. Long).
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.    What are the key characteristics of the evolution of Domestic Drama from its early origins to later developments?

2.    How does Courtly Comedy differ from Domestic Drama, and which playwrights contributed to its rise in popularity?

7.4.   Shakespear and His Contribution
Very little is known about the world’s most famous dramatist William Shakespeare. He was born in Strafford-on-Avon, in Warwickshire, on April 23rd, 1564. His father John Shakespeare was a prosperous citizen of Stratford and his mother Mary Arden, was the daughter of a well-to-do farmer of Warwickshire, Between the age of seven and fourteen, Shakespeare probably attended the Stratford Grammar School and received some training in Latin. In the year 1582 he married Anne Hathaway. About the year 1586 he left Stratford and reached London and went to work at old jobs in a theatre. About 1588 he began revising old plays and in 1590 he probably wrote his first original drama. In 1594 he was a member of Earl
of Leicester’s Company of players. When the Globe Theatre was built in 1599 Shakespeare was one of the chief shareholders, and most of his plays were acted in this theatre.
His Works
Usually, Shakespeare’s plays are divided into four periods. Shakespeare was trained, like his fellow playwrights, first as an actor, second as a revisor of old plays and last as an independent dramatist. He worked with other playwrights and learned their secret. Like them he studied and followed the public taste and his work indicated gradual changes from his somewhat crude experiments to his finished masterpieces. The authorship of thirty-seven plays is generally attributed to Shakespeare. A careful reading of these plays’ leaves, us with an impression of four different periods of work. According to Dr. Dowdown these are as follows:

(a)    1588-1594: A period of apprenticeship and experimentation. He was in this
workshop learning the trade as a dramatic craftsman. To this period are assigned the following plays. (1) Thus Andronicus (2) The First part of Henry VI (3) The second and ‘Third Part of Henry VI (4) Richard II (5) Love’s Labour Last. (6) The Comedy of E (7) Two Gentlemen of Verona (8) A Midsummer Night’s Dream (9) Romeo and Juliet.

(b)    1594-1600: A period of rapid growth and development. It shows a maturity of
his dramatic art. Most of the great comedies and the English historical plays were produced during this age. Such plays as The Merchant of Venice, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, As you like it, and Henry IV, show more careful and artistic work, better plots, and a marked increase in knowledge of human nature.

(c)    1600 to 1606: Dr Drowden calls this period of Shakespeare as out of the depths.
A period of gloom and depression which marks the full maturity of his powers. His great tragedies Hamlet; Lear, Macbeth, Othello and Julius Ceasar belong to this period. (d)    1606-1612: Dr. Dowden terms it is as on the heights. A period of resorted
serenity, of clam after the storm which marked the years of the poet’s literary work. The Winter’s Tale and Tempest are the best examples of this period.
Shakespeare’s plays are usually divided into three Classes, tragedies, Comedies and Dramatic Romances Comedies:
In his comedies Shakespeare deviated from the common orthodox classical view. He was sharply in contrast with Ben Jonson who was the imitator of Terence and Plautus, and a exponent of classical unities of time, place and action Shakespeare’s comedy is called the romantic comedy as it is poetic and not satiric. It is creative, not
conservation. The way of it is that of imagination rather than of pure reason. It is an artist’s vision, not a critic’s exposition.
Shakespeare romantic comedies have their scene of action located in distant untraceable no man’s land. It is pre-eminently the comedy of love. The plot is saturated with idealized love and the play invariably ENDS WITH THE RINGING OF MARRIAGE BELLS.
Women are given predominant roles to play. The heroes sometimes pale into insignificance and the heroines because of their wit and intelligence are responsible for the beginning and development of these stories.
Humor is the next most important ingredient of Shakespeare comedy. Cruel or harsh lengthen is almost ruled out. The laughter of joy rings in the earlier and middle comedies, and a smile beautiful in us wisdom and serenity illuminate the comedies of the closing period. All his important comedies are beautiful reconciliations of romance to realism. They are great examples of cheerful optimism. They are pictures of life in its sunnier aspects, its sparkling and vivacious moods.
The characterization is of high order. There are complex moods and subtle characters in these comedies.
Music is another chief ingredient of his comedies. Music and dance is the very life and soul of comedy; towards the end it is always music, dance and merry making.
Since the heart of a Shakespearean play ties in characterization he was not much bothered about plot architecture. Hence his plots are sometimes weak.
Tragedies
His tragedies depict the struggle between good and evil, resulting in serious convulsions and disturbances, sorrows, sufferings, and deaths. The heroic struggle makes us realise the immense spinals potentiality of man. The calamities of tragedy do not simply happen, but proceed mainly from action of the persons concerned. The central figures in tragedies are exceptional. They are all built on a grand scale and their desire, passion and will attain in them a terrible force. They give us a sense of justice by showing that evil is self-destroying but poetic justice is not found in these days.
Dramatic Romances
The attention of the play wright was now focused on the darker side of human life and
human nature. The style is governed by the powerful overflow of thought and passion and is sometimes obscure.
Shakespeare holds the foremost place in the world’s literature he is the most representative of the Elizabethan Age. He is bracketed with Horner and Dante, but each of them wrote within narrow limits while Shakespeare’s genius included all the world of nature and of men. To quote W.J. Long, Shakespeare and King Jame’s Bible are the two great conservators of the English speech and one who habitually reads them finds himself possessed of a style and vocabulary that are beyond criticism. Even those who read Shakespeare are still unconsciously guided by him, for his thought and expression have so pervaded our life and literature that it is impossible, so long as one speaks the English language, to escape his influence.
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.    What are the four different periods into which Shakespeare's works are divided, based on his evolving style and approach to drama?

2.    How does Shakespeare's approach to comedy differ from that of classical playwrights like Ben Jonson? What are the key characteristics of Shakespeare's romantic comedies?

7.5.    Other Popular Playwriter and their Contribution
Ben Johson
Among Shakespeare’s contemporaries Ben Jonson (1573-1637) is the most commanding literary figure among the Elizabethans. With his great learning, his ability, and his commanding position as poet laureate, he started a literary crusade against Ore romantic tendencies of the age. His aim was to restore the classical form of drama and to keep the stage free from its downward course. His effects resulted in the so-called classicism of the eighteenth century.
Jonson’s work is in the strong contrast with that of Shakespeare, he was the champion of the classical unties of time, place and action, thus the whole action of his drama usually covers only a few hours or a single day, he never takes liberties with historical facts, as Shakespeare does, but is accurate to the smallest details. His dreams abound in classical learning, are carefully and logically constructed, and comedy and tragedy are kept apart, instead of covering each other as they do in Shakespeare. His comedies are intensely realistic, presenting men and women exactly as they are.
Jonson’s first comedy, Every Man in His Humour is a key to ah his dramas. The word “homour” in the Elizabethan age meant some characteristic whim or quality of society. Jonson gives to his characters some important humour, exaggerates it and so
holds it before our attention that all other qualities are lost sight. Every man in His Humour was written with the special aim of ridiculing the humours of the city. The second play Cynthias Revels satirizes the humours of the court while the Poetaster of ridicules the false standards of poets of the age.
The three best known of Jonson’s comedies are Volpone or The Fox, The Alchemist and The Silent
Woman.
Besides these Jonson wrote two great tragedies. Sajanus (1603) and Catiline (1611) noon the classical lines. He wrote a number of masques also. The best of these is The Satyr, The Penates, Masque of Blackness, Masque of Beauty, In all these he shows a strong lyrical gift and some of these songs. The triumph of charts, Drink to only with Thine Eyes are now better known than his great dramatic works.
John Webster
Like Shakespeare very little is known about the personal history of John Webster. He was a well-known dramatist under James I, His extraordinary power of expression ranks him with Shakespeare. He was largely attracted by the blood and thunder plays begun by Marlowe. His two best known plays are The White
Devil (1617) and The Duchess of Malfi (1623) has made him stand with greatest masters of English tragedy. In this play he tries to reproduce the Italian life of the sixteenth century and for this no imaginary harrows are ,needed.
Thomas Middleton (1570-1627)
Middleton is famous because of his two plays Changeling and Women Beware of Women. In poetry and fiction, they are almost worthy at times to rank with Shakespeare’s plays but their sensationalism and unkindness hurts the moral sense.
Thomas Heywood (1530-1650)
Heywood’s life span covers the entire period of Elizabethan drama. He produced many plays but only a few of his plays are known. The two tests are A Woman Tided with Kindness a pathetic story of domestic life, and The fair Maid of the West, a melodrama of the popular kind.
Thomas Dekker
Thomas Dekker is known for The Shoemaker’s Holiday, a humours study of plain working people.
Massinger, Ford, Shirley
These three men mark the end of the Elizabethan drama. Their work produced largely while the struggle was on between the actors and the corrupt on one side and the puritans on the other, shows a deliberate turning away not only from puritan standards, but from the high ideals of their own art to cater to the corrupt taste of the upper classes.
Beaumont and Fletcher
Unlike most of the Elizabethan. dramatists they both came from noble and cultured families and were university trained. Their work, in strong contrast with Jonson’; is intensely romantic. The two dramatists were good friends, living and working together, Beaumont supplied the judgement and the solid work of the play, while an Elizabethan play would have been incomplete. Of their joint plays the two best known are Philaster and the Maid’s Tragedy.
Self-Check Exercise-III

1.    Who was Ben Jonson and what role did he play in the literary scene of the Elizabethan era?

2.    How did Ben Jonson's approach to drama differ from Shakespeare's, particularly in terms of classical unities and historical accuracy?

3.    What were some of the key characteristics of Jonson's comedies, and what was the purpose behind his play "Every Man in His Humour"?

4.    What is the significance of "The Duchess of Malfi" by John Webster in the context of English tragedy?

5.    Which two plays are known for their sensationalism and unkindness in Thomas Middleton's work?
Thus, we see that immediately after Shakespeare the decline of drama started. The decline was ass rapid as its advance in the last quarter of the sixteenth century. It is worthwhile to throw some light on the reasons that caused the decline of drama in England long before the parliament voted to close the theatres.

1.     The drama declined after Shakespeare for the simple reason that there was no
genius to fill his place.

2.     In England drama arose from the desire of the people to see something of the
life of the times reflected on the stage. There were no papers or magazines during those days, and people came to the theatre not only to be amused but to be informed. Like the children they, wanted stories, Shakespeare gave them those stories. But by the time Shakespeare’s successors came all this was changed. The audience had changed People were more eager for a story or information; they wanted amusement only and liked only sensational things. Shakespeare’s successor catered these tastes and the drama fell on evil days.

3.     Shakespeare’s successors, with the exception of Ben Jonson, forgot that man is
a moral being and mere sensational cannot satisfy the whole nature of man. The stage became insincere, frivolous, and bad. Webster wrote tragedies of blood and thunder, Massinger and Ford produced evil and licentious scenes consequently people got weary of such plays and players of the time. Parliament did the best thing by voting to close the theatres in 1642. After Shakespeare’s death the theatres were nothing but breeders of lies and immorality.

7.6.    Summary
Dear learners this Unit provides a comprehensive journey through the multifaceted genres of Elizabethan drama. From Chronicle Plays to Domestic Drama, Courtly Comedy to Romantic Tragedy, students gain insight into the breadth of creative expression. The unit's focal point remains the transformative impact of William Shakespeare, whose innovative approach elevated the realm of drama to unprecedented heights. This exploration illuminates not only the diversity of theatrical forms but also the enduring legacy of Shakespeare's artistic ingenuity on the dramatic landscape.

7.7.    Glossary
Liturgy- A predetermined or prewired set of rituals that are performed, usually by a religion.
Banquet- A large celebratory mea : a feast
Wretched- Very miserable; feeling dear affliction or distress.
Doggerel- Of a crude or irregular construction applied to humorous verse.

7.8.    Answers to Self-Check Exercises
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.    Domestic Drama initially began with raw home scenes, progressing from the coarse humor of Gammer Gurton's Needle to the refined comedy of manners seen in
Jonson's works. Shakespeare's Taming of the Shrew and Merry Wives of Windsor fall within this genre's scope.

2.    Courtly Comedy stands apart with its distinct lifestyle representation and audience. It is characterized by witty dialogues, retorts, and wordplay. Lyly popularized this genre, and Shakespeare's works like Love's Labour Lost and Two Gentlemen of Verona showcase its influence.
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.    Shakespeare's works are divided into four periods: apprenticeship and experimentation, rapid growth and development, a period of gloom and depression, and a period of restored serenity.

2.    Shakespeare's comedy is characterized by imagination, poetic vision, and a focus on love. His romantic comedies often take place in imaginative settings, are centered around idealized love, and frequently end with marriage bells. Women have significant roles, humor is important, and the plays offer cheerful optimism, complex characterizations, and the integration of music and dance.
Self-Check Exercise-III

1.    Ben Jonson was a prominent literary figure during the Elizabethan era who aimed to restore classical drama and counter romantic tendencies.

2.    Jonson championed classical unities, accuracy, and logical construction in contrast to Shakespeare's more imaginative and diverse approach.

3.    Jonson's comedies featured intense realism, exaggerated humor, and a focus on societal quirks. Every Man in His Humour aimed to satirize the humours of the city.

4.    The Duchess of Malfi is a significant English tragedy by John Webster that showcases his extraordinary power of expression and portrays the struggles of its characters.

5.    Changeling and Women Beware of Women are known for their sensationalism and unkindness in Thomas Middleton's works.

7.9.    Suggested Readings/ References

1.     History of English Literature by Edward Albert.

2.     History of English Literature by David Daiches.

7.10.    Terminal Questions

1.    How did Chronicle Plays in Elizabethan drama serve as a reflection of the national spirit and contribute to the audience's historical awareness?

2.    Compare the stylistic characteristics and thematic nuances of Courtly Comedy and Romantic Comedy in the context of Elizabethan drama.

3.    Discuss Shakespeare's transformative influence on the evolution of tragedy in Elizabethan drama, highlighting key plays and his innovative approaches to the genre.

4.    Explain the contribution of John Webster?
Unit-8
The Renaissance: Poetry

8.1.   Introduction

8.2.   Learning Objectives

8.3.   Renaissance Poetry
Self-Check Exercises-I

8.4.   Important Sonnet writers
Self-Check Exercises-II

8.5.   Descriptive and Narrative Poetry
Self-Check Exercises-III

8.6.   Literary Style of Elizabethan Poetry
Self-Check Exercises-IV

8.7.   Summary

8.8.   Glossary

8.9.   Answers to Self-Check Exercises

8.10.    Suggested Readings/ References

8.11.    Terminal Questions

8.1.    Introduction
There is no denying the fact that the drama enjoyed supreme importance and popularly during the Elizabethan age. It became the main form of expression for the national spirit and love of a life of action. Nevertheless, poetical production of great and original beauty was there in such abundance that England was likened to a “nest of singing birds”.

8.2.    Learning Objectives
The objective of this Unit is to provide you with an idea of Renaissance poetry and major poets of the period like Spencer. Phillip Sidney, Wyatt, Samuel Daniel. Michael Drayton etc.

8.3.    Renaissance Poetry
Renaissance poetry is more formal, less autobiographical and less directly related to experience than the poetry of later periods. Renaissance poets were careful to distinguish themselves from historians and biographers and to seek instead the formal excellence appropriate to the various kinds of poetry. Elizabethan verse, although often written without any view of publication, is found to possess the hallmark of the highest poetry. Moreover, the high conception of poetry was recognized in this epoch only. Sir Philip Sidney established the superiority of the poet by calling him monarch of all science. Spenser described poetry as “no art, but a divine gift and heavenly instinct,” This plantonic philosophy seems to have penetrated more deeply than elsewhere into the spirit of English poetry.
In the beginning of the age of Shakespeare, literary forms of English poetry were still in the making. At the end of the period there were rich and varied literary forms. Humanism provoked the renewal of poetry and especially the influence of the Italian.
Before Spenser and Sidney however, everything was in a tentative and experimental stage. The new way in English poetry came mainly through the imitation of Italian models. The early stages of this Italian influence can be found in poems by Wyatt and Surrey, the pioneers who endeavored to save the dying lyrical impulse of England.
Lyrical poetry
The temper of the age was suited to the lyrical mood and so the abundance of the lyric is great. It begins with the efforts of Wyatt and Surrey. Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-42) who made sojourns in France and Italy, developed the admiration for lyrical poetry, and a desire to fashion verse on the models from Italy. He borrowed from the Italians poetic forms which were unknown to his countrymen. Sometimes he uses Dante’s terza rima, sometimes Serfino’s Stramboti and sometimes he imitates Petrarch’s sonnet. It was through the sonnet that lyricism entered into English poetry. Wyatt who could write graceful and sad toned lyrics when he was thinking of Italian models, struggled to render into English the fourteen-line Italian form of the sonnet. His imitations of Petrarch brought bold and new images into English. His ninety six love poems were published posthumously, in 1557 in a compendium called Tottle’s Miscellany. His thirty-one sonnets are highly praiseworthy. He was also responsible for the introduction of the personal note into English poetry, for through following his models closely he wrote of his own experiences. His epigrams, songs and satires are better than his sonnets, and they reveal a care and elegance that were typical of the new romanticism.
Self-Check Exercises-I

1.    How did Renaissance poetry differ from the poetry of later periods?

2.    What was Sir Philip Sidney's view on the role of the poet?

8.4.   Important Sonnet writers
Surrey
Surrey’s (1516-1547) name is usually associated in literature true with that of Wyatt. He was a nobleman who went to the scaffold at the age of the thirty. Surrey’s work consists of sonnets and miscellaneous poems in various meters notable for their grace Like Wyatt he studied Italian models, especially Petrarch and shared with Wyatt the merit of bringing the sonnet from Italy into England. But the most important of his experiments was the translation of the second and fourth books of Virgil’s Aeneid into English blank verse. The introduced of blank verse has been of capital importance in the history of English literature. Introduced for the first time into English as a medium for translating from Latin, blank verse was to become, through Marlowe’s employment the great measure of English prosody drama. Emile Legouis
remarks. “Thanks to Surrey English prosody gained a magnificent tool which when perfected was to be the meter for drama as for Epic.”
Wyatt
Wyatt and Surrey could not guess how the sonnet form introduced by them would become the darling of later poets. Under the influence of Petrarch, they used sonnets for love poems of a particular type. Their Tattle’s Misellany is a collection of some three hundred poems. The dominant theme both of the sonnets and songs is love-sometimes the joy of love, nearly always the adoration of the mistress who is proud and unreceptive but if the lover is to be believed, very desirable. In all these there is a note of personal emotion a note not heard very’ often in medieval poetry but the note which is o sound loudly in the lyrical poetry of the Elizabethans. Where the theme is not love it is generally the transistorizes of earthly pleasure, the elegiac note never long silent in English literature.
Throughout the Elizabethan age poets imitated the Petrarchan moods of love, and love and used the sonnet to express them Shakespeare though he satirized sonnet writing, was himself a sonneteer, but he is a sonneteer with a difference. Some of his sonnets are addressed not to a woman but to a young man and they are in the forms of warmest affection, others are written not with adoration but an air of disillusioned passion to a ‘dark lady’.
Sir Phillip Sidney (1554-1586)
The gentleman and a true courtier, also followed the tradition of songs and sonnets writing. Astrophel and Stella is a collection of songs and sonnets addressed to lady Penelope Devereux to whom Sidney was once betrothed. The songs contained in this collection show greater poetic emotion and more exquisite expression than found in the songs of the other minor writers. To quote Legious and Cazamian, “To express feeling which had some analogy with Petrarch’s Sidney had recuse to the sonnet, which had been neglected in England since Surrey’s days, within the narrow bounds of its fourteen lines he enshrined each movement of his listened only to his heart ‘look in thy heart and write; The quality of his soul gives them a particular ring.
Spenser
The most important poet of Elizabethan age Spenser also, gave due respect and admiration to sonnet writing in his Amoretti. It contains the sonnets he wrote for Elizabeth Boyle. Spenser’s sonnet comes between those of Sidney and Shakespeare. They show better than anything else the quality in Spenser which Coleridge excellently named “maidenliness.”
his love for virginal in woman. They have much that is borrowed or reminiscent. The chastity of these sonnets is neither in shyness nor reticence. In many of them the poet extols his mistress’s beauty with a great sensual wealth of detail and colour, and does not conceal the ardors of his desires, even while he restrains their impatience.
Samuel Daniel
Samuel Daniel was another poet who wrote sonnets to be in the fashion, without conviction and, probably, without a real mistress to sing to his sonnets in Delia are more chill appeals but the language of these sonnets in usually pure and their versification correct.
Michael Dryton
Micheal Drayton’s collection Idea is a sort of encyclopedia in which all the familiar themes recur with others added to them. He hardly gives the impression of nature passion, shows little delicacy, and is often vulgar yet is versatile and animated and more than once ingenious to the point of the fantastic.
There had been other minor poets who could produce just mediocre sonnets and songs. The real beauty of emotion as well as of style is to be found only in Sidney’s Astrophel and Stella Spenser’s Amoretti and Shakespeare’s Sonnets. All the sonneteers from the times of Petrarch shared an idealism which was their philosophy. Platonic thought, especially as it helped them to deify their mistress’s beauty, make a virtue of their desire, and assures eternal life at once to their verses and to the lady of their choice.
The sonnet outlived the Elizabethan age Milton and Donne used this form with some different purpose. Wordsworth, Keats, Meredith and D.G. Rossetti employed the sonnet as vehicle for expressing their thoughts and emotions.
Sonnet writing enjoyed a sudden and shirt-lived glory, but the writing of the miscellaneous lyric verse m the courtly tradition continued without interruption until the great outburst of cavalier poetry in the time of the early Stuarts.
The most important collection of these lyric were, The Paradise of Dainty Devices, The Gorgeous Gallery of Gallant Inventions, The Passionate Pilgrim, England’s Helicon and Poetical Rhapsody. During the Elizabethan age dramatic authors wrote a little verse as secondary to their plays, and also the minor poets who followed the fashion of the age.
In those days the works of single authors were less read than the collection that is why the above-mentioned collections, with these fanciful names became popular.
It was in these collections that some poets placed their best works like the prolific Nicholas Breton (1545- 1626), whose pastoral vein was displayed the Helicon and Richard Barnfield (1545-1627) who’s most charming poems appeared in The Passionate Pilgrim. The
shortest pieces and, especially, the songs are what is best in these collections. Songs did not belong to Elizabethan age only. They are of all time and countries yet they were perhaps never so copious, so various and so winged as in this period. Most of them were love songs, some very free and profane. But others were religious, many purely fantastic. They were in every mood-grave, modeling sentimental cynical.
Spenser inserted some very beautiful, slightly over-elaborated songs in his Shepherds Calander. Sidney also wrote songs. The most famous is The Drige of Love, Ring out your bell, To you, to you, all songs of praise is due.”
The author of Tamburlaine and Dr. Faustus could also get time to play a pastoral air on a reed pipe. He sang the shepherd’s call to the shepherds, “Come, live with me and be my love.” These are true and charming songs. But the period was not satisfied with a few scatte red airs, and there were whole collections which included verse and music. Micholas Yonge’s Musica Transalpina (1588) and John Dowland’s three Books of Songs or Airs (1597-1603), and Thomas Champions four Books of Airs, published from 1601 to 1613 are of far greater value. Some of Champion’s greatest songs occur not in his collection but his mosques.
The songs with which Shakespeare has strewn his work are the most original and spontaneous of all. With daisies pied in Love’s Labours Lost, ‘Blow, Blow, in As You Like It When Daffodils begin to peer in Winter’s Tale are just superb. Shakespeare’s many songs cannot be classified. Thomas Dekker, Beaunount and Fletcher and even Ben Jonson decorated their plays with songs as sweet as Shakespeare’s. The use of song persisted or the stage until the last in date of the great dramatists.
Self-Check Exercises-II

1.    How did Wyatt and Surrey contribute to the English sonnet tradition?

2.    What significant contribution did Surrey make to English literature with his translation of Virgil's Aeneid?

8.5.    Descriptive and Narrative Poetry
This is convenient title for a large and important class of poems. In this period, it begins with such works as Sack villa’s Introduction, The Mirror for Magistrates, and continues till Marlowe’s, Hero and Lander and Shakespeare’s Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece. It culminates in the sumptuous allegorians of the type of Fletcher and with Drayton’s Endimion and Phoebe. The pastoral, which is a kind of descriptive poem, is seen in Spenser’s Shepherd
Calander, in Browne’s Britantia’s laterals and in Drayton, almost purely descriptive poetry is represented in Drayton’s Polyolbion and more strongly narrative type is the same poet’s England’s Heroical Epistles. All these poems are distinguished by strong descriptive power, freshness of fancy, and sometimes by positive richness of style.
Dramatic Poetry
In the words of E. Albert, “The exuberant adventurous spirit of the age was nowhere more clearly to be seen than in its dramatic poetry. “Though the heroic couplet was used as in Mid Summer Night’s Dream by Shakespeare the ascendancy of blank verse was firmly established; variety and flexibility were imparted to it by Peele and Marlowe made it supreme Shakespeare used die medium with extraordinary power flexibility. Less than fifty years after in Gorboduc dramatic poetry attained the highest level of which it was capable. After Shakespeare the decline started.
Religious, Satirical and Didactic poetry. During this period die satirical intent is quite strong, but it does not produce great poetry. Gascoigne’s Steel Glass is one of the earliest satires; and it is followed by Donne’s satires and Halis satires Drayton’s. The Harmonie of the church is religious in motive; so are several poems of Donne, and also many of those of Robert South well.
Self-Check Exercises-III

1.    Name a descriptive poem from the Renaissance period.

2.    How did pastoral poetry feature in Renaissance literature?

8.6.    Literary Style of Elizabethan Poetry
About die literary style of Elizabethan poetry we notice a few things. The earliest period (from 1550-1580) is die formative and mutative period. This was the period of Wyatt. Surrey and Sidney and die University Wits. The dependence upon the classical originals is particularly strong. The style has the precision and the erratic character of the diligent pupil. There are a few deliberate innovations. In tins period appear the sonnet, blank verse, and many of the lyrical metrical forms. The lyrical impulse is least restrained by the influence of classical models.
The Spenserian and Shakespearean stage (1580 to 1615) is the stage of highest development. The native English genius, having absorbed the lessons of foreign writers adds to them tired youth and ordure of its own spirits. The result is a fullness, freshness, and grandeur of style unequalled in any other period of our Literature. There are the lyrics and allegories of
Spenser, die poems dramas and lyrics of Shakespeare; and fee innumerable miscellaneous poems and plays of other writers. The style is as varied as the poems; but the universal note is the romantic note of power and ease.
In the second decade of the seventeenth century, the decline is apparent. The inspired phraseology, the wealth and flexibility of vocabulary, and the general bloom of the style pass into the lightness of fancy and the insubstantial verse of the nature of Campion’s. The high seriousness degenerates into the gloomy manner of the Websterian tragedy. The sinewy Shakespeare an blank verse becomes nerveless; in drama the use of prose is frequent and it is also coarse. In the lyric much of old technical dexterity survives, but the deeper qualities of passion and sincerity are less common.
Important Non-dramatic Poets of the Elizabethan Age: Sir Philip Sidney : Sidney the ideal gentleman, the Sir Calider of Spenser’s “Legend of Courtesy the true Courtier of Castiglione is greatly interesting as man and important as a writer.
Sidney wrote three principle works, all of them published posthumously. The Aracadia is a pastoral romance. It attracted immense popularity during Elizabethan age and was imitated by hundreds of poets. Astrophel and Stella is a collection of songs and sonnets addressed to Lady Penelope Deverex. The songs contained in this collection show greater poetic emotion and more exquisite expression than found in the songs of the other minor writers.
The Arcadia is a pastoral, since its action takes place almost entirely in the ideal Arcadia, the most delightful country in the world. But this is above all a story of love and chivalry. Arcadia figures only as background; and the peace of the beautiful country is disturbed by bloodthirsty wars. The principal plot is crossed by many episodes and are in the tradition of chivalrous romances. His fictions are a convenient frame for his ideas on morals and politics and his observations of life. Sidney marks a progress in character study. He contrasts his virtuous characters with his vicious characters and shows considerable boldness in painting of vice.
Sidney enriched the descriptive art of his time, particularly where the painting of love is concerned, by his search for detail in his portraits, by his analysis of expression and gestures, and by his observation of the correspondence between altitude and feeling.
Artifice is as much a part of its style as euphuism. But the decoration is not of the mechanical kind. It is the result of a constantly active fancy. Sidney’s images are woven into the very web of his fabric. The language of the most sugared courtesy is reached—the name a lady speaks is perfumed by her mouth. “Plagues whose name was sweetened by your breath are Sidney’s rendering of flanges whose name you have spoken.”
Sidney, working at language, often by bold and new combinations of words, reaches vigorous expression. He is the first Englishman who was conscious of all the resources his language held for the impassioned style. All the energy as well as the preciousness of the Shakespearean style exits, in germ in his Arcadia.
Edmund Spenser: (1552-99)
Since Sidney’s work could not be published until after his death, it was Spenser who first revealed poetic beauty to his generation. He was a master of poetic art and recognized by his generation as such. For the England of 1579, lagging behind the continent, the appearance of the Shepherd’s Calendar inaugurated a period of selfconfidence and vast hopes. From the beginning he had a patriotic literary progamme and founded his faith on admiration for the old poets of his country. He regarded Chaucer as his revered master “well of English undefined”. The gap of two centuries between them and their contrasted temperaments did not allow any resemblances in their works. If initially he modeled himself on Chaucer there was with the intention not to break with the past, but to stick his roots deep into it.
The Faerie Queene is Spenser’s masterpiece. He worked at it for twenty years and left it unfinished at his death. Spenser completed only six books. It was his supreme ambition and the supreme pride of England, which confidently pitted this poem against, the most famous copies of ancient and modem times. The external complexity and allegorical dress of this poem has turned away many readers from it. Secondly, the admirable painter and enchanting musician posed as a professor or morals also. Those who read verse for pure pleasure felt dissatisfaction with this poem.
Spenser’s purpose, as indicated in a letter to Raleigh which introduces the poem is as follows: “To portrait in Author, before he was king, the image of a brave knight, perfected in the twelve
private moral, virtues as Aristotle hath devised; which is the purpose of these first twelve books: which it I find to be well accepted, I may be perhaps encouraged to frame the other part of politic virtues in his person, after that he came to be king.”
Each of the virtues appears as a knight, fighting this opposing vice, and the poem tells the story of the conflicts. It is therefore purely allegorical not only in its personified virtues but also, in the representation of life as struggle between good and evil. Spenser completed only six books, Celebrating Holiness, Temperance life Chastity, Friendship, Justice and Courtesy. There is a fragment of the seventh treating of constancy.
Though he chose the allegorical form he lacks the central idea, the ardent passion, or the unity of design which are essential conditions of a powerful and effective allegory. Instead of unity he has complication and his characters are both moral and historical personages. The allegorical story is both moral and political. In the first three books the shadowy Faerie Queen is sometimes Elizabeth. Una is sometimes religion and sometimes the Protestant Church, while Duessa represents Mary, Queen of Scot, or general Catholicism. As the story advances the allegory becomes difficult to follow.
The chief glory of this poem consists in its being essentially a picture gallery. It presents Spenser as great pictorial artist. Many stanzas of the Faerie Queen are descriptions of tapestries and picture: When Spenser intends to draw a person or a scene from nature, he is inspired by the painter’s method. He is greatly enamored by the human body, especially the woman’s body. His grotesque monstrous description are not interior to those in which he aims at absolute Beauty.
For the Faerie Queen Spenser invented a new verse form, which has been called the Spenserian stanza. Because of its rate, beauty it has been much used by nearly all our great poets in their best works. The new stanza was an improved form of Aristo’s Ottawa Rima (i.e. eight line stanza) and bears a closed resemblance to one of Chaucer’s most musical verse form in the “Monk’s Tale “ Spenser’s stanza is nine lines, eight of five feet each and the last of six feet, ringing ab ab be be.
Shepherd’s Calendar (1579) is the next best known of Spenser’s poems’ consist of twelve pastoral poems, or ecologies one for each month of the year. The themes are generally rural life, nature, love in the field and the speakers are Shepherds and Shepherdesses. These poems are written in various styles and meters.
Other noteworthy poems are Mother Hubbard’s Tale. A satire on society, Aristophel an elegy on the death of Sidney “Amoretti sonnets to his Elizabeth, the marriage hymn Epithalamion, and four Hymns on love, beauty Heavenly Love and Heavenly.
Shepherd’s Callender, the first published work of Spenser, is noteworthy in at least four respects, first, in marks the appearance of the first national poet in two centuries: second, it shows the variety and melody of English. verse, third it was the first pastoral, the beginning of a long series of English pastoral compositions modeled on Spenser, and as such exerted a strong influence on subsequent literature; and fourth it marks the real beginning of the outburst of great Elizabethan poetry.
After Chaucer he is the second great literary artist in English literature. He has rightly been called the “poet’s poet.” In his own day he influenced a large number of verse writers.’ Cowley and Dryden at a later period testified to his inspiring influences as literary artist. Milton paid him warm tributes; and even Pope whose poetic faculty is so different in kind from that of a Elizabethan, admitted to his compelling magic.
Samuel Daniel
Among the minor poets of the Elizabethan Age Daniel and Drayton deserve attention. Daniel after having passed through Oxford and having visited Italy was Tutor first to William Herbert, son of the Earl of Perbroke, and of Sidney’s sister. After Spenser’s death he became a sort of laureate. He was a moralist and historian first of all; he wrote the poetry of reflection rather than of passion. A correct and pure writer he brought the qualities of prose into verse. Imagination is rare in his subjects and never disturbs his style.
The Civil Wars is his chief work. Around it are grouped a fair number of miscellaneous poems, sonnets, epistles, dedications, panegyrics, funeral eulogies, pastoral songs. He is fond of discourse and discussions in verse. His talent is happily displayed in a didactic poem in the form of a dialogue, Mesophiles (1599), which constrains a general defense of letters.
Patriotism was Daniel’s dominant feeling and it led him to devote his capital effort to the history of his country. The eight cantos of Daniels. The Civil Wars treat of the misfortunes of England from the reign of Richard II until the break between Warwich and Edward IV, and in spite of their seven to eight thousand lines, they leave the tale unfinished. Danniel’s exposition is more accurate and dignified than the tumults dramas in which the same stories are told. Daniel’s clear intentionon is to transfigure nothing.
I versify the truth, not poetize.
The element of the marvelous is exceptional in Daniel’s work. His contemporaries, who loved ardour, missed in his work the passionate qualities and the movement, brilliancy, and variety which they prized more than anything else.
Michael Drayton (1563-1631)
Drayton is the most voluminous and the most interesting of the minor poets. His career ran parallel to that of Daniel and his poetry belongs to much the same genre. Yet it is in sharp contrast to Daniel’s poetry. It has warmth and dash, flights and falls. He made his beginnings with Idea, The Shepherd’s Garland (1593) was inspired Spenser.
In 1594 he published his first sonnets with the title ideas Mirror. He wrote historical poetry also in The Barons War (1603).
His chief work is Polyolbion, an enormous poem of many thousand couplets, describing the mountains and rivers of Britain, with the interesting legends connected with each. Here his ardent patriotism finds vent better than anywhere else. The work is imposing because it is so greatly ambitious, and touching because through all difficulties and the inevitable plan the poet is upheld by lover for his native land.
The poem has an’ erudite character and a puerile mythology decorates the poem. Every hill, every valley is personified Every river in particular is endowed with life, turned into a nymph.
Thomas Sackville (1536-1608)
Sir Thomas Sackville generally classed with Wyatt and Surrey among the predecessors of the Elizabethan Age. In imitation of Dante’s Inferno. Sackville designed a great poem called the Mirror’s Magistrates. It was modeled on Lydgate’s Fall of Princes so that the poem could be a mirror in which present rulers might see themselves and read the warning “who reckless rules right soon may hope true” Sackville finished only the Induction and the Complaint of the Duke of Bnckingham. These are written in rhyme loyal and are marked by strong poetic feeling and expression. Unfortunately, Sackville turned from poetry to politics, and the poem was carried on by two interior poets, William Baldwin and George Ferrers.
Ben Jonson and John Donne, who influenced the greatest number of poets down to restoration were pioneers in different directions. Although Ben Jonson was primarily a dramatist, his poetic work is of considerable extent and merit. It consists of short pieces written throughout his Life which appeared in three collections, Epigramones,The Forrest and Under- Woods. The difference of title does not imply any difference of subjects.
The spirit of satire looms large in them. Jonson presents us with a fair number of short sarcastic portraits in few or twenty lines not unlike the humorous characters of his comedies.
Ben Jonson wrote stories also. They were nobler in tones and more sincere in expression than those of Hall and Marson. His Epistle and Edward Sackville is written to satirize those patrons who grant their favours arrogantly, generally to the undeserving and who are well paid when they reap ingratitude.
These collections include many complimentary lines to the contemporary writers who were the poet’s friends, if not his rivals Bacon, Camden, Drayton, Chapman, Donne, William Browne, Sylvester, Francis Beaumont, John Fletcher, Shakespeare. Ben Johnson’s verses in honour of Shakespeare are really beautiful and the first unreserved and worthily celebration of his greatness. He was the first Englishman to attempt Pindaric odes but the experiment was not a happy one.
Love figures in his collection as a literary theme. The Celebration of Charts is very fanciful and lively. In general, however his love pieces reproduce poems of antiquity. The learned Ben Johnson translated more than he invented.
Ben Jonson was the most learned and most convinced of the humanists of his generation. He was little influenced by French and Italian literature, being ill acquainted with those languages. He had no sympathy with the Middle Ages. His culture was fundamentally Latin. Latin muse appealed to his genius with its desire for energy and tendency to moralize. It was he who through his means introduced Neo- Classicism in seventeenth century English poetry.
Ben Jonson’s personality is reflected clearly in his verses. His pride, his contempt for ignorance and his love of frankness and loyalty, his strengthens, are all manifest in his poems.
His style lacks spontaneity and fancy; tends to be abstract and lacks imagery. His meters are varied but his rhythm is not pliable. But he contributed to the poetry of his country some qualities in which it was then deficient; he aimed at putting much meaning into the metrical line his composition tended to be more regular. He subordinated fire and dash to logic. He taught soundness, reflections, self-control.
After 1600 many admirers grew around him. He spoke as a master who knew the law, and many listened, following his example, poets cultivated the epigram. Rifled the Greek anthology, and impregnated themselves with classicism. His influence lasted throughout the century, but was crossed and opposed by that of his friend John Donne.
John Donne
John Donne is perhaps the most singular of English poets. His verse offers examples of everything castigated by classical writers as bad taste and eccentricity; Donne was precocious poet who wrote many of his best poems before he was twenty-five.
When Donne started his poetic career Spenser had already won his glory Petrarchan sonnets were produced in abundance. He reacted against these traditions. He despised conventions and the moral of chivalry and regular meters and harmonious cadences. He subordinates melody to meaning and refuses to submit to the reigning hierarchy of words. To smoothly flowing lines he often prefers those, freely divided, in which the accents have an effect of shock, pull the reader up and awaken his attention.
Donne’s style is analogous to common place imagery. He rejects and takes pleasure in being enigmatic and subtle. Passions, feeling sensuality all are subjected to wit. This play of wit sometimes results in hyperbole. Donne excuses himself for mistaking his mistress for an angel on the ground that to imagine her other than she is would be profane. He takes delight in mingling the lofty and the ideal, the sublime and the trivial.
He has sudden impulses of thought which act strangely, for instance the opening lines of his Good Marlowe.
I wonder, by my troth, what thou and I did, till we loved.
Unlike the Petrarchan, Donne rejects the lefty cult of woman, towards whom he is highly ironical. Donne holds platonic love to be a lure and seek with subtle sophistry to change it to its contrary. In his Ecstasy he begs for the fleshly consummation of their passion.
But, O, Alas ! so long so far
Our bodiesm why do we forbear? They are ours„ though not we...
Thus, everything is Donne’s poetry is in revolt against the poetic canner’s of his age. His muse loves those sudden flights from the material to the spiritual sphere for which Dryden gave him, and Samuel Johnson confirmed the title of “Metaphysical.”
Donne wrote religious poems also. They differ only in theme; their spirit remains the same. He is at his best in short pieces. In his longer poems. The Anatomy of the World and of The Progress of the Soul he is nothing short of unbearable.
Self-Check Exercises-IV

1.    What are the characteristics of the Spenserian stage of Elizabethan poetry?

2.    How did the style of Elizabethan poetry change in the second decade of the seventeenth century?

8.7.    Summary
The renaissance is a historical age generally occurring in the period between 14201630. This period in poetry is preceded by Medieval poetry and succeeded by Modern poetry. Two significant movements of this and subsequent periods were Enlightenment poetry and Romantic poetry. The English Renaissance, the age of William Shakespeare, Ben Jonson. John Donne, and John Milton were the most important poets of Renaissance and Reformation.

6.8.    Glossary
Platonic- Neither sexual nor romantic in nature; being or exhibiting platonic love
Clumsy- Awkward, lacking coordination, not graceful, not dextrous.
Hierarchy- A body of authoritative officials organized in nested ranks.
Pedantry-An excessive attention to detail or rules

8.9.    Answers to Self-Check Exercises
Self-Check Exercises-I

1.    Renaissance poetry was more formal, less autobiographical, and less directly related to experience.

2.    Sir Philip Sidney viewed the poet as the monarch of all science, superior to historians and biographers.
Self-Check Exercises-II

1.    Wyatt and Surrey introduced the sonnet form to England, influenced by Italian models.

2.    Surrey introduced blank verse to English literature with his translation of Virgil's Aeneid.
Self-Check Exercises-III

1.    One example is Sackville's "The Mirror for Magistrates."

2.    Pastoral poetry, seen in works like Spenser's "Shepherd's Calendar," depicted rural life and nature.
Self-Check Exercises-IV

1.    The Spenserian stage (1580-1615) was marked by a fullness, freshness, and grandeur of style, with the romantic note of power and ease.

2.    In the second decade of the seventeenth century, the style became lighter, fancy, and less substantial, with prose becoming more frequent and coarse.

8.10.  Suggested Readings/References
Short Oxford History of English Literature (third edition) by Andrew Sanders.
Harry Blamires -A Short History of English Literature.

8.11.    Terminal Questions

1.    Explain the contribution of Sir Phillip Sidney & Spenser?

2.    Explain Literary Style of Elizabethan Poetry?
Unit-9
The Renaissance: Prose

9.1    Introduction

9.2.   Learning Objectives

9.3.   Forms of Prose
Self-Check Exercise-I

9.4.   Miscellaneous Prose Writers
Self-Check Exercise -II

9.5.    The Authorized Version of the Bible
Self-Check Exercise-III

9.6.   Summary

9.7.   Glossary

9.8   Answers to Self-Check Exercises

9.9   Suggested Readings/References

9.10.  Terminal Questions

9.1    Introduction
The Elizabethan Age was essentially an age of drama and poetry yet some excellent prose works were also produced during this age. Before 1579 there was hardly any prose of intrinsic merit. Roger Asehom was a writer of English prose. His chief writings, Taxophilus a book on archery and the Schoolmaster are dull on account of their theme and cumbersome sentences. Painter’s Palace of Pleasure, a collection of tales translated from Boccacio and Bandello, is not an original work.
The year 1579 is very eventful from the point of view of the development of English prose. Lyly’s Euphues and North’s translation of Pultrach’s Lives were published in this year. Both these works paved the way for the prose writers of Elizabethan age.

9.2.    Learning Objectives
In Unit 9, our focus revolves around the evolving landscape of prose during the Elizabethan Age. We delve into a transformational era where drama and poetry reigned, yet prose also began to assert its significance. Exploring this shift, we trace the journey from pre-1579, where English prose lacked intrinsic value, to the emergence of noteworthy writers like Roger Ascham. Ascham's works, though sometimes dull due to their themes and cumbersome sentences, represent a pivotal phase. The year 1579 becomes a turning point with the publication of Lyly's Euphues and North's translation of Plutarch's Lives, paving the way for a new era of prose writers. We deals into various forms of prose, including romances with their courtly and picturesque dimensions, pamphlets touching on religion and politics, and the emergence of dramatic prose. Additionally, we explore the unique character sketches that offer insights into the human condition. Lastly, we uncover the profound influence of the Authorized Version of the Bible on English literature and language. By searching into these diverse forms, learners gain a nuanced understanding of how prose transformed, reflecting the broader cultural and literary shifts of the Elizabethan Age.

9.3.    Forms of Prose
Prose Romances
Romances have been a favorite from the thirteenth century onwards. During the sixteenth century the popularity of the printed page considerably increased the number of readers who demanded stories in prose. The model was provided by Lyly’s Euphues, Lyly’s Euphues, made him one of the foremost figures of the day. The book is provided in two parts. The first part of Euphues, the Anatomy of Evil was published in 1579. The second part, Euphues and his England was published in 1580. The first part tells the familiar tale of two friends who became rivaling love, purporting to present to English readers a picture of manner and conversation in polite Naples in the course of a narrative of some psychological interest.
Euphues is often considered the beginning of a new type of English fiction, one specifically adapted to English readers. There is unmistakably an influence of foreign models upon it. The interest in manner is combined with an attempt at such realistic portrayal of human relations as is found in the Italian novella. The story has a plot of the triangular type; much overlaid with conversation and moral reflection which carry out the author’s social purpose. The characters are conventional.
In the second part the scene shifts to England and Lyle gets an opportunity to present an ingratiating picture of English women, English morals and manners, culminating in a tribute to England’s queen.
The elegant speeches in the book afford an example of a special prose style ornate and calculated which has come to be called “Euphuism” It is distinguished by parallelism in sentence structure, balance and antithesis in thought and phrase and by the repetition of ideas in similes and example chosen nature, classical history and myth.
Among the author’s romance of the first rank was occupied by Sir Philip Sidney. He achieved great reputation by virtue of his Arcadia published in 1590. The style is ornate without the mechanical tricks of Euphism. Its style is called Arcadian and it often rises to the height of poetic prose.
Robert Greene and Thomas Lodge wrote romances like Lyly and Sir Philip Sidney. Greene’s Pandasto and Lodge’s Roselind have particularly been remembered because they provided the source for Shakespeare’s The Winter’s Tale and As you Like it.
The second type of romances produced during this age were realistic and picturesque. These tales deal with people of lower rank. They are called picturesque because the stories deal with the adventures of rogues. These were interned for the middle-class reader, The best writer who contributed to this type was Thomas Deloney. His novel Jack of Newbury is connected with weavers. He also wrote a collection of stories about cobblers called The Gentle Craft. His contribution to the art of novel is great as he shifted the interest of the novel from the court to the lower spheres of life. Secondly, he gives us a vivid, graphic, and realistic picture of the life of London of these days. Another picturesque novel is The Unfortunate Traveler of life of Jack Wilton.
The story deals with the adventures of a page boy upon the continent of Europe.
Pamphlets
Pamphlet writing was quite a prolific prose from in the Elizabethan period. All through this period there was a flood of short tracts on religion, politics, and literature. The growth of universities and of learning continually increased their numbers. The most notorious of the pamphleteers were Thomas Nash, Robert Greene, and Thomas Lodge. Sometimes they were full of vulgar personal abuse. But as whole, the pamphlets were written in vigorous, racy, and downright prose.
Sermon Writers
More theological works and sermons were published during the period than any other kind of literature. Most important among the writers of religious prose are
William Perkins with over a hundred works to his credit. Edward During with about fifty and Thomas Bacon with more than sixty. The best of these writers was Arhur Dent whose The Palinemans Pathway to Heaven went into twenty-five editions before 1640. Its earnest simplicity is impressive. James Ussher’s many sermons and discourse show learning and a plain and easy style. Joseph Hall wrote theological and devotional works in his later years. Only a few of these sermons were written in admirable pose otherwise most of them hampered literature by their conventional language.
Dramatic Prose
Dramatic prose developed comparatively late. It was rarely used in tragedy except for special purpose such as comic relief or the presentation of madness. It is used superbly for mad scenes in Spanish Tragedy and Hamlet. Marlowe used it daringly towards the end of Dr. Faustus of express the pathos and agony of the hero’s farewell to his friends. Charton Colins is of the opinion that Shakespeare created colloquial prose and made elastic, dignified without being dramatic, musical without rhetoric, modern without vulgarity. Such examples of prose can be seen in the dialogues between Prince Haland and Falstaff in Henry IV, the wit of Rosalind in As you like it. Hamlet talks with the players. Prose is here used for wit, criticism, and reflection. Webster later used prose for the last scene in The Duchess of Malfi. Ben Jonson’s prose is also praiseworthy though it lacks the imaginative force and beauty of Shakespeare’.
The Character-Writers
The beginning of the seventeenth century gave rise to a form of essay called the character essay, these character writers were inspired by the characters of the Greek Theophrastus who flourished about 330 B.C. The character sketches of the Greek were translated into Latin by the French scholar Casaubon in 1592. The character has been defined as a “short account, usually in prose, of the properties, qualities or peculiarities which serve to individualize a type.” Joseph Hall started the Vogue of character writing in England. These characters are delightful to read and very important from the literacy point of view. They indirectly taught the would-be novelist how to study man, i.e. how he must pay full attention to characterization instead of prose diction and style.
Joseph Hall was the first to publish a book of characters. His Characters of Virtue and Vices appeared in 1608. The next was Sir Thomas Overbery who advanced the art of character writing through his collection of character or witty description of the Properties of Sundry Persons. He does not see deeply into human nature. He
sketches the outside of his characters well. Further development of the form is found in John Earl’s character portrayals. He advanced towards the portrait of the individual who would at the same time be the representative of the type. He is the forerunner of the types in the novel as well as in the essay. His sentences are short and balanced which lend consciousness to the character sketch. The motive is didactic and the tone satirical.
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.    What shift in literary preferences occurred during the sixteenth century, leading to an increase in demand for prose romances?

2.    What distinguishes Lyly's "Euphues" as a significant work, and how did it influence English fiction?

3.    What role did pamphlet writing play during the Elizabethan period, and who were notable pamphleteers?

4.    How did dramatic prose find its place in Elizabethan literature, and what distinguished Shakespeare's use of prose in his plays?

9.4.    Miscellaneous Prose Writers
There are some prose writers who cannot be put under a particular heading. Richard Hopker (1554 to 1600) is one of them. He was educated at Oxford and took orders in 1581. The Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity is his greatest work. The first four of the proposed eight books were published in 1594. He also finished one more. The remaining three were published under his name after his death and so the authorship of these three remains doubtful. The book is a master piece both in thought and style. In the first two books he expounds philosophical principles and in the later books he applies them. Its main thought is “the unity and allembracing character of law as the manifestation of the divine order of the universe.” In style he is strongly influenced by classical writers, but he usually writes with homeliness and point. His sentences are carefully constructed the rhythm moves easily; and there is both precision and melody in the choice of vocabulary. His style is an early example of scholarly and accomplished English prose.
Robert Burton (1557-1640)
He was educated at Oxford and spent most of his life in holy orders. His famous work is the Anatomy of Melancholy. It was published in 1621. Four other editions of this book appeared during the author’s lifetime, containing some improvements and additions. It conformed to the taste of the time and hence enjoyed popularity. It is a
great medical treatise with a seriousness of purpose. Dr. Johnson declared that the Anatomy of Melancholy was the only book that ever drew him out of bed an hour sooner than he would otherwise have gotten up. Stem plagiarized freely from Burton and Lamb was an ardent devotee of the fantastic great old man.
English Essay:
Essay as distinct form was born in the Elizabethan Age with the publication of the Essays by die French sceptic Montaigne in 1580, which appeared in Florio’s English translation in 1603. Francis Bacon is the most important essayist of the Elizabethan Age. He did not attach much importance to his essays as they were just “Loose sallies of his mind.” But for the modem reader he is important because of his essays only.
Bacon
The first edition of his ‘essays’ consists of ten essays which were published in 1597. It grew to thirty-eight in the edition of 1612. In the final editions of 1625 fiftyeight essays appeared As Bacon said his essays “Contain brief notes set down rather significantly than seriously, which I have called essays. The words are late but the thing is ancient.”
Bacon’s position in the history of the English essay is unique and remarkable. He is undoubtedly the pioneer in his domination of literature. To him belongs the very credit of having written essays first of all in the languages of England. His essays introduced a new form of compositions into English. Literature which was destined to have a varied and fruitful development.
Bacon is the first of the aphoristic writers of the English essay. Aphorism means a “short pithy maxim; a definition.” Bacon’s essays abound in aphorism. His English is terse, pithy,, and packed with thought. It is a language that is nothing short of marvelous. Thus, the first sentence of his essay “Of revenge “runs,” revenge is a wild kind of justice.” Each such sentence is capable of expansion in to a paragraph.
Bacon’s use of language underwent a change from the early to the later essays. The change is not fundamental. It can be termed as stylistic evolution.
In his ‘Essays’ Bacon adopted a style which may be described as one of the longest steps in the evolution of English prose, he set English prose on the road which it continued travelling down to the days of Swift and Addison. He gave the model of a consistently simple and clear prose. Bacon’s style is lucid and flexible. Bacon’s is in
the habit of quoting profusely. Generally, these quotations are from Latin authors. They are mark of his scholarship and are quoted to the point of beauty.
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.    ‘Anatomy of Melancholy’ is written by?

1.    Robert Burton     3 John Ford

2.    Bacon          4. Thomas Heywood

2.    How many essays did Bacon write?

1.    38  3.58

2.    48  4. 68

9.5.    The Authorized Version of Bible
It is also called King James Bible. James himself realised the importance of a good translation of the Bible, he entrusted forty-seven chosen men with this work in 1607. The Authorised Version of the Bible was finished in two years and nine months. These forty-seven men, with the help of Wyclif Tyndate and Coverdale, made a book whose inspiration has lasted through the centuries and which was not only the beginning and example of all good prose, but greater and more magnificent prose itself than anything it has in spired.
The Bible has been a potent influence on English Literature. Owing largely to their poetical or proverbial nature, multitudes of Biblical expressions have become woven into the very tissue of English language, e.g., “a broken read the eleventh hour”, and so on and so forth. It has greatly affected the style of the many of the greatest writers in English. Two men, Bunyan, and Lincoln, who educated themselves largely by means of the Bible, serve as examples of many who have become known to posterity, Ruskin’s magnificent and rich prose owed much to the Bible. Bacon’s prose echoes the poetical consciences of proverbs, Milton and Browne revealed the Bible’s grandeur, beauty, and its great rhythm in their finest passages.
Self-Check Exercise-III

1.    How many men did James entrust with the task of translating the Bible in 1607?

2.    Which writers were notably influenced by the style and language of the Bible?

9.6.    Summary
Unit 9 is based on the dynamic evolution of prose during the Elizabethan Age. From the dominance of drama and poetry, we witness the emergence of significant prose forms. The year 1579 marks a turning point with Euphues and Plutarch's translations shaping new pathways. Exploring diverse genres, including courtly and realistic romances, pamphlets, sermons, dramatic prose, and character sketches, we unveil the multifaceted nature of Elizabethan prose. The unit culminates with the profound influence of the Authorized Version of the Bible on language, literature, and style. This exploration underscores how prose transformed during this era, reflecting shifts in society and culture.

9.7.    Glossary
Euphuism: A prose style characterized by ornate sentence structure, balanced antithesis, and elaborate use of similes, which gained prominence during the Elizabethan Age.
Romances: Narrative works of fiction characterized by adventurous plots, often involving chivalry and courtly love, popular during the Elizabethan Age.
Pamphleteers: Writers who produced short tracts on various topics like religion, politics, and literature, contributing to the proliferation of pamphlet writing during the Elizabethan period.
Aphorism: A concise, pithy statement that conveys a general truth or wisdom, frequently used in Bacon’s essays to encapsulate profound ideas.
Authorized Version: Also known as the King James Bible, a significant translation of the Bible into English, completed in 1611, that played a pivotal role in shaping both language and literature during the Elizabethan Age.

9.8.    Answers to Self-Check Exercises
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.    The popularity of the printed page in the sixteenth century increased the demand for prose romances.

2.    Euphues introduced a new type of English fiction with its ornate prose style known as Euphuism. It combined foreign influences with realistic portrayals of human relations.

3.    Pamphlet writing was prolific, covering topics like religion, politics, and literature. Notable pamphleteers include Thomas Nash, Robert Greene, and Thomas Lodge.

4.    Dramatic prose was used for purposes like comic relief or portraying madness. Shakespeare's use of prose was characterized by colloquialism, dignity, and musicality, seen in dialogues like those between Prince Hal and Falstaff.
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.  (1)

2.  (3)
Self-Check Exercise-III

1.    Forty-seven men.

2.    Bunyan, Lincoln, Ruskin, Bacon, Milton, and Browne.

9.9    Suggested Readings/ References
A Short History of English Literature by Emile Legouis.
History of English literature by Edward Albert.

9.10 . Terminal Questions

1.    Explain forms of prose with suitable examples.

2.    Explain writing style of Bacon.

3.    How did Lyly's Euphues mark a significant departure in English fiction during the Elizabethan Age?

4.    What role did the Authorized Version of the Bible play in shaping both language and literature during the Elizabethan Age?
Unit-10
Changing Views on Literature: Renaissance Criticism

10.1    Introduction

10.2.    Learning Objectives

10.3.    English Literary Criticism: Classical Influences and Medieval Interpretations
Self-Check Exercise-I

10.4.    Literary Criticism during the English Renaissance


10.4.1    Early Criticism in Italy and England
Self-Check Exercise-II

10.4.2    Sidney's "Apology for Poetry"
Self-Check Exercise-III

10.5.    Other Voices in Criticism
Self-Check Exercise-IV

10.6.    Summary

10.7.    Glossary

10.8.    Answers to Self-Check Exercises

10.9    Suggested Reading

10.10.    Terminal Questions

10.1.    Introduction
Welcome to Unit 10, where we unravel the intricate mosaic of English literary criticism during the Renaissance. This unit uncovers the interplay of classical influences and medieval interpretations that laid the groundwork for literary thought. We will explore how the echoes of Aristotle, Plato, and Horace resonated in the works of early critics, shaping a nuanced understanding of literature. Additionally, we will navigate through Sir Philip Sidney's Apology for Poetry, a seminal work that defended poetry's essence and assessed the literary landscape. Join us as we navigate the evolving landscape of literary critique in this transformative era.

10.2.    Learning Objectives
The learning objectives of Unit 10 encompass a deep exploration of English literary criticism during the Renaissance, focusing on its classical influences, medieval interpretations, and the emergence of original thought. Students will investigate the motivations driving literary criticism in Italy and England, discerning how glorification and codification shaped Italian
criticism, while moral concerns guided English discourse. They will analyze the profound impact of Aristotle, Plato, and Horace on early English literary criticism, understanding concepts like mimesis, unity of action, and allegorical interpretations. Additionally, learners will evaluate the significance of Sir Philip Sidney's "Apology for Poetry" as a pivotal work that defended poetry's role, assessed contemporary literature, and critiqued drama. Through these objectives, students will gain a comprehensive understanding of the dynamic evolution of literary criticism and its enduring influence on the intellectual landscape.

10.3.    English Literary Criticism: Classical Influences and Medieval Interpretations
The evolution of literary criticism in England is a tapestry woven with the rich threads of classical influences and the intricate interplay of religious interpretations. This journey through time reveals how the foundations of English literary criticism were laid by the enduring ideas of Aristotle, Plato, and Horace. Their profound impact provided the structured lens through which early critics began to understand and evaluate literary works. Additionally, the medieval period witnessed a transformation as religious themes and allegorical readings intricately shaped the landscape of literary interpretation. This pivotal era, guided by figures like Saint Augustine and Boethius, paved the way for the formalization of literary criticism through the emergence of universities and the scholastic movement.
Classical Influences on Early Criticism:
The origins of literary criticism in England can be traced back to the profound impact of the Greek and Roman classical traditions. This influence laid the groundwork for understanding and evaluating literary works through a structured lens. The works of eminent philosophers and theorists like Aristotle, Plato, and Horace significantly shaped the early development of literary criticism in England.
Aristotle's contributions were particularly influential. His treatise "Poetics" provided a comprehensive analysis of tragedy and comedy, exploring key concepts such as plot, character, and spectacle. Aristotle's concept of mimesis, which involves imitation and representation of human actions in literature, became a fundamental aspect of early English literary criticism. His exploration of catharsis, the emotional cleansing or purgation experienced by audiences through tragic events, further added depth to the understanding of literary impact.
Plato's philosophies also left an indelible mark on literary criticism. His dialogues delved into the role of literature in shaping society and moral values. Plato's
emphasis on the use of literature as a tool for conveying deeper truths and philosophical concepts contributed to the development of allegorical interpretations in later literary criticism.
Horace, a Roman poet and critic, introduced the concept of "ut pictura poesis," or "as is painting, so is poetry." This idea underscored the similarity between visual art and poetry, suggesting that both forms should strive to capture the essence of life. Horace's emphasis on unity of action and economy of expression served as a guide for early critics in evaluating the coherence and effectiveness of literary works.
Medieval Period and the Dawn of Criticism:
In the medieval period, literary criticism underwent a transformation as it became intertwined with religious interpretations and moral considerations. During this era, the understanding and evaluation of literature were often shaped by religious themes and allegorical readings. Figures like Saint Augustine and Boethius played pivotal roles in shaping the early phases of formal literary criticism.
Saint Augustine's theological insights influenced the interpretation of literature. His work On Christian Doctrine discussed the use of rhetoric and language in conveying religious messages effectively. Augustine's emphasis on allegory and metaphor as means to convey spiritual truths had a lasting impact on the interpretation of religious texts and narratives.
Boethius, a philosopher, and statesman, further expanded the notion of allegory in literature. His work The Consolation of Philosophy employed allegorical interpretations to explore philosophical and ethical concepts. This approach paved the way for interpreting texts on multiple levels, enhancing their moral and spiritual dimensions.
With the emergence of universities and the scholastic movement, discussions on grammar, rhetoric, and poetics gained prominence. The scholastic approach emphasized the systematic analysis of texts and the exploration of their underlying meanings. This marked the early stages of formal literary criticism, as scholars began to dissect literary works using linguistic and philosophical tools.
The classical influences on early literary criticism in England, coupled with the religious interpretations of the medieval period, laid the foundation for a nuanced understanding of literature. The ideas of Aristotle, Plato, and Horace provided a structured framework for evaluating literary works, while figures like Saint Augustine and Boethius
introduced allegorical and moral dimensions to literary interpretation. As the medieval period gave rise to scholasticism and the exploration of underlying meanings, the stage was set for the further evolution of literary criticism during the Renaissance and beyond.
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.    What contributed to the early development of literary criticism in England?

2.    How did Aristotle's concepts influence early English literary criticism?

3.    What role did figures like Saint Augustine and Boethius play in medieval literary criticism?

10.4.    Literary Criticism during the English Renaissance
During the English Renaissance, a surge of literary criticism emerged, reflecting the influence of continental theories as well as the growing need to define and defend literature's role in society. However, much of this early criticism lacked originality and instead borrowed from ancient principles, setting the stage for the evolution of literary thought.
The English Renaissance bore witness to a dynamic evolution of literary criticism, marked by the interplay of classical influences and the emergence of original thought. This transformative journey illuminated how the foundations of English literary criticism were forged through the echoes of Aristotle, Plato, and Horace, and how these echoes resonated within the works of critics who shaped the intellectual landscape of the era.

10.4.1    Early Criticism in Italy and England
Italian Literary Criticism: Celebrating and Defining Literature
In Italy, the emergence of literary criticism was rooted in a desire to celebrate the splendor of literature and codify its governing principles. Literary luminaries of the time sought not only to assert their own significance but also to elevate the status of literature itself. This sentiment paved the way for the glorification of the written word, culminating in the proclamation of literature's laws and its rightful place in the intellectual realm.
English Literary Scene: Morality and Ethical Foundations
Contrasting the Italian milieu, the landscape of English literary criticism was distinctly shaped by moral and ethical concerns. The landmark work The Schoolmaster (1568) by Roger Ascham encapsulated this ethos. Through its exploration of linguistic and rhetorical elements, the work was not merely a
guide to language mastery but also an early foray into ethical considerations within the literary discourse.
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.    What was the main aim of early literary criticism in Italy?

10.4.2    Sidney's "Apology for Poetry"
Sidney's Defense of the Poetic Craft
Sir Philip Sidney's magnum opus, Apology for Poetry, stands as a monumental milestone in the annals of English literary criticism. This profound work emerged as a direct response to the Puritan critique encapsulated in The Schools of Abuse. Sidney fervently championed poetry's superiority over history, philosophy, and science, redefining its place in the hierarchy of knowledge.
Elevation of Poetry: Poetry as an Instructive Art
In Sidney's estimation, poetry was far more than mere entertainment— it was an instructive art that simultaneously delighted and enlightened. This perspective elevated poetry to a realm where its capacity to convey profound insights, moral lessons, and universal truths became its defining essence.
Assessment of Contemporary Literature: A Call for Authentic Expression
Sidney's critical gaze turned to the literary landscape of his era. He lamented the scarcity of exceptional works post-Chaucer and castigated the prevailing affectations that marred authentic expression. His clarion call for a return to genuine emotional expression reverberated through the corridors of literary discourse.
Critique of Drama: Tragedy, Comedy, and Unity
Within his critique, Sidney turned to the dramatic arts, criticizing the mingling of royalty and jesters in tragicomedies. He admonished the disregard for unity of time and place, citing the lack of cohesion as a flaw. This critical dissection extended to Gorboduc, where he scrutinized the absence of unity within the play's fabric.
Self-Check Exercise-III
1. What did Sidney argue in "Apology for Poetry" about poetry's role?

10.5.    Other Voices in Criticism
Webbe and Puttenham: Resisting Puritan Criticism
Webbe and Puttenham entered the fray by defending romantic literature against Puritan scrutiny. Their works, Discourse of English Poetry and The Art of English Poesie, emphasized the importance of mastering poetic technique to uphold the integrity of the art form.
Blend of Classicism and Freedom: Navigating Literary Rules
The period witnessed a dialogue on the balance between adhering to classical norms and embracing the distinct qualities of the English language. Discussions on metrical rules underscored the diverse perspectives, ranging from advocating flexibility to considering the adoption of classical meters.
Ben Jonson's Influence: A Fusion of Theory and Practice
Ben Jonson, a luminary of the era, married poetry theory with creative execution. His strict classicism was tempered by a pragmatic understanding of the English language's nuances. Jonson's approach marked a shift from imitation to the synthesis of artistic principles and self-conscious creativity.
Self-Check Exercise-IV

1.    What were the main influences on early literary criticism in the English Renaissance?

2.    Which work exemplified original thought in English literary criticism during this era?

3.    How did Sidney evaluate contemporary literature and drama in his critical work?
During the English Renaissance, the way people talked about and understood literature changed a lot. It was like a story that transformed how we think about writing. This change was connected to old ways of thinking about literature and realizing that the English language was unique. People used to copy others, but now they started to come up with their own ideas. This change opened the door to exploring literature in many different ways in the future, showing how important the Renaissance was for literature.

10.6    Summary
In essence, Unit 10 traverses the dynamic evolution of English literary criticism during the Renaissance. The blend of classical underpinnings and original thought, coupled with the
emergence of figures like Sir Philip Sidney, paints a vivid portrait of this transformative era. From celebrating literature's splendor to defending its ethical dimensions, this unit illuminates the tapestry of influences that shaped early literary critique. As we conclude this exploration, the legacy of the Renaissance's intricate mosaic continues to resonate, leaving an indelible mark on the trajectory of literary thought.

10.7    Glossary
Eloquent: Expressing oneself with fluent, vivid, and persuasive language, often marked by grace and sophistication.
Didactic: Intending to instruct or educate, especially in a moral or ethical sense.
Allegory: A literary device where characters, events, or elements represent abstract ideas, conveying deeper symbolic meanings.
Nuanced: Having subtle distinctions, variations, or layers of meaning that contribute to a more complex understanding.
Pragmatic: Dealing with issues in a practical, sensible, and realistic way, focusing on effective solutions rather than theoretical ideals.

10.8    Answers to Self-Check Exercises
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.    The profound impact of Greek and Roman classical traditions, particularly the ideas of Aristotle, Plato, and Horace, laid the groundwork for understanding and evaluating literary works through a structured lens.

2.    Aristotle's treatise Poetics analyzed tragedy, comedy, and the concept of mimesis, which involves imitation and representation of human actions in literature. His exploration of catharsis and emotional impact added depth to understanding literary works.

3.    During the medieval period, they shaped the interpretation of literature through allegorical readings and moral considerations. Augustine emphasized allegory and metaphor to convey spiritual truths, while Boethius expanded the notion of allegory in exploring philosophical concepts.
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.    To celebrate literature's splendor and codify its governing principles. Self-Check Exercise-III

1.    Sidney argued that poetry is an instructive art that both delights and enlightens.
Self-Check Exercise-IV

1.    The interplay of classical traditions and the need to define literature's role shaped early criticism.

2.    Sir Philip Sidney's Apology for Poetry responded to Puritan criticism, asserting poetry's superiority.

3.    Sidney critiqued affected styles, unity in plays like Gorboduc, and emphasized the instructive power of poetry.

10.9    Suggested Readings/ Readings
How to Read Literature by Terry Eagleton: This book provides an accessible introduction to literary criticism. It explains key concepts and approaches in a clear and straightforward manner, making it a great choice for beginners.
Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction by Jonathan Culler: This short book gives an overview of various literary theories and approaches, making it easy for readers new to the subject to grasp the basics of literary criticism.

10.10 . Terminal Questions

1.    How did the works of Aristotle, Plato, and Horace lay the foundation for early English literary criticism?

2.    What role did religious themes and allegorical interpretations play in shaping medieval literary criticism, and how did figures like Saint Augustine and Boethius contribute to this transformation?

3.    How did literary criticism in Italy and England during the Renaissance differ in terms of motivations and influences?

4.    What were the key contributions of Sir Philip Sidney's Apology for Poetry to English literary criticism?
Block-III
Unit-11
Unveiling Literary Transformation: Drama, Comedy, and the Comedy of Humours in Puritan and Jacobean Eras

11.1    Introduction

11.2.    Learning Objectives

11.3.    The Puritan and Jacobean Ages of English Literature
Self-Check Exercise-I

11.4.    Decadence in Jacobean Drama: Complexity and Ambiguity
Self-Check Exercise-II

11.5.    Ben Jonson: Shaping English Comedy
Self-Check Exercise-III

11.6.    Ben Jonson’s Commedy of Humour


11.6.1    Key Aspects of Comedy of Humours Self-Check Exercise-IV
11.7.    Summing Up

11.8.    Glossary

11.9.    Answers to Self-Check Exercises

11.10    Suggested Readings/ References

11.11.    Terminal Questions

11.1    Introduction
In 1603 James I succeeded Elizabeth to the throne. After his accession to the throne the political situation in England became shaky and gloomy. He had little of his predecessor’s talent for holding the kingdom together. He was a bigot, and ill fitted to exemplify “the divine right of the kings.” The Englishmen soon grew to resent his despotism and the Puritan philosophy gained by leaps and bounds is hold on Englishmen,
Charles I James’s son succeeded to the throne in 1625. He proved a thoroughly unreliable and treacherous monarch. In 1629 he dissolved the parliament and ruled without it for eleven years. He revived it again in 1639 but the terrible struggle between the king and the parliament continued and resulted in the death of Charles and the establishment of the Commonwealth under Cromwell. Cromwell died in 1658. His weak son proved unequal to the task of guiding the helm of government and anarchy ensured sick of dissension the public called Charles If to the throne and monarchy was restored.
The Puritan and Jacobean ages (late 16th to mid-17th century) of English literature were marked by intense societal, political, and religious changes. The Puritan Age emphasized moral
instruction through didacticism, as seen in John Bunyan's "The Pilgrim's Progress." The Jacobean Age, under King James I, fostered diverse literary forms, showcased by Shakespeare's plays exploring human nature, metaphysical poetry by Donne and Herbert, and Ben Jonson's contribution to humor and social commentary. These eras shaped a complex literary landscape reflecting religious fervor, political intrigue, artistic evolution, and Jonson's enduring comedic legacy.

11.2.    Learning Objectives
Dear Learner Unit 11 focuses on the transformative Puritan and Jacobean ages, revealing how these periods redefined English literature. The Puritan Age's didacticism and allegory-driven works are explored alongside the Jacobean Age's Shakespearean complexities and metaphysical inquiries. The comedic legacy of Ben Jonson is also analyzed, showcasing his contribution to humor and social commentary. By examining these eras, learners will grasp how literature mirrored the societal shifts, offering a deeper understanding of cultural evolution and literary innovation.

11.3.    The Puritan and Jacobean Ages of English Literature
The Puritan and Jacobean ages of English literature, spanning roughly from the late 16th century to the mid-17th century, were periods marked by significant social, political, and religious upheavals that greatly influenced the literary landscape. These eras were characterized by a complex interplay of religious fervor, political instability, and evolving artistic expression.
The Puritan Age, driven by the ascendency of Puritanism as a religious and ideological movement, emphasized a strict adherence to moral and ethical principles. This focus on piety and virtue profoundly impacted literature, resulting in works that sought to instruct and edify readers in matters of faith and conduct. The literature of this period often exhibited didacticism, using allegorical and moralistic themes to communicate religious and moral lessons. John Bunyan's "The Pilgrim's Progress" serves as a quintessential example of this trend, presenting a spiritual journey as an allegory for the Christian life.
The Jacobean Age, named after King James I, who reigned from 1603 to 1625, witnessed a flourishing of diverse literary forms and styles. The political intrigue and royal
patronage of this era led to a rich tapestry of dramatic works, most notably the plays of William Shakespeare. The tragedies and comedies of Shakespeare, such as "Hamlet," "Macbeth," and "Twelfth Night," reflect the complex psychological depths of characters and the nuanced exploration of human nature, often entwined with political and social themes.
Furthermore, the Jacobean era was marked by the growth of metaphysical poetry, where poets like John Donne and George Herbert grappled with philosophical questions, combining intricate wordplay with profound spiritual reflections. This period also saw the publication of the King James Version of the Bible, a monumental literary and religious achievement that profoundly shaped the English language and literary expression.
Both the Puritan and Jacobean ages were characterized by tensions between traditional beliefs and emerging ideas, with literature serving as a vehicle for navigating these conflicts. These eras left an indelible mark on English literature by contributing diverse genres, styles, and themes that continue to influence and resonate in modern times. The interplay of religious devotion, political intrigue, and artistic innovation during these periods laid the foundation for the rich literary tradition that followed.
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.    How did the Puritan Age impact literature?

2.    What characterized the Jacobean Age in terms of literary forms?

11.4.    Decadence in Jacobean Drama: Complexity and Ambiguity"
The Jacobean drama, renowned for its experimental spirit and diverse range of themes, also exhibited certain elements of decadence that were reflective of the era's tumultuous changes. These elements emerged as a result of factors such as shifts in patronage, the influx of foreign influences, evolving plot structures, and a changing moral landscape.
The transition from royal and aristocratic patronage to a more commercial-driven approach marked a pivotal shift in the theater's dynamics. This change in patronage often led to a focus on melodramatic and sensational elements designed to attract audiences, sometimes at the expense of artistic integrity and depth. Furthermore, the influence of foreign dramatic traditions, particularly from Italy and Spain, introduced a penchant for intricate plotlines that blended tragedy and comedy, resulting in sometimes disjointed narratives that struggled to find cohesion.
Within the plays themselves, a sense of moral laxity emerged as characters engaged in behaviors that were morally ambiguous or outright immoral, without always facing appropriate consequences. This moral uncertainty underscored the broader societal ambiguities and
anxieties of the time. The overarching mood of gloom and pessimism that pervaded Jacobean drama reflected the general uncertainties and hardships of the era, with tragic outcomes and bleak perspectives becoming a defining feature.
Melodramatic sensationalism became a hallmark of the period, as playwrights aimed to elicit strong emotional reactions from audiences. This led to exaggerated emotions, sensational events, and a focus on eliciting visceral responses rather than intellectual engagement. Sentimentalism also found its way into the drama, with plays utilizing emotional manipulation to evoke empathy and sympathy. This often came at the expense of complex and nuanced character development.
Satire, a powerful tool for social commentary, was sometimes employed with a heavy hand, resulting in exaggerated caricatures and overly blunt critiques. This could dilute the subtlety and nuance that characterized more refined forms of satire. Additionally, as the theater sought to explore realism, characterizations occasionally suffered from underdevelopment or inconsistency, leaving individuals devoid of depth and motivation, thereby weakening the audience's connection to their struggles.
Finally, the era witnessed instances of poor-quality poetry within dramatic works. While the Jacobean period did produce remarkable poetry, some works contained verses that lacked the elegance and refinement seen in earlier periods. This could be attributed to the changing taste and shifting standards of the time.
Hence, the elements of decadence evident in Jacobean drama were a reflection of the era's complex social, political, and cultural dynamics. As traditional norms clashed with evolving sensibilities, the drama of the time encapsulated a range of emotions and experiences, resulting in a multifaceted and intriguing literary landscape.
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.    What factors contributed to the emergence of decadence in Jacobean drama?

2.    How did the transition in patronage influence the nature of Jacobean theater?

3.    What were some characteristics of melodramatic sensationalism in Jacobean plays?

11.5.    Ben Jonson: Shaping English Comedy
Ben Jonson, a towering figure in English literature during the Renaissance, left an indelible mark on the realm of comedy with his insightful and innovative contributions. His
works stand as a testament to his mastery of both language and human nature, elevating comedy beyond mere entertainment to a realm of social commentary, psychological exploration, and enduring artistic excellence.
Jonson's keen observations of society found expression in his comedies, where he employed sharp wit and satire to cast a critical eye on human foibles, vanities, and hypocrisies. His plays, such as Volpone and The Alchemist, are rich tapestries of human behavior, exposing the follies of a wide spectrum of characters with a blend of humor and incisiveness.
A hallmark of Jonson's contribution lies in his meticulous and distinct characterizations. His characters are vivid, memorable, and often emblematic of specific social types, lending his comedies a depth and authenticity that resonates across time. He introduced the concept of the "comedy of humours," exploring the interplay of personality traits represented by the humours – sanguine, choleric, melancholic, and phlegmatic – a unique approach that not only entertained but delved into the intricate complexities of human psychology.
Jonson's plays also showcased his linguistic virtuosity, employing clever wordplay, puns, and eloquent dialogues that showcased his mastery of language. His characters' interactions were not just comedic exchanges but insightful dialogues that laid bare the human condition.
Furthermore, Jonson's comedies carried a moral dimension. While they entertained, they also imparted lessons on ethics and conduct, with characters often facing consequences for their flaws and misdeeds. This didactic element added depth to his works and contributed to their enduring relevance.
In essence, Ben Jonson's contribution to English comedy transcends the boundaries of his time. His plays remain a treasure trove of wit, wisdom, and social commentary, offering a mirror to human nature that continues to reflect both the follies and complexities of society. His legacy endures in the rich tradition of English comedic literature, shaping the way subsequent generations perceive and engage with the art of laughter and introspection.
Self-Check Exercise-III

1.    How did Ben Jonson elevate comedy beyond mere entertainment?

2.    What is the significance of Jonson's "comedy of humours" in his plays?

11.6.    Ben Jonson’s Commedy of Humour
The Comedy of Humours is a dramatic concept and genre popularized by the English playwright Ben Jonson during the late Elizabethan and Jacobean eras (late 16th to early 17th
centuries). This unique approach to comedy focused on the portrayal of characters driven by specific personality traits called "humours." These humours were believed to be bodily fluids that governed an individual's temperament and behavior, according to the medical theories of the time.
The four humours were:
Sanguine: Associated with blood, this humour was linked to an optimistic, outgoing, and sociable personality.
Choleric: Linked to yellow bile, it was connected to a hot-tempered, ambitious, and dominant nature.
Melancholic: Associated with black bile, this humour was linked to a reflective, introverted, and sometimes gloomy disposition.
Phlegmatic: Linked to phlegm, it was associated with a calm, balanced, and unemotional personality.
In Jonson's comedies of humours, characters were often exaggerated embodiments of one dominant humour, which influenced their actions, choices, and interactions throughout the play. These comedies explored how conflicts and misunderstandings arose from clashes between characters with differing humours.

11.6.1    Key Aspects of Comedy of Humours:
Characterization: Characters were crafted to be larger-than-life, with their personalities and behaviors stemming from their dominant humour. This led to clear and distinctive character types, which created comedic situations as their traits clashed. Conflict and Resolution: Humour-based conflicts formed the core of the plot. Characters' distinct humours often clashed, leading to humorous misunderstandings, arguments, and predicaments. The resolution of these conflicts typically involved characters recognizing and correcting their imbalances.
Psychological Insight: The comedy of humours provided a framework for exploring human psychology. Characters' behaviours were dissected based on the humour that influenced them, revealing inner motivations and thought processes.
Social Satire: The exaggerated nature of the characters allowed for social commentary and satire. Jonson used the humours to lampoon societal excesses, folly, and the absurdity of conforming to rigid social norms.
Didactic Element: Beneath the surface comedy, there was often a didactic purpose. Characters' journeys toward balance and self-awareness offered moral lessons about moderation, self-improvement, and understanding others.
Unity of Theme: The concept of humours provided a unifying theme for Jonson's plays.
It allowed him to explore various aspects of human behavior and social dynamics while maintaining a cohesive narrative.
Notable works in this genre include Every Man in His Humour and Every Man out of His Humour, both by Ben Jonson. These plays are characterized by their complex character interactions, witty dialogue, and exploration of human nature through the lens of the humours. Here we can say that the Comedy of Humours, popularized by Ben Jonson, was a distinctive dramatic genre that focused on exaggerated characters driven by specific humours. This approach led to insightful explorations of human psychology, social satire, and moral lessons, making it a unique and enduring contribution to comedic literature of the Renaissance era.
Self-Check Exercise-IV

1.    What is the Comedy of Humours, and who is associated with its popularization?

2.    How did the concept of humours influence character portrayal and conflicts in Jonson's comedies?
The Comedy of Humours, pioneered by Ben Jonson, is a theatrical style that revolves around characters characterized by distinct personality traits called "humours." Within Jonson's comedies of humours, these characters embody specific humours, resulting in amusing clashes and comical scenarios as their traits collide and create conflicts. This unique approach provides a lens through which human behavior is dissected with wit and insight, showcasing the interplay of personalities and offering both entertainment and thoughtful exploration of the human psyche.

11.7.    Summary
Unit 11 offers a comprehensive exploration of the transformative Puritan and Jacobean ages in English literature. These periods redefined literary expression through didacticism, allegory, Shakespearean complexities, and Ben Jonson's comedic legacy. The dynamic interplay of societal shifts, religious fervor, and artistic innovation is unveiled, revealing how literature mirrored evolving cultural landscapes. This unit illuminates the enduring impact of these eras on literary tradition, providing a deeper understanding of their profound influence on cultural evolution and the richness of literary innovation.

11.8.    Glossary
Didacticism: Moral instruction through literature.
Allegory: Symbolic representation with deeper meaning.
Intrigue: Complex plots and politics.
Satire: Humorous social criticism.
Legacy: Enduring influence and contribution.

11.9.    Answers to Self-Check Exercises
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.    The Puritan Age emphasized moral and ethical principles, resulting in didactic literature focused on religious and moral lessons.

2.    The Jacobean Age was marked by a flourishing of diverse literary forms, including Shakespeare's plays and metaphysical poetry.
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.    Decadence in Jacobean drama arose from factors like shifts in patronage, foreign influences, and evolving plot structures.

2.    The transition from royal to commercial patronage led to a focus on sensationalism over artistic depth.

3.    Melodramatic sensationalism in Jacobean plays involved exaggerated emotions and events aimed at evoking strong emotional responses from the audience.
Self-Check Exercise-III

1.    Ben Jonson used sharp wit and satire to offer social commentary in his comedies, going beyond entertainment.

2.    Jonson's "comedy of humours" explored personality traits, adding depth to characters and delving into human psychology.
Self-Check Exercise-IV

1.    The Comedy of Humours is a dramatic genre introduced by Ben Jonson, centered around characters driven by distinct personality traits known as "humours."

2.    In Jonson's comedies of humours, characters represented specific humours, leading to clashes and humorous situations as their traits interacted and conflicted.

11.10.    Suggested Readings/ References
The Concise Cambridge History of English Literature by George Sampson.

11.11.    Terminal Questions

1.    How did the elements of decadence manifest in Jacobean drama, and what factors contributed to their emergence within the era's shifting theatrical landscape?

2.    Explain the concept of Ben Jonson's "comedy of humours" and its role in shaping the depth and authenticity of character portrayals in his plays.

3.    Compare the Puritan Age's didacticism and allegorical themes with the Jacobean Age's exploration of human nature and diverse literary forms, highlighting the distinct characteristics of each era's literary contributions.
Unit-12
Versatility in Words: Flourishing Poetry and Prose in the Age of Milton

12.1.    Introduction

12.2.    Learning Objectives

12.3.    Civil War
Self-Check Exercise-I

12.4.    Literature of Puritan Age


12.3.1    The Development of Poetry
Self-Check Exercise-II

12.5.    Metaphysical Poetry
Self-Check Exercise-III

12.6.    The Cavalier Poets
Self-Check Exercise-IV

12.7.    Prose of the Age of Milton
Self-Check Exercise-V

12.8.    Summary

12.9.    Glossary

12.10    Answers to Self-Check Exercises

12.11    Suggested Readings/ References

12.12.    Terminal Questions

12.1    Introduction
This Unit offers insights into the Puritan and Jacobean periods, highlighting the pivotal Civil War of 1641 as a major political event. This unit delves into the influence of the war on writers and the subsequent transformations in literature. The emergence of the Puritan movement's impact on personal morality and civil liberties is examined. The decline of Elizabethan literary standards and the rise of metaphysical poetry during this era are explored as well, shedding light on how writers navigated these shifts in literary trends.

12.2.    Learning Objectives
In Unit 12, the focus lies on the impact of the Civil War in 1641 and the emergence of the Puritan movement that heavily influenced literary and political spheres. This period saw a transformation in literature, with a decline in Spenserian tradition and the rise of metaphysical poetry, marking a departure from Elizabethan standards. Metaphysical poetry, pioneered by John Donne, is examined for its intricate blend of intellectual and spiritual themes. The Cavalier poets' works are explored, highlighting their lighter lyricism centered around love and war. John Milton's diverse contributions, including "Paradise Lost" and prose works like Areopagitica, showcase his mastery of grand style, positioning him as a pivotal figure bridging the Renaissance and Reformation. Moreover, the unit delves into a wide array of prose works, reflecting the era's multifaceted socio-political landscapes.

12.3.    Civil War
The most important political event was the civil war that ensued in 1641. The entire period is dominated by the civil war and almost every writer was affected by this conflict.
On one side the country was tom between political conflicts and upheavals and on the other hand the Puritan movement was making its impact felt. W.J. long regards this puritan movement as a second and greater Renaissance, a rebirth of the moral nature of man following the intellectual awakening of Europe in the fifteenth and sixteenth century. The Puritan
movement had two main objects, the first was personal righteousness; the second was civil and religious liberty.
Though the spirit of the movement was profoundly religious, the puritans were not a religious sect; neither was the Puritan a narrow minded and gloomy dogmatist. Eliot and Milton were Puritan; and in the long struggle for human liberty there are few names more honoured by free men. It was a movement against the political and moral degradation of a cultured nation. Life was stem in those days. In the triumph of Puritanism under Cromwell severe laws were passed, many simple pleasures were forbidden and an austere standard of living was forced upon the people.
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.    What were the two main objectives of the Puritan movement during the English Civil War?

2.    How did the Puritan movement impact the moral and political aspects of the society in the 17th century?

12.4.    Literature of Puritan Age
In literature also the Puritan age is one of confusion due to the breaking up of old ideals. Spenser’s tradition was fast perishing and the new forms such as metaphysical poetry became popular. During this age there was the decline of English literature from the high Elizabethan standards. The vigor of the earlier age was fading away. Drama was totally eclipsed and the reflective and philosophical mood was talking the place of the natural energy and exuberance of the pervious singer. The output of poetry is much smaller and the fashion is towards shorter poem, especially the lyric of a peculiar type.
In the field of prose, however, there was an increase in activity which is an almost invariable accompaniment of a decline in poetry.

12.4.1    The Development of Poetry
The following are the main forms of poetry in this period :

(a)    Lyric : The lyric writing was still in vogue. The theme was chiefly love or religion. These poems are dedicated to ladies and the language of polite refinement is used in these poems. Love lyrics are written by Herrick, Lovelace, Suckling and Carew. The religious lyric on the other hand is the favourite of Crashaw and Vaughan. They are frequently and passionately inspired but the incongruity disfigures their style. Milton’s lyric is superbly phrased, but they too lack spontaneity.

(b)    The Epic: Milton in his Paradise Lost attempted to give this new genre to English literature of this era. The Puritan bias in his nature made him choose the subject of the fall of men. Otherwise, Milton’s treatment of the subject is strictly orthodox. Nominally he adheres to the epic tradition and its prerequisites.

(c)    The Ode: Spenser in his Epithalamion and Prothalamion gave us the irregular ode. In this age, however, the appearance of the ‘Pindaric Ode’ is observed. It suited the needs of a transition period that desires artificiality with a show of freedom. Gowley’s Pindarique Odes (1656) are the first of their class in English.

(d)    Descriptive and Narrative Poetry: In this category we include Milton’s L “Allegro and Penseroso, Harrick’s pastoral poems, and Crawshaw’s religious descriptive pieces, Cooper’s Hill (1642) and the romantic poem Pharannida (1656) by William Chamber Layne. In all these poems there is a tendency to avoid contact with actual wild nature, and to seek rather the conventional and bookish landscapes familiar in the more classical authors. Already the new classicism is declaring itself.
While surveying the poetical style of the age one is again confronted with conflicting tendencies peculiar to the transitional nature of the times.
The lyric style has lost the spendour of the Elizabethan Age but it shows an increase in care and polish and in actual metrical dexterity. It has a melodious resonance and beauty peculiar to the period.
In blank verse also conflicting movements are apparent. In Milton this style reaches a magnificent climax, but in the drama of the minor Nights it degenerates.
Then heroic couplet begins to appear in the works of Cowely. Denham and Edmund Waller. The poets of the Age of Milton were under the dominating influence of Ben Jonson and John Donne. Their revolt against the polite conventions of the Elizabethan lyric was altogether to the taste of the younger generation.
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.    What new poetic form became popular during the Puritan Age as opposed to the Elizabethan standards?

2.    How did the prose literature of the Puritan Age compare to its poetry in terms of activity and output?

12.5.    Metaphysical Poetry
John Donne is the founder of this school of poetry which had its origin in the last stage of the age of Shakespeare. It arose as revolt against the conventional poetry of thee Spenserians. It was Dr. Jonson who christened Donne and his followers “the Metaphysical poets.” Main characteristics of the Metaphysical Poetry :
Style: Donne and his followers felt disgusted with the poetrical excellences of the Elizabethan poetry. The straight forward imagery and similes of the Elizabe thans were replaced by subtle and unexpected comparisons; from description they turned to analysis; from healthy acceptance of the world to a somewhat morbid brooding on religion.
It is an intellectual poetry as the metaphysical po ets had originality and excised their intellects. Their thoughts were often deep and always sincere. They saw beneath the surface of life illuminated the deeper places with revealing flashes, and devoted their intellect and imagination to reflection upon God. Consequently, great religious poetry was also written during the age.
These poets had certain common features such as.

(a)    their poetry is, to a great extent, lyrical.

(b)    the subject matter is chiefly religious or amatory.

(c)    their poetic style is something starting in a sudden beauty of phrase and melody of diction. Moreover, there are sudden unexpected turns of language and figure of speech.
Most of the metaphysical poets are often called mystical poets. The mystic is one whose spiritual vision is strong enough to pierce through those shadows and interpret these symbols. He thus, enters into a communion with the Eternal spirit of the universe, and by the power of the divinity in his own soul or linked with die all-embracing spirit, which if he is religious he nabs as God. Donne Herbert Crashaw and Vaughan all have experienced this sense of communion with God. They have seen him with the eyes of the spirit and their poetry is again and again the expression of their spiritual experience.
In addition to Donne the following are the major metaphysical poets.
George Herbert (1592-1633)
One of the greatest writers of poems on sacred subjects was George Herbert. During his short career as a priest, he wrote the lyrics collected in his volume The Temple published to poems are peculiarly honestly inmate sincere are modest. They are homely, quiet, and colloquial and touched with honour. He is not trying like Donne to evolve a new said demonstrate how the style already in existence might be out.
Quaintness and extravagance were the prevailing faults of the age and Herbert had his full share of loom He was considerably influenced by Donne. This is proved by the fact
that this work has strong personal note as in Donne and at time like Ponne he spoils a clear smooth poem by harsh obscurity. His poem Prayer consists of a string of images in’ which prayer is successively called “the church’s banquet,” “God” breath in man returning to his birth” and so on.
Richard Crashaw:
The principle poetical work of Richard Crawshaw was The Steps to the Temple, a collection of religious poems. The volume reveals in Crashaw a strain of Italian and Spanish mysticism. He is the most foreign of the poets of this age. He is also spoken of as an uneven poet. But The Flaming Heart and A Hymn to the Name, Honour of the Admirable Saint are poems of intense passion and beauty.
Like Donne and Herbert, Crashaw indulges in metaphysical conceits and like them wrote great religious poetry. In many ways Crashaw is not a metaphysical poet. His poem reveals no complexity of mind, no conflict or tension, the manner is not colloquial and the images are pictorial rather than intellectual. In his secular work Delights of the Muses, he resembles the cavalier poets. Here we have the graceful courtly lyrical vain in his well-known “Wishes to his supposed Mistress.”
“Come and let us live, my dear, let love and never fear what the sourest fathers say.
Henry Vaughan
The most important works of Vaughan are poems (1646) Olor Iscanus (1651) Silex Scintillans (1650) and Thalia Rediviva (1658). To Herbert’s influence are due metaphysical conceits, as in the images “Stars shut up shop” when the poet is describing dawn. But when he ceases to follow his master he rises to fine poetry. He is at best when he deals with themes of childhood and of communion with nature and with eternity. Like Wordsworth he too feels nature’s infinite beauty and sees nature as a symbol of God.
I was Eternity the other night
Like a great ring of pure and endless light All clam as it was bright.”
Thomas Traherne
Like Donne and Herbert he was religious poet and won admiration for his few poems. His well known poem,The Wonder portrays child’s wonder “at the body in which Trapheme is not particularly metaphysical, but in mood and theme he is close to Vaughan. He idealized childhood and perceived keenly the beauty of the nature and felt that is spoke to him of God. Slightly a liquid simplicity of rare charm.
Abraham Cowley (1618-1667)
He was an important literary figure of his time though now he is scarcely read. All through his life he was busy producing various kinds of work poems, essays, plays and histories. His poem The Mistress is highly metaphysical. It is a collection of love poems but the love depicted in it is cold and artificial. His metaphysical conceits are sometimes ridiculous and wearisome. His next poetical work is Miscellanies. It contains Cowley’s Pindaric Odes.
In Cowley the metaphysical strain had become feeble. His work suffered from a lack of deep feelings, and in him the use of metaphysical wit and conceit deteriorated into mere ingenuity and mannerism.
Andrew Marvell (1621-78)
As a literary man his chief characteristic is his versatility. He could write beautiful lyrics and odes, pungent satires and telling political pamphlets. He is now remembered only on account of his early poems, especially his poems upon gardens, in which he shows himself to be a true lover of nature and of his magnificent Horatain Ode upon Cromwell’s Return from Ireland. In his best poem Marwell bears more affinity to the Elizabethans than to the metaphysical. A few lines are given below from his famous poem. To His coy Mistress, which indicates Marvell’s metaphysical blend of passion and fantastic conceit, handled by his distinctive control and poise.
But at my back I always hear
Time’s winged chariot hurrying near. And yonder all before us lie
Deserts of vast Eternity.
Thy beauty shall no more be found. Nor, in the marble vault, shall sound My echoning songs; then worms shall try, That long preserved virginity;
And your quaint honour turn to dist; And into ashes all my lust,
The grave is fine and private place But none I think to their embreace.
Self-Check Exercise-III

1.    Who is considered the founder of Metaphysical Poetry and why did it emerge during the age of Shakespeare?

2.    What are the main characteristics of Metaphysical Poetry in terms of style and subject matter?

3.    How did the Metaphysical Poets differentiate themselves from earlier poets in terms of their intellectual approach and poetic style?

12.6.  The Cavalier Poets
During the first half of the seventeenth century Ben Jonson’s followers also reacted against the Elizabe than style. Though the Cavaliers retain the Elizabethan lyrical spirit, yet they possess less spontaneity and they produced their lyric with more conscious poetic craftsmanship. They did not sing quite as naturally as their forerunners. Their lyric had lost the fine and voluptuous rapture. But their poems are easily structure and graceful. They all wrote under the influence of Jonson and gave an orderly structure and finished grace to their lyric. The language of prostrate adoration which dominates the Petrarchan school of poetry was substituted by a language of courtly gallantry.
The following are the Cavalier lyricists who deal mainly with love and war:
Robert Herrick (1591-1674)
He was the chief of those who called themselves “Sons of Ben” In his little poem. Prayer to Ben Jonson he invoked “Ben to aid him” His two volumes of poems are Noble Numbers and Hesperides which were published in 1674 and 1648 respectively. In these short poems, sacred and profane, he reveals lyrical power of high order; fresh, passionate and felicitously exact, but at the same time meditative and observant.
Few poets are more charming than Herricks. He was an enthusiastic admirer of the Greek and Romans but he is daintier and more spontaneous than Roman poets. He owed a debt to Marlowe, Shakespeare and Champion, but especially to Ben Jonson.
His lyrics of love are delightful and lucid. He wrote about a bevy of lovers lightly and gracefully. His note is not one of passion but of adoring gallantry. He takes pleasure in describing physical beauty. He does not forget to mention the pretty dresses and lovely features of his friends. Herrick had sincere love for the country though he admired the town life as well.
Herrick’s reputation grew in the nineteenth century and today he is universally recognized as the greatest, cavalier lyricist.
Thomas Carew (1598-1639)
He was also a disciple of Ben Jonson in poetry. His principle works are a mosque Coelum Britannic am and the Rapture which is fine but licentious amatory poem. In addition to this he wrote numerous graceful songs and lyrics. His chief faults are his weak imagination and a certain lack of boldness. His rage is far narrower than Herrick’s. But he stands next to Herrick among the Cavalier lyricists on account of felicity of phrase and tunefulness of verse:
Ask me no more where Jove bestows, When June in past, fading rose;.
For in your beauty’s orient deep
These flowers, as in their causes, sleep Ask me no more wither do stray
The golden atoms of the day;
For in pure love heaven did prepare Those powers to enrich your hair.
Sir John Suckling (1609-1642)
He was a careless writer. Many of his poems are complete rubbish, and even some of his bests are disfigured by weak lines of stanzas. He wrote quite a lot but his best-known songs such as the Ballad upon, a Wedding his tune fullness, merriment and impudence are simply irresistible.
Richard Love lace (1681-85)
Lovelace is remembered chiefly for two poems To Lucasta, Going to the Wars and To Althea from prison, which reach in perfection the heights he does not elsewhere approach. The former close.
I could not love thee, dear so much, Loved I not honour more,
The second poem contains the following stanza:
Stone walls do not a prison make, Nor iron bars a cage;
Minds innocent and quite take That for a Hermitage:
If 1 have freedom in my love And in my soul am free, Angles alone, that soar above, Enjoy such liberty.
Most of his poems are careless in worship, full of affected wit and gallantry, and often rendered obscure by extravagant and grotesque conceits. But he had the good fortune of writing half a dozen poems of great excellence.
All the above-mentioned poets write in a lighter vein. They do not make a pretense of treading their art seriously. But ‘what they did, they did extremely well.” John Milton
The greatest master of verse whose work has glorified this period is John Milton. He is the supreme poet in whose genius the best of both the Elizabethan as well as the Puritan spirit got mingled to the best advantage of poetry.
Milton’s work is divided into three periods:
The first covers his poetry up to 1640. This is the period of short poems like Ode on the morning of Christ’s Nativity and poems on Shakespeare and On Arriving at the Age of Twenty-three. The minor poems are clearly the work of a man in love with beauty and broad culture without any trace of fanaticism or narrowness.
Milton wrote ‘L’Allegro and II Penseroso in 1632 which mean “The joyful Man” and “The Thoughtful Man” they are lyrics which dial with the sights and sound of the English country side. But the deception is not romantic but classical. Nature is viewed by Milton “Not at first hand but through others.”
Lycidas: One of the most famous English elegies. It is written in the convention of a Greek pastoral elegy.
Lycidas is something more than a mere pastoral elegy. The pastoral conventions, Greek mythology, and Christian theology are all blended. Though Lycidas may not be a great elegy, it is certainly great poetry.
The other poem of this period is Comus, a masque and marks an important stage in the development of Milton’s thoughts. It shows him in the transition from the pastoral idyllic manner of his early poems towards the greater purpose which formed his mature work. He has by now abandoned rhyme for blank verse and it echoes the growing Puritan protest the tamper of Caroline society.
It has a dignity and elevation of style; a splendor of diction wedded to an exquisite and unfailing beauty of verse.
The second period (1640-1660): It is the period of political works and prose writings. He also composed sonnets in this period. Most of his sonnets are purely personal while some are political. He adhered to the strict Petrarchan form in his sonnets.
The Third period (1663- 1674) : It is the period the great poems of Milton, in which he wrote his epic, Paradise Lost. This epic, occupied him for five years. The scope of this poem is vast and extensive. Perhaps no other poet ever undertook a task of more appalling difficulty than Milton in writing this epic. It is an epic of art based on the classical conventions. It concerns itself with the fortune not of a city or an empire but of the whole human race.
Milton’s other two works, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes were published together in 1671. Paradise Regained is a Sequel to show how the son of God comes to redeem man from the consequences of his earlier sin. It is a dialogue in epic form rather than an epic.
Samson Agonistes is a drama on the model of Greek tragedy. It is perhaps the most successful attempts ever made to reproduce in another language of differing genius the spirit and effect of that kind of tragedy about which Aristotle wrote in the treatise on poetry.
Milton was strongly influenced by his Age. Puritanism is potent force in his poetry. His last three works reveal his religious and moral fervor at the best.
But John Milton was a poet of a different kind who belonged to both the Renaissance and the Reformation. Milton expressed the sense of beauty and culture which distinguished the writer of Renaissance.
He is the most sublime of the English poets and the acknowledged master of grand style. In everything he wrote a proud and commanding genius manifests itself, and he is one of those masters who inspire reverence rather than affection.
To Quote E. Albert: In literature, Milton occupies an important central of transitional position. He can immediately after the Elizabethan epoch, when the Elizabethan methods were crumb link in chaos. His hand and temper were firm enough to weave together into one system the wearing tendencies of poetry, and to give theme sureness accuracy, and variety. The next generation, lacking the inspiration of the Elizabethans found in him the necessary stimulus to order and accuracy; and from him, to a great extent; sprang the new ‘classicism’ that was to be the rule for more than a century.
Self-Check Exercise-IV

1.    How did the Cavaliers differ from their Elizabethan predecessors in terms of lyrical style and craftsmanship?

2.    Name three prominent Cavalier poets and briefly describe their characteristics and contributions.

3.    What distinguishes John Milton as a poet, and what are the key periods and works of his literary career?

12.7.    Prose of the Age of Milton
The development of prose in this age is carried on from the previous age. In spite of the hampering effect of the civil strife, the prose output was copious and excellent in kind. There was a notable advance in the sermon, pamphlets were abundant; and history, politics, philosophy, and miscellaneous kinds were well represented. There was remarkable advance in prose style.
In this age the representative prose writers developed and cultivated grand style which was quiet to the neglect of Hooker and Bacon, The effect is often that of magnificent music played by a great composer on a poor instrument. The greatest writer Milton and Jeromy Taylor, are the offenders as they confuse the sentence with the paragraph and do not know that a sentence is the prose unit as the line is poetical unit.
The prose writers of this age had a strong and marked religious tendency. The Civil War, which led to the temporary overthrow of the ancient English monarchy, was in many respects a religious as well as a political contest. It was a struggle for liberty of faith at least as much as for liberty of civil government. The prose literature of this time, therefore, as well as of period extending considerably beyond it, possesses strongly religious or theological character.
Sir Thomas Browne (1605-82)
A medical practitioner by profession Sir Thomas Browne produced his works during the civil war but he was unaffected by the commotion of his time. His first work is Religio Medici which was first published in 1624 and then in 1643. Religio Medici is a confession of Christian faith and is a formal autobiography. Saintsbury remarks, “Religio Medici has perhaps been a general favorite, a position at least deserved by the fact that it contains the first fruits of Browne’s extraordinary style, that is a sort of key to others, and that it displays, as does no other book, the mental attitude of the order and better generation of the Jacobean and Caroline times.
Vulgar Errors as Pseudodominant is Epidemica then longest work of Browne. In 1658 appeared Urn Burial or Hydriotaphia which is a short but profoundly mewing essay on funeral customs and death. It is Browne’s masterpiece. The style has something of the ease on the hand and on the other it is far more highly wrought richer and gorgeous.
Sir Thomas Browne is an artist rather than a philosopher. He endeavors to mingle his personal confessions with truth. His writings recall the works of Montaigne and foreshadow pascal.
He by no means confines himself to theological matters but takes the reader into his confidence in the same artless and undisguised manner as the immortal Montague.
Thomas Browne possessed the quality of humour. His vocabulary is highly Latinized and so he is sometimes charged again corrupting English by excessive Latinizing.
Nevertheless, Browne’s prose style and diction carry great importance in English Literature. His prose has influenced the prose writers of the nineteenth century. He is unsurpassable on account of music, seniority, and beauty of words.
Edward Hyde
Edward Hyde’s masterpiece is The History of Rebellion and civil Wars in England. He observed all the events of civil war his history lacks proportion and completes accuracy. But the narrative is strong and attractive. He has given graphic character sketches of his chief figures.
The style is generally inclined to be prolific, but despite their length his periods are usually clear, and he shows frequent vigor and eloquence. There is something grand and spacious about his workmanship.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
Hobbe’ chief work is Lenathars of The Matter Form and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiastical and Civil Which was published in 1651. Most of his philosophy is primarily political. The weakness of Hobbes theory lies in its being based on conviction of the essential selfishness of mankind. However, his boldly drawn picture of primitive man is one of the best passages.
Hobbes was a master of English prose. His prose is distinguished by its clarity, vigour and precision at a time when the first and third of these qualities were uncommon. He rarely indulges in decoration of any sort. His similes and illustrations are merely for the purpose of making his meaning clear by example.
John Milton (1608-1674)
With return from Italy and the outbreak of the Civil War, we enter upon the second period of his writings. His main attention was on the struggle for liberty, and he himself suggests the classification of the prose works on which he was then working.

(a) Divorce Pamphlets: Milton’s own trouble with his first wife led to his consideration of the question of domestic freedom. His opinions created scandal. In his Areopagitica he made an open attack on the censorship of the press. In this pamphlet he denounces the restrictions on liberty of expressions. Opinions with the stately eloquence and passionate rhetoric of which he was a master.
In his Ecclesiastical pamphlets he deals with the question of religious liberty, believing that the authority possessed by Bishops led to the suppression of the individual clergyman freedom for preaching.
Finally, he took up political liberty, arguing his own tongue with the English on the true way to establish a free commonwealth, in defense of the execution of the king and the setting up of the republic. Throughout his prose we find in abundance passages of lofty eloquence, grim irony, fierce invective, and a persistent passion for freedom. Milton’s prose is not for everyday purpose, it is too rarely pedestrian.
Izzak Walton (l 593-1683)
He is in certain respects a belated Elizabethan. He wrote biographies of Donne, Sir Henry Watton, Richard Hooker, George Herbert, and Robert Sanderson. Walton’s masterpiece is however, The Complete Angler which first appeared in 1653. Walton was
not a prolific writer but whatever he wrote was as good as he could make it. He was a careful artist who polished his periods meticulously. His biographies show him in a serious workday routine whereas in The Complete Anger he is in a holiday mood. His style is always mature and charming and he is a pioneer in the art of writing brief and attractive biographies.
Jeremy Taylor (1613-67)
He is the most prominent literary divine of the period. He was the son of a barber and after completing his education at Cambridge took holy orders and expounded the Royalist cause. Taylor’s most popular works, in addition to his serious, were The Liberty of Prophesying (1647), Holy living (1650) and Holy Dying (1651). Coleridge called Taylor, the “most eloquent of divines.” An accurate thinker, as a rhetorician he is unsurpassed. He is fond of annotations and allusions and of florid, rhetorical figures. He built long, stately but comprehensible sentences.
Richard Buxter (1615-1691)
He is a very prolific writer. He has written a vast number of tracts and religious works. He was remarkable for his consistency and uprightness. During the civil war, he preserved his loyalty to the king. He was a man of vast learning and untiring industry.
Thomas Fuller (1608-61)
Fuller had an original and penetrating mind, a wit apt for consistent comment and an industry that remained unimpaired till the end of his life. His literary works are therefore of great interest and value. His important works are The History of the Holy War (1639), and the Church History of Britain (1655). Among his pamphlets are Good Thoughts in Bad Time (1645), and the work that gave him reputation was The Worthies of England published by his son in 1662.
Thus, the age of Milton shows a considerable interest in the field of prose writing. The conflicting political, religious, and intellectual conditions of the age could not be fully expressed in any other medium but prose, and hence its popularity even with the greatest of poets like Milton.
Self-Check Exercise-V

1.    How did the development of prose in the Age of Milton continue
from the previous era, and what notable advancements were observed?

2.    Discuss the grand style cultivated by representative prose writers in this age and provide examples of the impact it had on their works.

3.    What marked religious tendency can be observed among prose writers of this era, and what role did the Civil War play in shaping their works?

12.8.    Summary
Here we came to know a comprehensive view of the Puritan and Jacobean eras, focusing on the significant Civil War of 1641 and its profound impact on literature. The unit underscores the Puritan movement's influence on personal righteousness and civil liberties. Additionally, it examines the transition from Elizabethan literary standards to the rise of metaphysical poetry. Overall, the unit highlights the complex interplay between historical events and literary evolution during this transformative period.

12.9.    Glossary
Vigor- Active strength or force of body or mind; capacity for exertion, physically, intellectually, or morally; energy
Vogue-The prevailing fashion or style
Gallantry-Courage
Sublime-To raise on high; to exalt; to heighten

12.10.    Answers to Self-Check Exercises
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.    The two main objectives of the Puritan movement were personal righteousness and the pursuit of civil and religious liberty.

2.    The Puritan movement aimed to address the moral decay and political corruption of the time, promoting a more austere and righteous way of life
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.    The Puritan Age saw a decline in the popularity of dramatic forms and a rise in the appeal of metaphysical poetry.

2.    While poetry experienced a decline in both volume and vigor, prose literature saw increased activity and output during the Puritan Age.
Self-Check Exercise-III

1.    John Donne is regarded as the founder of Metaphysical Poetry, which originated as a reaction against the conventional poetry of the Spenserians. It emerged during the late Elizabethan period as a revolt against established poetic norms.

2.    Metaphysical Poetry is characterized by subtle and unexpected comparisons, a departure from straightforward imagery and similes, and a shift from description to analysis. It focuses on religious and amatory subjects, often exhibiting intellectual depth and sincere reflections on God and spirituality.

3.    The Metaphysical Poets showcased originality and intellectual prowess in their work. They engaged in deep reflection on God and spirituality, revealing their spiritual experiences. Their poetry featured the sudden beauty of phrases, unexpected language shifts, and figurative language, setting them apart from earlier poets.
Self-Check Exercise-IV

1.    The Cavaliers, influenced by Ben Jonson, retained the Elizabethan lyrical spirit but wrote with more conscious poetic craftsmanship. They exhibited an orderly structure and grace in their poems, often replacing the language of Petrarchan adoration with courtly gallantry.

2.    Robert Herrick (1591-1674): Known as a "Son of Ben," Herrick's poems, found in volumes like Noble Numbers and Hesperides, showcase lyrical power, passion, and observation, often celebrating physical beauty.

i.    Thomas Carew (1598-1639): A disciple of Ben Jonson, Carew's works include graceful songs and lyrics. He stands alongside Herrick due to his felicity of phrase and tuneful verse.

ii.    Sir John Suckling (1609-1642): Suckling's poems, such as Ballad upon a Wedding, are characterized by merriment and impudence, despite occasional weaknesses in his lines.

3.    John Milton is a supreme poet who blended Elizabethan and Puritan influences in his work. His career is divided into three periods: early poems focused on beauty and culture; political works and prose writings during 1640-1660; and his epic masterpieces, "Paradise Lost," "Paradise Regained," and the tragedy "Samson Agonistes," marking his religious and moral fervor. Milton's grand style and influence on classicism set him apart as a revered literary figure.
Self-Check Exercise-V

1.    The prose development in the Age of Milton built upon the previous era, producing copious and excellent works despite the civil strife. The period saw advancements in sermons, pamphlets, history, politics, philosophy, and other genres.

2.    Prose writers like John Milton and Jeremy Taylor developed a grand style, often rendering magnificent music through their words. The complexity at times resembled great compositions played on imperfect instruments, with Milton and Taylor not distinguishing between sentences and paragraphs.

3.    The prose writers of this age exhibited a strong religious inclination, influenced by the religious and political turmoil of the Civil War. The struggle for both religious and civil liberties was reflected in their works, imbuing a theological character into much of the prose literature of the time.

12.11.    Suggested Readings/ References
The Concise Cambridge History of English Literature by George Sampson.
The Routledge History of English Literature by Ronald Carte.

12.12.    Terminal Questions

A.    How did the Puritan movement shape both personal righteousness and civil liberties during the Civil War era?

B.    Analyze the transition from Elizabethan literary standards to the emergence of metaphysical poetry in the Puritan and Jacobean age.

C.    To what extent did historical events, such as the Civil War, impact the literary landscape and cultural developments of the Puritan and Jacobean periods?
Unit-13
Restoration Literature

13.1.    Introduction

13.2.    Learning Objectives

13.3    Conflict between Catholics and Protestants
Self-Check Exercise-I

13.4.    Cromwell
Self-Check Exercise-II

13.5.    Charles II
Self-Check Exercise-III

13.6.  French Influence and Development of English
Self-Check Exercise-IV

13.7.  Age of Prose
Self-Check Exercise-V

13.8.    Literature
Self-Check Exercise-VI

13.9.    Classicism
Self-Check Exercise-VII

13.10.    Summary

13.11.    Glossary

13.12.    Answers to Self-Check Exercises

13.13.    Suggested Readings/ References

13.14.    Terminal Questions

13.1    Introduction
In many crucial ways, the civil war and years that led to the Restoration of Charles II (1660) mark the transition from old to modem England. Nothing was the same again in England after those violent years; with the Restoration began a new society, a new mentality, and a new literature. Politically, of course, the significance of the Restoration pales before the significance of the Glorious Revolution (1688) which, once and for all shifted the power from the King to the parliament, indeed the Restoration signified retrogression to absolute monarchy after the days of the protectorate. All the same, the Restoration coincides with a revolution in the mental outlook of the English people.
Not all the changes that became manifest in British political, social, and moral life were wholesome. But they were largely inevitable, or a few decades after in a destructive act, the act of rejecting Puritanism. The Puritan regime had been harsh on too many natural joys and pleasures. Now, released from restraint, society reacted almost widely against all decencies, disciplines, and moral norms. From one kind of excesses to another kind. It now plunged into excess more unnatural than had been the restraints of Puritanism Excess inevitably led to feverish diseased state, and there was indeed something diseased about the nation in the decades following the Restoration. According to Hudson, the Restoration caused immense changes in the general temper of the English people; in a sweeping reaction against Puritanism restraints were flung aside, decencies and moderation were cast aside and corruption became rife “The court of Charles II was the most shameless the country had ever known: infidelity and profligacy became fashionable; the moral ideas of. Puritanism was turned into dust, and those who still upheld the causes of domestic virtue were laughed at as hypocrites or de nounced as sour sectaries.”

13.2.    learning Objectives
The objective of this Unit is to give you an idea of the social, cultural, and political background of restoration literature-the rule of Cromwell and his influence on Puritanism, and then the rule of Charles II.

13.3.    Conflict Between Catholic and Protestants
While it would be a mistake to assume that the King and his followers reflected the total national situation indeed, they did not. They and their values got reflected in the literature of the age. Most of dramatic literature of the time is atrocious, and this is due to the fact that it was written for the aristocracy. “Unspeakably vile in his private life, the king had no redeeming patriotism. No sense of responsibility to his country even in his public acts. He gave high offices to blackguards, stole from the exchequer like a common thief, played Catholics and Protestants against each other, disregarding his pledges to both alike, broke his solemn treaty with the Dutch and with his own pleasures.,. The first parliament, while it contained some noble and patriotic members, was dominated by young men who... Vied with the king in passing laws for the subjugation of church and state. The House of Lords was largely increased by the creation of hereditary titles and estates for ignoble men and shameless Corrupted by the appointment of judges like that brutal Jefferies, whose aim, like that of their royal master, was to get money and to exercise power without personal responsibility. Amid all his dishonor the foreign influence and authority of Cromwell’s strong government vanished like smoke. The valiant little Dutch navy except the English fleet from the sea and only the thunder of Dutch guns in the Thames (1667), under the very windows of London, awoke the nation to realization of how it had failed.” (Long).
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.    What were the two main faults of King Charles I as described in the literature of the time?

2.    How did the literature of the period reflect the political turmoil of the time?

13.4.    Cromwell
The new regime allowed the aristocracy of birth to resume its privileged place. The march towards democracy was temporarily halted. Provincial England was left out of focus in the new situation; the focus of power was on the town-London, Fashionable London which provided itself upon the near presence of the king and his courtiers. Everything thus favoured the creation of an aristocratic, town-centered literature, Flattery, voluptuousness, pleasure and
favour seeking political controversies and intellectual arguments, all got centered on London, and are all reflected in the literature of the period.
The literature of the age, as Hudson remarks was like the social and moral climate, openly and definitely corrupt. It was generally wanting in moral strength and spiritual fervour, “real earnestness of purpose has passed away, and with-it strong passion and great creative energy.” Its general overall tenor was intellectual and dry not emotional. Perhaps the change was not all that sudden as the reference to the Restoration might suggest. The Restoration merely stimulated a tendency which” was beginning to show in the work of Bacon, Donne and many other poets. Thought was already coming to be prized more and imagination and emotion were getting more and more complicated. In the wild imaginative excesses of the Metaphysical and Cavalier poets, one could easily notice languishing and decay of the essential Elizabethan spirit which had depended for its sustenance on the passionate life of imagination as against analytical ratiocination which characterized Metaphysical poetry. As a reaction to the Metaphysical and Cavalier spirit, as a reaction to the labyrinthine prose of Milton, Hooker and Burton, the Restoration writer turned against the capricious games of imagination and towards balance in measure. It was now felt that art must have an intellectual quality because the intellect alone is the chief factor in orderly arrangement and simple clearness. According to Cazamian “The literary transition from the Renaissance to the Restoration is nothing more or less than the progressive movement of a spirit of liberty, at once fanciful, brilliant, and adventurous towards a rule and a discipline both in inspiration and in form.” From Restoration onwards classicism, with its emphasis on realism, becomes the pole which attracts the hidden working of individual minds.
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.     Major figure of Restoration Age’ is

1.     Cromwell    3. Henry I

2.     Charles II     4. James II

13.5.    Charles II
Classicism and realism do not come to English literature at once after the return of Charles II. In fact, while the extreme reaction against Puritanism lasted, realism was used as an. excuse for printing realistic pictures of a corrupt court and society. The Restoration writers emphasized vices rather than virtues and wrote coarse low plays without interest or moral significance later as the restoration fever subsided, the tendency to realism became more wholesome. A parallel growth is seen is the writer’s gradual internalization of the classical spirit.
The two developments, classicism, and realism, need to be viewed against the backdrop of the growing French influence on England. The intellectual physiognomy of the Restoration was largely shaped by the influence of France. Since the fourth decade of the seventeenth century there had been a growing intercourse between England and France. Those banished after the civil war had taken refuge in France the exiles of the commonwealth period included many writers of the reign of Charles II, and these writers imbibed in France the spirit of nation’s manners and literature. Restoration merely stimulated a tendency return to England. They renounced old ideals and demanded that English poetry and drama should follow the style to which they had become accustomed in the gaiety Paris. Their renunciation of English art was extreme indeed. In an entry in his dairy, Samuel Pepys records that he has been to see a play called Midsummer Night’s Dream, but that he will never go against to hear Shakespeare “for it is the most inspired ridiculous play that I ever saw in my life.” Another diarist, Evelyn, who reflects with accuracy the life and spirit of the Restoration, similarly reacts to Hamlet: “I saw Hamlet played/ but now the old plays begin to disgust this refined age, since his Majesty’s been so long abroad.” Rarely says Cazamain “has a literature found itself more openly in reaction against the general spirit of that which preceded it.” ‘The Restoration passes judgement of the Renaissance and finds itself superior. For its models, it looks away from England: it finds it models not in the classics of antiquity but in those of contemporary France.
Self-Check Exercise-III

1.    What role did French influence play in the literature of the Restoration period?

2.    How did the reaction against Puritanism manifest in Restoration literature.

13.6.    French Influence and Development of English
The French influence, at least for the time being led the English poets and playwrights into wretched imitations of the French writers. One result of the influence was, however, both positive and welcome. It was reflected in the tendency of the age towards directness and simplicity of expression. In both the Elizabethan and the Puritan ages, the general tendency of writers was towards extravagance of thoughts and language. Sentences were often involved and loaded with Latin quotations and classical allusions. The restoration writers opposed this vigorously. From France they brought back the tendency to disregard established rule of writing, to emphasize close reasoning rather than romantic fancy, and to use short, clear-cut reasoning without an unnecessary word. The men of the Restoration, as Hudson rightly says,
were the real creators of modern English prose. The prose of, say Milton in his Aeropagitica looks un-familiar, quaint, intricate and cumbrous, the construction adopted here is often that of Latin rather than of English syntax. In contrast to this, the prose of Restoration writer is much after our own way of writing; sentences are short, simple, and without parentheses or classical inversions Such changes made for ease in writing and reading, as also for directness and lucidity.
The development of the English language was hastened by a few more factors which deserve mention here. The founding of the Royal Society in 1662, itself a French influence, was one of them. It was established for the investigation and discussion of scientific questions but soon included practically all the literary and scientific men of age., One of the objects of the society was the reform of English prose by getting rid of its “swelling of style.” The society required of all its members the use of “a close, makes natural way of speaking positive expression; positive expression; clear sense; a native easy”. The increasing influence of science favoured clearness of though and plainness of expression.
In fact, from about 1660, there gradually developed a conscious anxiety about the stability of the language and a sense of the need both to reform and fix it. It was felt that without a sable language, the modem writers too would become as hard to read as was Chaucer with his broken obsolete English. Dryden, a member of the Royal Society, wrote in 1664. “I am sorry, that speaking so noble a language as we have not a certain measure of it, as they have in France, where they have an Academy for this purpose, but the idea was floated many a time. What is clearly reflected was the need many writers felt for the reform of the language. John Hughes, a minor writer of the time, wrote in an essay called Of style(1688) that the qualities of a good style were Propriety, perpetuity, Elegance and Cadence. The spread of the spirit of common sense and the critical temper of mind also contributed to the desirability of the reform of the language. Finally, “a new kind of public was growing up which was far more varied in character than that which hitherto had possessed the practical monopoly of literary interests, and the tastes and capacities of this increasingly large body of general readers had to be consulted by those who catered for them. In an age of unceasing political and religious excitement, there was an immense development of that sort of evanescent literature which we now class under the head of Journalism; the general reader and the ready writer thus appeared together; each reacted upon the other; and his change of public necessarily meant that things which had formerly been treated in difficult way had to be made simple and pleasant. Thus, besides the influence of France where a prose had already been evolved which in its clearness, flexibility and good taste served the purpose of ordinary exposition, discussion, and social
intercourse for stability in the language served as key factors in the transformation of the English language.
Self-Check Exercise-IV

1.    What was one positive outcome of French influence on English prose during the Restoration?

2.    How did the founding of the Royal Society contribute to the development of English prose?

13.7.    Age of Prose
Matthew Arnold called the Restoration “the real moment of birth of our modem English prose.” “It is by its organism-an-organism opposed to length and involvement and enabling us to be clear plan and short-that English prose after the Restoration broke with the style of times preceding it, finds the true law of prose, and becomes modem; becomes, spite of superficial difference, the style of our own day.” Arnold’s judgement is accurate, provided one reminds oneself that the birth was not all that sudden. In fact; was only the eighteenth century, with the rise of the novel and the arrival of prose writers such as Swift, Addison arid Steele, and Hazlitt that the new prose got finally established in England. However, a great beginning was certainly made in the Restoration period.
The adoption of the heroic couplet in Restoration poetry and verse drama is also a big event. The couplet, that is two iambic pentameter lines which rhyme together, came to be considered the most suitable form of poetry. The epithet ‘heroic’ was derived from the common employment of the measure of poetry. To a great extent the heroic couplet became fashionable because the Restoration writer was reacting against the excesses and obscurities of the Metaphysical poets. In favour of good sense and neatness and clearness of expression as he was, he rejected the rugged and harsh versification of his predecessors. Dryden praised Edmund Waller (1606-1687) as the best illustrator of the beauties of the heroic couplet. The excellence and dignity of time were never fully known till Mr. Waller thought it; he first made wilting easily an art; first showed us how to conclude the sense most commonly in distiches which in the verse of those before him runs on for so many lines together that the readers are out of breath to overtake it.” Waller, the most famous poet of the Restoration period before Dryden appeared, brought into use the kind of closed form in which the fuel is that instead of the sense being allowed to flow from couplet to couplet ident finitely, it should habitually dose with end of the second line, the metrical pause and the rhetorical pause thus coming together. The adoption of the couplets, in fact, part of the formalisms which made the essence of the literary
ethos of the time here, in the closed couplet, one notices the poet’s disciplining his material and ideas to the requirements of the close form. For example, Waller writes.
The soul’s dark passage battered and decayed
Let’s in new light through chinks that time has made
The couplet is epigrammatic, catchy, and easy to remember and quote. The restoration writers delighted in such closed couplets. Soon this mechanical closed form almost excluded all other forms of poetry. It remained dominant in England for a full century reaching its perfection in the satires of Dryden and Pope. It is erroneous to assume that the couplet was Waller’s invention. It was in use earlier too. Chaucer had used it in all its melody and variety. But Waller certainly Redis covered it. Waller was ably followed by Sir John Denham, Denham is now chiefly remembered for his descriptive poem, Cooper’s Hill. Dryden praised both Waller and Denham, “Our numbers were nonage till these last appeared.” Four of quoted lines in Denham’s “Cooper’s Hill” neatly sum up the chief pre-occupation of the Restoration poets.
O could I flow like thee, and make thy stream My great example, as it my theme.
Though deep, yet clear, though gentle, yet not dull Strong without range; without a overflowing full’
Self-Check Exercise-V

1.    How did the adoption of the heroic couplet influence Restoration poetry?

2.    What was Matthew Arnold’s view on the significance of the Restoration period for modern English prose?

13.8.  Literature
The literature of an age is never uniform or unidirectional. In fact, certain features and tendencies dominate is much more thoroughly than others. It is on the dominant features and strains that we tend to offer generalization regarding the character and temperament of the age. But we should not lose sight of the other relatively minor strains and tendencies of the age if we would have a comprehension portrait of its literature. In political life, the Restoration marked the beginning of era tranquility, but before long to show visible signs of protest and revolt, the signs which ultimately precipitated the Bloodless Revolution of 1688. In literature too such sign of protest was visible right beneath the seemingly calm strain of rationality and realism, of manners and of artificial formalism and analytical prose. These signs of protest were visible in the efforts of writers who still attempted forms of pure sensibility, ardent and tragic passion, and ‘creative imagination. These writers obviously worked against the dominant spirit
of their age, but this is not to say that they were freaks or oddities. They reflected the under layers of the age. Cazamian is correct when he says, “From 1660 to 1688, two literary currents are flowing at different depths without merging the first, by the greater, spreads itself out in the sunshine; it represents the tendencies, the works that are in intimate harmony with the spirit of the epoch, and alone truly belongs to it. The second appears on the surface at long intervals only; it continues the past, and announces the future, “The point becomes clear if we remind ourselves that two great works. ‘Paradise Lost’ and ‘The Pilgrim’s Progress,’ were published in the Restoration period and both are foreign to the spirit of the Restoration: indeed, they are openly defiant of that spirit.
The tranquility that was initiated in the social and political life of England by the Restoration did not last long. Between 1670 and 1685 there gradually emerged political strife and a spirit and opposition led the projects of the king and his court. The strife and opposition led to the Revolution of 1688, the setting up of a new regime and a reaction in public opinion against the manners and special modes of the Revolution of 1688, the setting up of a new regime and a reaction in public opinion against the manners and special modes of the Restoration. The strife and opposition had a religious touch to them; they represented the revolt of the national Anglican spirit against the absolutism and Catholic; leanings of the Stuarts. From the literary point of view of these deep and vigrous movements of the national mind brought about certain progressive changes in the inner quality to the Restoration. With the revival of function and parties, and the excitement caused by the Popish plot (1678), a quality of force and ardour revived in civic feeling, and passed naturally into literature. The Restoration tone was thus modified. In fact, the last years of the century form a distinct period, a brief but well- marked transition, separating the Restoration from the age of Classicism.
Self-Check Exercise-VI

1.     When did Theatre closed?

1.    1640       3. 1642

2.    1641       4. 1643

13.9   Classicism
During this transition (1688-1702) the characteristic of the Restoration period still continue to be dominant, but they also show signs of wearing out. Besides, some new traits appear. They combine to set the stage for the advent of Classicism. The revolution of 1688, as has already been remarked, was the result of the struggle between the principle of absolute authority in State and Church and the idea of tolerance and constitutional liberty. The
Revolution finished the principle of absolutism. Henceforth there would prevail the will of the ruling class as incarnated in parliament. Behind these developments one sees the upper middle class of businessmen and financiers forcing their presence upon the hitherto ruling hereditary nobility. Society after 1688 remained aristocratic; but the spirit of the middle classes began to impregnate its tone and its manners. No doubt the fashionable and cultured world, from which the literary public was redraws not at once overthrown; artistic traditions and conventions still continued to exit as before. But during the reign of William III, the character of literature, without foregoing its Restoration complexion, is nevertheless toned down, relaxed and forward-looking.
In short, the literature of the Restoration is as significant as the literature of transitions. To begin with, it marks the feverish rejection of what the preceding age had stood for; Puritanism and restraints. The subject matter now turns anti-puritan and quite often licentious and corrupt. Satire and parody became fashionable both as a means of ridiculing the Puritan spirit and as a way of participating in political controversies. The influence of France is extraordinary and is revealed in the age’s obsession with realism, formalism, and style. While the literature of the age does not really match the great classic French writers, the French influence does much good by way of promoting the growth of English prose. In its break from the preceding age, the age of Metaphysical poets as much as of such prose writers as Milton, Hooker and Browne, the Restoration literature moves a great deal towards modernity. However, certain hidden tendencies continue to exist as in Milton and Bunyan. After the Glorious Revolution, the tone of the Restoration underwent gradual modification and lowering, thus making another transition this time between the Restoration and the age of Queen Anne.
Self-Check Exercise-VII

1.    What was one major change in English literature following the Glorious Revolution?

2.    How did Restoration literature reflect a break from the Puritan past?

13.10    Summary
The period from 1660 to 1700 is known as the Restoration period or the Age of Dryden. Dryden was the representative writer of this period. The restoration of King Charles II in 1660 marks the beginning of a new era both in the life and the literature of England. The king was received with wild joy on his return from exile. The change of government from
Commonwealth to kingship corresponded to a change in the mood of the nation. In this period the Renaissance delight in this world and the unlimited possibilities of the exploration of the world, and the moral zeal and the earnestness of the puritan period could no more fascinate the people of England. Moody and Lovett remark: But in the greater part of the Restoration period there was awareness of the limitations of human experience, without faith in the extension of the resources. The historical events like the Restoration of Charles II in 1660, the religious controversy and the revolution of 1688 deeply influenced the social life and the literary movements of the age.

13.11    Glossary
Voluptuousness- Sensuality; the quality of being sensuous.
Banish- to send someone away and forbid that person from returning
Cadence- The act or state of declining or sinking
Cumbrous- Unwieldy because of its weight; cumbersome

13.12 . Answers to Self-Check Exercises
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.    King Charles I was described as lacking patriotism and breaking treaties with both Catholics and Protestants.

2.    Literature of the period reflected the political turmoil by showing the corruption of the king and the failure of his government.
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.  (l)
Self-Check Exercise-III

1.    French influence introduced realism and a focus on contemporary manners in Restoration literature.

2.    Restoration literature often depicted the vices of the court and was marked by a reaction against Puritan ideals.
Self-Check Exercise-IV

1.    French influence led to a focus on directness and simplicity in English prose.

2.    The Royal Society promoted the use of clear and natural English prose among its membe
Self-Check Exercise-V

1.    The heroic couplet became the dominant poetic form, valued for its clarity and order.

2.    Arnold saw the Restoration as the true beginning of modern English prose due to its emphasis on clarity and simplicity.
Self-Check Exercise-VI
1.      (3)
Self-Check Exercise-VII

1.    The Glorious Revolution ended the era of absolute authority, leading to a literature that was more forward-looking and less restrained.

2.    Restoration literature rejected Puritan values, focusing instead on satire, parody, and
realism.

13.13.    Suggested Readings/ References
History of English literature by Edward Albert.
History of English literature by David Daiches.

13.14.    Terminal Questions

1.    What is the restoration era?

2.    In what ways is Restoration literature an “anti-Puritan” literature?

3.    John Dryden is considered to be the most important figure in Restoration literature.
Why do you think he was so influential?
Unit-14
Restoration Literature: Poetry, Comedy and Heroic

14.1.


Introduction


14.2.


14.3.

Learning Objectives
Restoration Poetry

14.3.1    John Dryden
Self-Check Exercise-I

14.3.2    Samuel Butler
Self-Check Exercise-II

14.4.    Restoration Comedy
Self-Check Exercise-III

14.5.  Restoration Heroic Tragedy
Self-Check Exercise-IV

14.6    Glossary

14.7.    Answers to Self-Check Exercises

14.8.    Suggested Readings/ References

14.9.    Terminal Questions

14.1    Introduction
Unit 14 of your course delves into the captivating world of Restoration Literature. This period, following the restoration of the monarchy in England, witnessed a vibrant revival of arts and culture. Restoration Literature is characterized by its distinct blend of wit, social satire, and exploration of societal norms. From the comedies of manners to the heroic tragedies, this unit takes you on a journey through the works of notable playwrights, poets, and authors who shaped this dynamic era. Through its exploration of poetry, drama, and prose, Unit 14 provides a glimpse into the nuanced expressions of human emotion, society, and art during this intriguing phase of English history.

14.2.    Learning Objectives
Welcome to Unit 14, where we will embark on a journey to explore the captivating world of Restoration Literature. Throughout this unit, our learning objectives will guide us in understanding the unique characteristics of this literary era, delving into the nuances of Restoration poetry, drama, and heroic tragedy. We will analyze the key themes, styles, and notable works that define this period, gaining insights into the societal, cultural, and artistic influences that shaped these creative expressions. Join us as we unravel the complexities of Restoration Literature and develop a deeper appreciation for its significant contributions to the literary landscape.

14.3.    Restoration Poetry
The study of restoration literature must begin with its poetry,” says Cazamian. This is because the formalism which characterised the age is best reflected in poetry: “form now comes into the foreground the art of writing, and it is in poetry that the elaboration of form is carried farthest.” The best elaborator of form in this age is also the most representative figure of age: he is Dryden.

14.3.1    Dryden :
Dryden is however, not as simple a poet as he is commonly made to be by critics. While it is true that he leads the movement towards classicism, Dryden does not reach classicism; nor does he show any express desire to settle comfortably in the domain of classicism. He keeps shifting, evolving, moving, even looking backward”. He is still, as it were, a reveler, hankering after the great free stretches of landscape and preserving his independence of mind. We must, therefore believe that nature has sown the seeds of the literature of reason and order which is characteristic of the age; the need for clarity, proportion, and rule the architectural instinct, the gift of logic, the demand for a definite rhythm, for a symmetrical and distinct cadence. Thus he is of his time and looks towards the age of classicism. But at the same time his poetry is characterized by the marks of the past, impetuous flights of the imagination, the love of vigour, a taste for full melody, a weakness for rare sudden felicities in thought or phrase. Many of the distinctive characteristic of Elizabethan poetry and the intellectual traits of Metaphysical poetry are found in the early Dryden, and though later on Dryden tries to curb these, these cling to his verse.
In Dryden’s early couplets one notes the efforts to bend the form to the shape of the dramatic verse of the age of Donne. It is also marked by awkward conceits and Metaphysical wit :
Wars there no milder way than the smallpox, The very filthiness of Pandora’s box
Blisters with pride swelled, which things flesh did sprout, Like rosebuds, stuck th’Illy skin about.
Each little pimple had a tear in it.
To wail the fault its rising did commit, (On the Death of Lord Hastings, 1649)
This is writing of the Metaphysical decadence; its wit and imagery arc reminiscent of Metaphysical poets. But as he developed, Dryden perfected the couplet. It becomes natural, simple, and easy in expression. The Metaphysical traits stayed on in his poetry, but on the whole the progress of Dryden is away from them. A few lines from his To the Memory of Mr. Oldham (1684) will illustrate Dryden\s development of the couplet;
Farewell too little, and. too lately known, Whom I began to think and call my own, For sure our souls were near allied, and thine
Cast in the same poetic mould with mine O early ripe; to the abundant store What could advancing age have added more?
The above lines show Dryden’s freedom from the Metaphysical poets’ influence, as also his movements towards the polished straight, pointed verse of his preference.
“They say my talent is satire,” wrote Dryden in a letter to the Karl of Abingdon. “If it be so, “he continued.” its fruitful age and there is an extraordinary crop to gather.” These remarks lead straight to the heart of Dryden’s verse. Satire is the key for the greatest poem of Dryden, Absalom and Achitophel (1681) which was written at the request to Charles II to turn opinion against Shaftesbury and the whings. The poem marks the return of Dryden to the realm of verse after his devotion to the writing of plays for more than fifteen years. His couplets had taken most of their true shapes as early as 1660, as his piece on the ‘happy restoration’ Astraea redux (that is, Astraea, Virgin goddess of justice, brought back) show, Annus Mirabillis (1667), which gives a spirited account of the Great Fire and the war with the Dutch in the previous year, shows Dryden’s increased ease with the verse form. Dryden returned in verse in 1681, after events both political and personal drove him back to it, with the result both splendid and astonishing, Political passions over the Exclusion Bills were at their height, and Dryden appeared as the chief literary champion of the monarchy in Asbsalom and Achitophel.
The poem is a political allegory, perhaps one of the most famous in English literature, Absalom is the Duke of Mon-mouth the unfortunate aspirant to the throne;
and Achitophel is his daring but injudicious counselor Shaftesbury. These two are surrounded by a cluster of lesser politicians, upon each of whom Dryden bestows a Biblical name of deadly aptness and transparency. The excellence of the poem lies mainly in the numerous amazing force and range, rarely stooping to security, but punishing its victims with deadly scorn. See, for example, this portrait of Shaftes bury (Achitophel) :
Of these the false achitophel was first:
A name to all succeeding ages curt;
For close designs and crooked counsels fit Sagacious, - bold and turbulent to wit:
Restless, unfix’d in principles and place, In pow’r unpleased, important of disgrace A fiery soul, which working out its way, Fretted the pirgmy body of decay.
And o’ve-informed the treatment of clay.
Here a figure simply described in moral terms is created concrete, positive enough to survive as a character by the sheer precision of the language energy, the capability of the words. Of such satire as this Dryden himself says not unfairly, it is not bloody, but it is able to acknowledge the good points of its victim, and then it treats his case as pathetic, simply because these good points are perverted in him.
In 1682 Dryden produced another political satire. The Medo called forth a report an old friend of Dryden’s Shadwell. Dryden reacted to this retort by writing Mac Fleckone, a stinging, destructive, personal lampoon degraded, with much coarseness and personal spite. The second part of Absalom and Achitophel, written in 1682 mainly by Nahum Tate, contains a violent attack on Shadwell by Dryden.
A new poetical development is manifest in Religio laid (1682) and The Hind and the Panther (1687). These are didactic poems, the first is a thesis in support of the English Church: the second, more ample and more explicit, was written after Dryden’s conversion to Roman Catholicism and the accession of James. It is an allegorical to express Dryden’s comparative reassessment of the Anglican Church ‘the panther, sue the noblest” and relegates the Anglican Church to status of the hind, the second best. Other beasts represent various sects The bloody Bear, an Independent beast..., Among the timorous kind the Quaking Hare..... Next her the buffoon Ape..., The bristled Baptist boar ”However, these sects are given very little action to perform; the poem mainly remains a disputation between the hind and the panther; enlivened by occasional
satirical characterising touches. Dryden also adapted Boceacio and Chaucer in the Fables. They have a narrative interest.” Dryden never created in his original poems. Finally, Dryden’s lyrical poetry, the best known of which are two poems, Songs for St. Cecillia’s Day (1687) And Alexander’s Feast (1697), shows him as a master of melodious verse and a varied and powerful style.
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.     ‘Absalom and Achitophel’ is written by?

1.     Dryden             3. John Gay

2.     Joseph Addison      4. Bishop Percy




14.3.2.    Samuel Butler
Another important and interesting poet of the age also a great satirist and caricaturist. Samuel Butter (1612- 1680) best illustrates the Restoration revolt against hypocrisy and its denunciation of all that Puritanism had stood for. His masterpiece Hudibras (first part; 1663; second part 1664; third part 1678) was in harmony with the taste of the cultivated public, the greater part of which was hostile to the memory of a defeated Puritanism. The poem is placed in the Jays of the civil war, when people were massacring each oilier without knowing why. Its main character is Sir Hudibras, the grotesque, hypocritical and corpulent knight of a hot headed, quarrelsome cause (Puritanism sallying out in company with squire Ralph, who rides at his side. The first is Presbyterian, the second an epoch when sect opposed sect in endless strife. Sprinkling their mishaps with mutual sermons, the two cronies rule forth to court adventure; after his devotion to the writing pursuing a showman with his bear who stirs up all the puritan anger of Hudibras, now victorious, now defeated, cudgelled, imprisoned, liberated they pass from episode, just as it pleases the fancy of the poet, in with some unity.
A poor imitation of Cervantes the author of Don Quixote Butler’s poem also liberally borrows from many other European satirists. It is a mock-heroic parody and concentrated series of epigrammatic sayings, as short as they are harsh, bitingly sarcastic. His odd, jiggling octosyllabic couplets, and maxims which have the touch of proverbs, haunt our memory. The master of Hudibras is remarkable. It is varied and yet uniform, and it carries the tale with an easy relish though it is sometimes almost doggerel, it has always a kind of distinction, and each couplet in clenched with an ingenious rime that is the most amusing feature of all. Here are a few lines from the poem conveying the, hypocrisy of Hudibras:
He was in logic a great critic, Profoundly skilled in analytic; He could distinguish, and divide
A hair twixt sought and south-west side;
On either which he would dispute, Confute, change hands, and still confute He’d undertake to prove by force
Of argument a man’s no horse:
He’d prove a buzzard is no fowl, And that a lord be an owl-
A calf, an alderman a goose, a justice- And rooks, committee-men and trustees.
He’s run in debt by disputation,
And pay with ratiocination:
All this by syllogism, true
For rhetoric, he could not ope His mouth but out flew a trope,
And when he happneded to break off I ‘th’ middle of his speech, or cough, H’had hard words, ready to show why And tel what rules he did it by
Else, when with greastes art he spoke You’d thing he talked like other folk; For all a rhetorician’s rules
Teach nothing but to name his tools.
When Hudibras first appeared in public in 1663, after circulating secretly for years in manuscript, it became at once an enormous success. It was Butler’s intention to kill puritanism by ridicule, and the intention was shared by many, many others especially in the court. However, the portrait of Puritanism is not done justly here; it is widely caricatured. Butler saw only the extravagance and charlatanism which were often associated with Puritanism in the Restoration period.
Self-Check Exercise-II
1.     Who was Samuel Butler and what is his notable work?
During the Restoration age, a group of lesser-known poets made their mark on the literary scene, contributing to the rich tapestry of the era. Among them were notable figures like John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester, who earned the moniker "That rake Rochester." Miss Aphra Behn, a pioneering female writer, added her voice with insightful works. Sir Charles Sedley and Nahum Tate also left their poetic footprints, reflecting the diverse influences of the time. Thomas Flatman, too, added his poetic touch, collectively enhancing the literary landscape of the Restoration period. While these poets might be considered "minor" in
comparison to some of their contemporaries, their contributions remain important in capturing the essence of the era's artistic and cultural nuances.

14.3    Restoration Comedy
Restoration drama looks impressive by comparison with the virtual nullity which followed it, but it is clearly inferior, in range and depth, to the Elizabethan. The course of the deterioration of drama during the period show the extent to which it has to function. As has already been noted, the age found it possible to judge its own plays superior to those of the sixteenth century in such self-justifying terms that it did not notice how much it had gone down from the heights the theatre had touched during the Elizabethan age. The Restoration playwrights were very self-conscious, particularly about their innovations. They were very proud of having evolved a new form of comedy which came to be called the ‘Comedy of Manners. This comedy was evolved in response to the new social practices and values.
“During the forty years’ that followed the Restoration English literature, English culture was “upper class” to an extent that is had never been before. “Wrote L.C. knight. On the reopening of the theatres in

1660,    two companies sometimes only one, sufficed for London; during the sixteenth century, London although much smaller than in 1690, had as many as six theatres. The tendency of the drama to appeal less generally was in line with the “upper class” complexion of the Restoration culture. In the Restoration period the audience got much more limited and elitistic than in the Elizabethan age. The comic dramatist, on the whole, tried to please their high audience. Leslie Stephen opined that this is a comedy “written by blackguards for blackguards” And Dr. Johnson attacked “the wits of Charles” in the following lines :
Themselves they studied, as they felt they write; Intrigue was plot, obscenity was wit.
Vice always found a sympathetic friend; They aleas’d their age, and. not aim to mend.
Some comedy writers did try to mend, but sooner or later they succumbed to the pressures of the audience which did not want to be disturbed in its self-compliances.
The new comedy grew rather slowly. For some years after 1660 comedy was restricted to revivals of pre-common-wealth plays, but these revivals did not please the decadent licentious audience. The spirit of the age was alien to the romantic comedy of the Elizabethans. Even so, it was from Elizabethan comedy that restoration comedy derived. Not from Shakespeare whose romantic comedy appeared atrocious and uncouth to the new audience, but rather from the more realistic comedy of Ben Jonson and above all from Beaumont and Fletcher. Beaumont and Fletcher were very popular during the age and Dryden praised them in
1688: “they understood and imitated the conversation of gentlemen much better; whose wild debaucheries, and quickness of wit in repartee, no poet before them could paint as they have done.” It was Fletcher who had, according to Flecknoe, introduced and popularity of Beaumont and Fletcher is significant. There works, as one critics has pointed out, indicates the collapse of culture, and adult scheme is being broken up and replaced by adolescent intensities. A similar criticism may be made of Restoration comedy; not only that it is limited to the social class it portrays, but that it attitudes towards life and experience are immature, adolescent. The preoccupation with love, the heavy stress on sex and sex battles, the common moral that marriage is a bore and love mainly sensual, all these are typical and immature attitudes.
The amount of life felt by Restoration, dramatists was severely limited and the feeling was very often at the level of cliches. Another criticism of Restoration comedy is that it relishes unpleasant subjects, such as follies, vices, and crimes, it lacks the amiable; ennobling or intense passions.
The range of Restoration comedy is thus severely limited. However, within its limited range, certain situations and character types are seen sharply and amusingly. Moreover, this comedy accurately records the social achievements and follies of that extraordinary society. Sex antagonism and physical appetite are certainly not the soul of love, but in dealing with these the restoration dramatists use honesty and nonchalance that is rarely equaled in other ages. Similarly, Restoration comedy overflows with wit and repartee. Indeed, the most conspicuous quality of restoration comedy is the witty exchanges of words.
Restoration comedy is full of vitality and pace, but is has not much or that exuberance which distinguished Elizabethan comedy; instead, it has polish, elegance, and intellectual control. Emotion here is replaced by wit, poetry by a clear, concise prose, charity by cynicism. The pervading tone is satirical and the plays show a close, pointed observation of life and manners. Plots and subplots are intricate and numerous, and centre mainly upon amorous intrigues, which reflect an open contempt for ordinary standard of morality, that in Wycherely and others, often makes the form of gross sensuality. In the hands of the best and most restrained of the dramatists. Etheredge and Congreve, the immorality still remains, but is purged of its coarseness and offensiveness. The immorality of Restoration drama was the object of fierce Puritanical attack, the most sensational of which was the short view of immorality and profane as of English stage (1698) by Jeremy Collier.
Much of the vitality of Restoration comedy comes from its “gay couples.” Etherdge’s Sir Frederick Frolick and Widow Rich in The Comical revenge (1964), Dryden’s Loveby and Constance, Calendon and Florimel, Wildbllod and Jacintha’ in his Wild gallant (1966), Secret
Love (1667) and An Evening’s Love (1668) are some of the famous gay couples. The recent introduction of actress on the English stage contributed, of course, to the success and popularity of these sharp encounters between the sexes. Many plays of the period have Proviso-Scene’s in which hero and heroine bargain about the conditions under which each might contemplate matrimony.
Dryden’s success with these scenes established them as a stereotype and they were much imitated and parodies, the bargaining of Congreve’s Mirabel and Millament being the most brilliant of the series Dryden’s gay couples begin from such premises as these;
Florimel (a mind of Honour). But this marriage is such a bugbear to me. Much might be if we could invent but and ways make it easy.
Cleadon (a Counter) Some foolish people have made it uneasy by drawing the knot faster than they need; but we that are wiser will loosen a little.
(Secret Love, or, The Madian Queen)
The couple cover some familiar grounds for marital discord: Florimel hopes that Cleandon may find ‘marriage as good as wenching’ if they are married, not into the damning title of ‘husband and wife,’ but “by the more agreeable names of mistress and gallant. “This is bright and Shrewd rather than penetrating, the premises about human nature, and about the satisfaction and frustrations of marriage are too narrow and shallow.
William Congreve:
Dryden tried his hand at comedy, but he did not succeed in comedy. It is William Congreve (1670- 1729) who is greatest of the Restoration comedy-writers. His first comedy was The Old Bachelor (1693) and this was followed by The Double Dealer (1963), Love for Love (1695), and The way of the World (1700)in his work the comedy of manners reaches perfection. His plays portray the artificial upper-class society in all its manner. They are also remarkable for their artificial dialogue. The tone is one of cynical vivacity, the characters are well drawn and the prose is lucid, concise, and pointed. In all things, Congreve left the stage at the age of thirty, anti-Dennis wrote in 1717, ‘Congreve quit the stage in disdain, and comedy left it with him.”
William Wycherely (1640-1715)
Wrote plays only during the 1670s His four plays, Love in a Wood, the Gentleman Dancing Master, The Country Wife and The Plain Dealer were all produced between 1671 and 1676. He was to his contemporaries “manly”, the adjective to a boisterous indecency and licentiousness that runs through his plays, in which nearly every person is fool, and every handling dialogue, his vision is distorted. He is too
narrow and confused in’ his apprehension of moral issues. The Country Wife displays best Wycherley’s talents for assured characterization, incisive dialogue, and masterly handling of situations.
Sir John Vanbrugh, (164-1726)
Was fond of farce and good at caricature. His plots are better constructed titan Congreve’s. His best plays are The Relapse (1696), The Provok’s wife (1697), and The Confederacy. His plays lack the art and elegance of Congreve’s but they are full of energy and genial humour.
Georage Farquhar (1678-1707)
Did not live long, and the pathos of his early death has given him a fame of its own. He wrote seven plays, the best of which are his last two, The Recruiting Officer (1706) and The Beaux Strategem 1707. By the time Farquhar came to write, the cynical immorality of the age had thinned down His temper is more genial and his tone is more decorous. In his rapidly developing humanity and his respect for moral standard Farquhar looks forward to the drama of steel and the succeeding age. Thomas Shad well (1641-1692) is chiefly remembered on account of Dryden’s portrait of him in MacFlecknoe. He wrote many plays which were immensely popular.
The best of these were The Sullen Lovers (1689). Shadwell was not following the trend of ‘manner’ and imitates Joerson’s comedy of humours. His plays are generally course, but at times they display real wit. Perhaps better than anyone else, he reflects everyday life of his time, and he has a keen satirical sense.
The best period of Restoration drama was brief. “The plays which followed, though informed with higher moral intentions, were dull, unlifelike, fundamentally insincere. “Byron was right when he regretted the absence of a Congreve and a Vanbrugh in his own times. The strengths and limitations of Restoration comedy were both determined by the particular social and political situation in which it was written. No equally adequate dramatic form was discovered when wit was replaced, first by sense and then by sensibility and sentimentalism.
Self-Check Exercise-III

1.    What is the "Comedy of Manners" in Restoration drama?

2.    Who are some of the notable playwrights of the Restoration comedy era?

14.4    Restoration Heroic Tragedy
It has already been remarked that Restoration comedy was supported by same distinct social forces and conventions. No such forces and conventions supported the tragedy of the
period very little of it survives today. To begin with, Restoration tragedy was mainly rhymed and heroic, though towards the 1680s the heroic couplet came under increasing pressure and was eventually replaced by Blank Verse. Sir William Daveant introduced heroic tragedy and Dryden popularized it. According to Dryden, ‘an heroic play ought to be an imitation (in little) of the heroic poem, and consequently that love and valour ought to be the subject of it, “An impossibly idealistic love, in conflict with a strenuously proclaimed honour, led to exaggerated emotions and to stock characters who were psychologically unconvincing and used bombastic rhetoric on all occasion. The form was much influenced by the contemporary French prose romances. Another influence was the romantic drama of Beaumont and Fletcher, Marston, and Ford, was also used in scenes of blood and crime. Sage scatting was lavish is the extreme. And though the heroic couplet was replaced by blank verse, the heroic motive remained. It is also the period of numerous adaptations from the Elizabethan dramatists, and especially from Shakespeare. The most notorious of such adaptations was Nahum Tate’s version of King Lear in which he provided a happy ending to the tragedy.
Dryden is the most important tragedy writer of the age. His tragedies fall into two main groups. The first is the heroic play which he greatly popularized. The chief features here are the choice of a great heroic figures for the central character, a succession of sage incidents of an exalted kind, which often appear ridiculous rather than solemn; a loud, declamatory style; and the rhymed couplet. In fact, it was in the heroic play that the couplet book possession of the stage. The couplet succeeds in these plays in conferring something of ceremony, an invitation to elocution, to declamation, which suggests a certain grandeur. The plays are not endowed any with sufficient quality of feelings and imagination, and their poetry is negligible even in those passages where the subject happens to be poetic Dryden’s The Royal Ladies (1663) is a hybrid between the comic and heroic species of play ; The Indian Emperor (1665), Tyrannic Love (1669). The Conquest of Granade (in two parts. 1669. 1670) and Aurangzeb (1675) show the heroic kind at its best and worst. Though Dryden is heavily weighted with the ponderous mechanism of the heroic play, his gigantic literary strength is often able to give it an attraction and a kind of heavy-footed animation.
The appeal of the heroic drama did not last long and a reaction towards other forms set in. Already in Aurangzeb Dryden admits his weariness with rhyme and heroic mannerisms. In the prologue to this play he admits that he Grows weary of his long loved mistress, Rime
Passion’s too fierce to be in fetters found
Ane nature flies him like enchanted ground,
Dryden’s next play, AU for Love or The World Well Lost (1678), is in blank verse and is considered to be his dramatic masterpiece. For subject he reverted to Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra. It was a daring thing to attempt what Shakespeare had already done, but Dryden did not copy it. He produced a play of a distinctly different kind, and of high merit. The neo classic unities of time and place are closely observed. But apparently All for Love nowhere comes near the heights and sublimity of Antony and Cleopatra.
A few other tragedians also deserve a brief mention. Thomas Otway (1651-1685) began his career in the typical heroic strain of the age and his Don Carlos (1676) is fairly representative of the type. His reputation rests on two plays. The Orpha (1680) and Venice Preserd’s (1682) In The Orphan Otway struck a deep note of pathos and avoided too much reliance on heroics and rant. Venice Preserved his finest work, has a rugged and somber force, and reveals considerable skill in working out a dramatic situation. The play has been often revived. Nathaniel Lee (1653 (?) 1692), who collaborated with Dryden in the production of two plays, wrote many tragedies, the best known of which are The Rival Queens (1677) and Mithridente (1678). His style is raving, wild perhaps a product of his madness. But at times he can write well and have a command of pathos. Nicholas Rowe (1674-1718) was made poet laureate in 1715. His best known plays are Tamerlane (1702), The fair Penitent (1703), and the popular Lave Shore (1714). Dr. Johnson says of Rowe, ‘His reputation comes from the reasonableness of some of his scenes, the elegance of his diction, and the suavity of his verse.”
Self-Check Exercise-IV
1.     What were the main characteristics of Restoration heroic
tragedy, and who were some notable playwrights associated with this genre?

14.5    Summary
Restoration literature, marked by comedy of manners and heroic tragedy, mirrored the era's artificial upper-class society. Comedy showcased wit, satire, and complex plots, with playwrights like Congreve and Wycherley leaving an impact. Heroic tragedy, introduced by Dryden, featured exaggerated emotions and bombastic rhetoric. While these works captured the spirit of the time, they lacked the depth of earlier literature, reflecting the societal shifts of the Restoration period.

14.6    Glossary
Comedy of Manners: A theatrical genre portraying upper-class society's behavior, often characterized by wit, satire, and social commentary.
Heroic Tragedy: A type of tragedy centered on heroic figures, emphasizing grand themes of honor, love, and valor, often written in rhymed verse.
Bombastic: Using exaggerated language and grandiloquent style to impress or overwhelm, often lacking in sincerity or substance.
Satire: A literary technique using humor, irony, or ridicule to criticize and expose flaws in individuals, institutions, or society.
Pathos: An emotional quality evoking feelings of pity, sympathy, or sorrow in the audience, often used to engage their emotions.

14.7 . Answers to Self-Check Exercises
Self-Check Exercise-I

1.        (l)
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.    Samuel Butler (1612-1680) was an important poet of the Restoration era known for his satire and caricatures. His masterpiece "Hudibras," consisting of three parts (1663, 1664, 1678), satirizes hypocrisy and caricatures Puritanism during the English Civil War, featuring the main character Sir Hudibras.

2.    The "Comedy of Manners" is a new form of comedy evolved by Restoration playwrights, characterized by its focus on portraying the manners, behaviors, and social practices of the upper class in a satirical and often cynical manner.
Self-Check Exercise-III

1.    Some notable playwrights of the Restoration comedy era include William Congreve, William Wycherley, Sir John Vanbrugh, George Farquhar, and Thomas Shadwell.
Self-Check Exercise-IV

1.    Restoration heroic tragedy was characterized by its focus on great heroic figures, exaggerated emotions, bombastic rhetoric, and the use of rhymed heroic couplets. Playwrights like Dryden, Otway, and Lee were associated with this genre, with Dryden popularizing it. The form was influenced by French prose romances and Elizabethan romantic drama, and it often featured stock characters and extravagant situations. Dryden's transition to blank verse in "All for Love" marked a shift away from the heroic couplet.

14.8 . Suggested Readings/ References
Restoration Literature: An Anthology" edited by Paul Hammond and David Hopkins.
The Cambridge Companion to English Restoration Theatre" edited by Deborah Payne Fisk

14.9 . Terminal Questions

1.    Discuss the characteristics of Restoration Comedy of Manners and its reflection of upper-class society.

2.    Explain the features and limitations of Restoration Heroic Tragedy, with emphasis on its influence from French romances.

3.    Analyze the development of Restoration poetry through the works of John Dryden, including his shifts from Metaphysical traits to polished verse.

4.    Explore the significance of satire in Restoration Poetry, particularly Dryden's use of satire in "Absalom and Achitophel" as a political allegory.
Unit-15 Restoration Prose

15.1.    Introduction

15.2.    Learning Objectives

15.3.    The Flourishing of Restoration Prose Self-Check Exercise-I

15.4.    John Dryden: A Multifaceted Literary Giant
Self-Check Exercise-II

15.5    Summary

15.6    Glossary

15.7.    Answers to Self-Check Exercises

15.8.    Suggested Readings/ References

15.9.    Terminal Questions

15.1    Introduction
In this unit, we explore Restoration Prose, a pivotal era in English literary history that emerged in the late 17th century after political turmoil. Through the lens of notable figures and satirical prowess, we delve into John Dryden's impact on literature. We uncover his role as a satirist and the father of English criticism. This unit invites us to navigate the complexities of Restoration Prose, its historical context, and its enduring contributions to English literature.

15.2.    Learning Objectives
Well come again in Unit 15. In this unit, you will journey into the world of Restoration Prose, uncovering the works of prominent figures like John Dryden and John Bunyan. Explore the mastery of satire and its profound influence, as well as the Neo-Classical approach that defined the era's literary landscape. By the conclusion of this unit, you will gain a comprehensive understanding of the enduring impact of Restoration literature on English prose development.

15.3.    Unveiling Restoration Prose: Notable Figures, Satirical Mastery, and Literary Significance.
Restoration literature, is about notable figures like John Dryden, John Bunyan, and other prose writers of the period. It also delves into the Neo-Classical approach, satirical mastery, Dryden's role in literary criticism, and his legacy and influence on English literature. The text concludes by emphasizing the importance of Restoration literature as a transitional period and its contributions to English prose and literary development. It seems to be a detailed analysis that covers a range of topics related to Restoration literature and its significance in English literary history.
Restoration Prose holds a distinct place in English literary history, emerging in the late 17th century after a period of political turmoil and cultural upheaval. Marked by the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II, this era witnessed a significant shift in literary trends and
styles. Restoration Prose, characterized by its wit, sophistication, and explorations of social dynamics, captured the ethos of the time. It encompassed a wide range of genres, including essays, satirical works, diaries, letters, and philosophical treatises.
One of the defining features of Restoration Prose was its engagement with contemporary life and society. Writers of this period, influenced by the political and social changes, delved into the complexities of human behavior and relationships. Their works often presented insightful commentaries on the courtly intrigues, urban manners, and evolving gender roles. Notable figures like Samuel Pepys and John Evelyn documented their experiences in lively diaries, providing valuable insights into everyday life, politics, and culture during the Restoration.
The period also saw the rise of literary salons and coffeehouse culture, where intellectual discussions and debates flourished. Writers such as John Dryden, Alexander Pope, and Jonathan Swift contributed to the literary scene with essays, satires, and critical works. These writings often engaged with political themes, moral dilemmas, and societal norms, reflecting the complexities of a rapidly changing world.
Restoration Prose exhibited a marked wit and playfulness that set it apart from preceding eras. This wit was often demonstrated through the use of satire, irony, and clever wordplay. As a reaction to the austere Puritan era that preceded it, Restoration Prose embraced a more relaxed and worldly outlook, celebrating human pleasures and pursuits.
Hence, Restoration Prose stands as a dynamic and multifaceted literary movement that captured the nuances of its time. Through a diverse array of genres and styles, it reflected the social, political, and cultural transformations of the Restoration period. Its exploration of human nature, keen observations of society, and cultivation of wit make it a crucial and intriguing chapter in the evolution of English literature. Here are some notable writer their contribution is so remarkable in prose expansion,
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) does not strictly belong to English literature. His famous book, Leviathan or The Matter, Form, and Power of Common wealth (1651) is partly philosophical, and combined two central ideas which both startle and shock us. The first is that self-interest is the only guiding power of humanity, and the second is that blind submission to rulers is the only basis of government. Hobbes agrees that all power originates in the people and destroys any democratic interpretation of his doctrine by further maintaining that the power given to the ruler by people could never be taken away. Hence the Royalists could use the book to justify the despotism of the Stuarts on the ground that the people have chosen them. As a reflection of the underlying spirit of
Charles and his followers, Leviathan has no equal in any purely literary work of the age.
John Locke (1632-1704) is famous as the author of a single great philosophical work, The Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690). This is study of the human mind and of the origin of ideas, which Bacon and Hobbes, is the basis upon which English Philosophy has since been built, Locke’s Treatises on Government has since been built, Ixicke’s Treatises on Government has a definite democratic bias, and the framers of the American Declaration of Independence and of the American constitution drew ideas from it. Locks’s work are models of the new prose, direct, simple, convincing for which Dryden and the Royal society laboured.
John Evelyn (1620-1706) and Samuel Pepys (1633-1703)
Are famous as the writers of Diaries in which they jotted down the daily occurrences of their own lives, without any thought that the world would see and be interested in them. Evelyn’s Diary is now read as record of contemporary events as seen from the point of view of a loyal, truthful, and high-minded Royalist, it is written in a grave, simple style. It gives us vivid pictures of its time, and especially of the frightful corruption of the royal court. Pepy’s Diary is a very intimate, very personal document. It is also one of the most entertaining of books, and the most extraordinary thing of its kind in any literature. It opens on January, 1660 and continues until 31 May 1669, when his failing eyesight led him to abandon writing at night. Written in cipher, which was decoded only in 1819, it was intended for no eyes but his own and is the most intimate revelation of a life which is known to us. There is no reference, and there are innumerable minute details of great personal and historical intersect. It reveals Pepys as a man of the word. Keenly interested in his material advancement as a real lover of music and the theatre; above all, it shows him as intensely human with many endearing human qualities and many equally human failings—vanity, ill-temper, a fondness for fine clothes, good food and attractive women—a man constantly avowing to amend his ways and constantly failing to change. It also includes many noteworthy occurrences; The Restoration, the Great Plage; and the Great Lire. As a revelation of character from the inside the Diary is unique.
John Bunyan (1628-1688) is the only great imaginative prose writer of this unimaginative age. He wrote much, and his Grace Abounding (1660), The Pilgrim’s Progress (1678) and The Life and Death of Mr. Bradman (1680) are still very famous. The best known of these is, of course, The Pilgrim’s Progress, a long prose allegory
full of symbolism and of absorbing interest for all human beings. He combines vividness and plainness in his style which is directly derived from the Authorised version of the English Bible. The Pilgrim ’s Progress, like the rest of Bunyan’s work represents the under layer of the Restoration spirit, and is in line with Elizabethan allegories and especially Milton’s Paradise Lost Bunyan was a pure Puritan and his allegory is a purer statement of Puritanism than even Paradise Lost.
The Pilgrim’s progress is an allegory, but it also reads well as a novel because of the amount of felt and observed reality that it contains. Bunyan was a transcendent genius, the first to appear in English prose fiction of any kind and his work is as original as anything in literature can be. Its influence like The Bible’s is incalculable. One can safely say that if it had not been written the English people would love be different from what they are. It also has a standard in story-telling, vivid characterization, and natural, homely dialogue which have influenced many later prose writers especially novelists. An allegory of the Christian in search of salvation, The Pilgrim’s Progress is not very different in form the conventional picturesque novel. And yet it is a work that already fulfils Smollett’s definition of a novel as a “large, diffused picture, comprehending the characters of life, disposed in different groups and exhibited the characters of life, disposed in different groups and exhibited in various attitudes, for the purpose of uniform plan.” To the making of The Pilgrim’s Progress went a lifetime of passionate observation of men and women, Similar observations and accuracy in dialogue are found in Bunyan’s The Life and death of Mr. Badrnan.
Among other prose writers of the age, the names of Lord Halifax (1633-1695), Sir William Temple (1628-1699), and John Tillotson (1630-1694) are worth mentioning here. The fame of Lord Halifax rests mainly on a small volume called Miscellanies which contains several political tracts. In his writings Halmiax adopts the manner and attitude of the typical man of the world: a moderation of statement, a cool and agreeably acid humour, a style devoid of flourishes. Sir WILLIAM TEMPLE WROTE LITTLE AND ELEGANTLY; HE PATRONIZED AUTHORS OF LESSER FORTUNE AND GREATER GENIUS. HE IS CHIEFLY KNOWN FOR HIS RELATIONS WITH JONATHAN SWIFT WHO, IN 1700 AND 1905 PUBLISHED TEMPLE’S LECTURES. HIS STYLE RESEMBLES THAT OF HALIFAX IN ITS MUNDANE CULTURED RETICENCE; BUT AT TIMES HE HAS HIGHER FLIGHTS IN WHICH HE SHOWS SOME SKILL IN THE HANDING OF MELODIOUS AND RHYTHMIC PROSE. TILLOTSON WAS ONE OF THE POPULAR PREACHERS
OF TIME, AND HIS SERMONS ARE MENTIONED BY ADDISON AS BEING STANDARD WORK OF ITS CLASS. HE IS LITERARY DESCENDANT OF THE GREAT SCHOOL OF JEREMY TAYLOR AND THOMAS PULLER; BUT HIS STYLE LACKS THEIR RICHNESS AND MELODY, THOUGH IT GAINS IN CLEARNESS AND CRISPNESS.
JOHN DRYDEN: A MULTIFACETED LITERARY GIANT
JOHN DRYDEN, A TOWERING LITERARY FIGURE OF THE RESTORATION PERIOD (1631-1700), STANDS AS A MULTIFACETED GENIUS WHOSE PROFOUND IMPACT ON VARIOUS FACETS OF LITERATURE HAS LEFT AN INDELIBLE MARK ON ENGLISH LETTERS. HIS REMARKABLE VERSATILITY ENCOMPASSED POETRY, DRAMA, ESSAYS, AND CRITICISM, MAKING HIM A CENTRAL FIGURE IN SHAPING THE COURSE OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. EMBODYING THE ESSENCE OF THE NEO-CLASSICAL ERA, DRYDEN'S WORKS REFLECTED A COMMITMENT TO ORDER, REASON, AND FORMALISM, DRAWING INSPIRATION FROM THE CLASSICAL IDEALS OF GREECE AND ROME. BEYOND HIS MASTERY OF POETIC FORMS AND DRAMATIC COMPOSITION, DRYDEN'S SHARP WIT AND INCISIVE SATIRE FOUND EXPRESSION IN WORKS THAT DISSECTED THE SOCIETAL NORMS, HYPOCRISIES, AND POWER DYNAMICS OF HIS TIME. MOREOVER, HIS PIONEERING CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE FIELD OF LITERARY CRITICISM LAID THE FOUNDATION FOR MODERN APPROACHES TO ANALYZING AND UNDERSTANDING LITERARY WORKS. AS WE DELVE INTO DRYDEN'S LIFE AND OEUVRE, WE UNRAVEL THE LAYERS OF A LITERARY GIANT WHOSE LEGACY CONTINUES TO SHAPE THE LANDSCAPE OF ENGLISH LITERATURE.
DRYDEN’S PLACE AMONG THE PROSE WRITERS OF THE RESTORATION PERIOD IS VERY HIGH INDEED. THEY GREATLY CONTRIBUTED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF A DIRECT, SERVICEABLE PROSE STYLE SUCH AS WE STILL CULTIVATE. HE HAD A VERY MARKED INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH LITERATURE IN SHORTENING HIS SENTENCES, AND ESPECIALLY IN WRITING NATURALLY, WITHOUT DEPENDING ON LITERARY ORNAMENTATION TO GIVE EFFECT TO WHAT HE IS SAYING. COMPARED WITH MILTON OR BROWNE OR JEREMY TAYLOR, DRYDEN CARES LESS FOR STYLE BUT TAKES MORE PAINS TO STATE HIS THOUGHT
CLEARLY AND CONCISELY. THE CLASSICAL PROSE WRITERS LOOKED TO DRYDEN AS LEADER, AND TO HIM WE OWE LARGELY THAT TENDENCY TO EXACTNESS OF EXPRESSION WHICH MARKS MODERN WRITINGS. WITH THE PROSE DRYDEN DEVELOPED HIS CRITICAL ABILITY AND BECAME THE FOREMOST LITERARY CRITIC OF HIS AGE. HIS CRITICAL WRITING WAS GENERALLY IN THE FORM OF PREFACES OF INTRODUCTIONS TO HIS POETRY. THE BEST OF IT IS FOUND IN THE PREFACE TO THE FABLES, OF HEROIC PLAYS, DISCOURSE ON SATIRE, AND ESPECIALLY THE ESSAY OF DRAMATIC POESY (1668) WHICH ATTEMPTS TO LAY FOUNDATION FOR ALL LITERARY CRITICISM. IN HIS DISCUSSIONS OF DRAMA, HEROIC POETRY, TRANSLATION, SATIRE, AND OTHER TOPICS DRYDEN SHOWS KEEN INTEREST IN ISSUES RELEVANT TO LITERARY PRINCIPLES, TECHNIQUES, EXAMPLES, AND THE CLEARNESS OF HIS EXPOSITION, THE VIVACITY OF HIS STYLE, UNDER ENJOYABLE DISCUSSIONS ON MATTERS OF OTHERWISE LITTLE INTEREST TODAY. DR. JOHNSON CALLED DRYDEN THE FATHER OF ENGLISH CRITICISM.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-I
1.   ESSAY CONCERNING HUMAN UNDERSTANDING IS
WRITTEN BY?

1.    JOHN LOCKE     3. DRYDEN

2.    JOHN GAY 4. BISHOP PERCY

2.    THE PILGRIM’S PROGRESS BY JOHN BUNYAN IS
A?
1. MORAL ALLEGORY     2. RELIGIOUS
ALLEGORY

3.    MORALITY PLAY          4.
MIRACLE PLAY

15.4.    NEO-CLASSICAL APPROACH:
DRYDEN'S LITERARY WORK EXEMPLIFIED THE NEO-CLASSICAL
SPIRIT THAT PREVAILED DURING THE RESTORATION. INFLUENCED BY
THE CLASSICAL IDEALS OF ORDER, BALANCE, AND REASON, HE SOUGHT TO EMULATE THE WORKS OF ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME. HIS PLAYS, SUCH AS ALL FOR LOVE, ADHERED TO THE UNITIES OF TIME, PLACE, AND ACTION, EMPHASIZING THE IMPORTANCE OF STRUCTURE AND UNITY IN DRAMATIC COMPOSITION. DRYDEN'S POETIC STYLE, ESPECIALLY HIS USE OF HEROIC COUPLETS, DISPLAYED A POLISHED ELEGANCE CHARACTERIZED BY PRECISE RHYME AND METER, EMBODYING THE PRINCIPLES OF FORMALISM AND DECORUM.
IN HIS PURSUIT OF NEO-CLASSICAL AESTHETICS, DRYDEN CHAMPIONED THE CONCEPT OF VERISIMILITUDE, BELIEVING THAT ART SHOULD IMITATE LIFE IN A CONTROLLED AND RATIONAL MANNER. HE AIMED TO CREATE A SENSE OF RATIONALITY AND ORDER IN HIS WORKS, ADHERING TO THE NOTION THAT LITERATURE SHOULD ELEVATE THE MIND AND INSTRUCT WHILE AVOIDING EXCESSIVE EMOTIONALISM OR FANTASTICAL ELEMENTS. DRYDEN'S COMMITMENT TO REASON AND RESTRAINT WAS REFLECTIVE OF THE BROADER INTELLECTUAL CLIMATE OF THE RESTORATION PERIOD, WHICH VALUED RATIONALITY, MODERATION, AND ADHERENCE TO ESTABLISHED CONVENTIONS.
HIS APPROACH TO WRITING WAS CHARACTERIZED BY A DELIBERATE AND CONSCIOUS CRAFTING OF HIS WORKS, OFTEN INVOLVING METICULOUS PLANNING AND REVISION. THIS ALIGNS WITH THE NEO-CLASSICAL EMPHASIS ON CAREFUL COMPOSITION AND ADHERENCE TO ESTABLISHED FORMS. DRYDEN'S CRITICAL ESSAYS, SUCH AS AN ESSAY OF DRAMATIC POESY, FURTHER CONTRIBUTED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY THEORIES THAT ADVOCATED FOR ARTISTIC RULES, ADHERENCE TO ESTABLISHED GENRES, AND THE IMPORTANCE OF MORAL INSTRUCTION IN LITERATURE.
DRYDEN'S ROLE AS A LEADING FIGURE IN THE LITERARY SCENE OF HIS TIME ALLOWED HIM TO SHAPE THE DIRECTION OF ENGLISH LITERATURE, INFLUENCING SUBSEQUENT GENERATIONS OF WRITERS. HIS COMMITMENT TO NEO-CLASSICAL IDEALS LEFT AN INDELIBLE MARK ON THE RESTORATION ERA AND BEYOND, SHAPING THE COURSE OF LITERATURE FOR YEARS TO COME.
SATIRICAL MASTERY:
WITHIN DRYDEN'S VAST LITERARY REPERTOIRE, HIS ROLE AS A SATIRIST EMERGED WITH PROFOUND IMPACT. HIS MAGNUM OPUS, ABSALOM AND ACHITOPHEL, EMPLOYED ALLEGORICAL CHARACTERS TO OFFER ASTUTE COMMENTARIES ON THE POLITICAL CLIMATE AND INFLUENTIAL FIGURES OF HIS TIME. THROUGH THIS SATIRICAL LENS, DRYDEN DISSECTED POWER DYNAMICS AND EXPOSED MORAL HYPOCRISIES, EMPLOYING HUMOR AND IRONY TO STIMULATE INTROSPECTION AND CHALLENGE SOCIETAL NORMS. THIS SATIRICAL PROWESS NOT ONLY LEFT AN INDELIBLE IMPRINT ON THE GENRE BUT ALSO SET A PRECEDENT FOR FUTURE WRITERS TO ENGAGE WITH PRESSING SOCIETAL ISSUES THROUGH THE ART OF SATIRE. DRYDEN'S ENDURING LEGACY AS A SATIRIST LIES IN HIS ABILITY TO USE HIS LITERARY SKILLS TO CRITICALLY SCRUTINIZE THE WORLD AROUND HIM.
FATHER OF ENGLISH CRITICISM:
DRYDEN'S IMMENSE CONTRIBUTION TO THE REALM OF LITERARY CRITICISM SOLIDIFIES HIS POSITION AS A FOUNDATIONAL FIGURE IN ENGLISH LITERARY HISTORY. HIS ESSAYS, SUCH AS ESSAY OF DRAMATIC POESY AND AN ESSAY ON CRITICISM, WERE INSTRUMENTAL IN SHAPING THE PARAMETERS OF ENGLISH LITERARY CRITICISM. WITHIN THESE WORKS, DRYDEN GRAPPLED WITH FUNDAMENTAL QUESTIONS ABOUT THE NATURE OF LITERATURE, THE ROLE OF DRAMATIC ART, AND THE UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE WRITING. HIS CRITICAL INSIGHTS NOT ONLY LAID THE GROUNDWORK FOR FUTURE GENERATIONS OF CRITICS BUT ALSO ESTABLISHED A FRAMEWORK FOR THE SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS OF LITERARY WORKS. THIS FRAMEWORK, MARKED BY AN EMPHASIS ON REASON, CLARITY, AND AESTHETIC CRITERIA, RESONATED ACROSS CENTURIES AND SIGNIFICANTLY IMPACTED THE EVOLVING FIELD OF LITERARY STUDIES.
LEGACY AND INFLUENCE:
THE LEGACY OF JOHN DRYDEN TRANSCENDS HIS OWN LIFETIME, LEAVING AN ENDURING IMPACT ON THE TRAJECTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. HIS STEADFAST DEDICATION TO NEO-CLASSICAL IDEALS
LEFT AN INDELIBLE MARK ON THE RESTORATION ERA, INFLUENCING THE TRAJECTORY OF POETRY AND DRAMA. FURTHERMORE, HIS SKILLFUL USE OF SATIRE AS A TOOL FOR SOCIAL COMMENTARY ESTABLISHED A BLUEPRINT FOR SUBSEQUENT GENERATIONS OF WRITERS TO NAVIGATE SOCIO-POLITICAL DISCOURSE THROUGH LITERARY EXPRESSION. EQUALLY SIGNIFICANT IS HIS CONTRIBUTION TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF LITERARY CRITICISM AS A DISCIPLINE. DRYDEN'S CRITICAL ESSAYS NOT ONLY PROVIDED A ROBUST FRAMEWORK FOR THE EVALUATION OF LITERATURE BUT ALSO PAVED THE WAY FOR SUBSEQUENT CRITICS TO REFINE AND EXPAND UPON THESE PRINCIPLES. HIS MULTIFACETED CONTRIBUTIONS POSITION HIM AS A LITERARY LUMINARY WHOSE INFLUENCE CONTINUES TO SHAPE THE LANDSCAPE OF ENGLISH LITERATURE TO THIS DAY.
HENCE, IT MAY BE SAID THAT RESTORATION LITERATURE REMAINS IMPORTANT AS THE LITERATURE OF TRANSITION. ITS REACTION AGAINST THE ELIZABETHAN AND PURITANICAL AGES WAS STRONG; BUT IT GRADUALLY CAME TO REALIZE THE FOLLY OF THAT NEGATIVE APPROACH. THE PURITANICAL SPIRIT WAS KEPT ALIVE BY BUNYAN, AND THE ELIZABETHAN FORMS AND INFLUENCE BEGAN TO BE ACKNOWLEDGED AFTER THE 1680S. THE RESTORATION AGE IS ALSO IMPORTANT FOR ITS ATTEMPTS TO PERFECT THE HEROIC COUPLET AND ADOPT REALISM AS THE MAIN MODE. HOWEVER, IT IS IN ITS STABILIZING OF ENGLISH PROSE, UNDER THE INSPIRATION OF FRANCE AND THE ROYAL SOCIETY, THAT THIS AGE MADE ITS GREATEST CONTRIBUTION TO ENGLISH LITERATURE.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-II

1.    WHO WERE SOME NOTABLE FIGURES OF RESTORATION LITERATURE?

2.    WHAT WAS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF JOHN DRYDEN'S
CONTRIBUTIONS?

15.5.    SUMMARY
THE RESTORATION POETRY WAS MOST SATIRICAL, REALISTIC, AND WRITTEN IN HEROIC COUPLET: OF WHICH DRYDEN WAS THE SUPREME MASTER. HE WAS A DOMINATING FIGURE OF THE RESTORATION AGE. HE WROTE POETRY PROSE AND DRAMAS. FOR THIS REASON. RESTORATION AGE IS ALSO CALLED “AGE OF DRYDEN”. THE TWO LASTING CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE RESTORATION PERIOD IN ENGLISH LITERATURE ARE REALISM AND PRECISENESS. WRITERS FOCUSED ON CREATING A VIVID AND REALISTIC REPRESENTATION OF THE CORRUPTION THEY SAW IN THEIR SOCIETY. ENGLISH WRITERS TRIED TO CREATE A STYLE THAT MOST RESEMBLED THE WAY THAT PEOPLE SPOKE AND WROTE.

15.6.    GLOSSARY
REMINISCENT- SUGGESTIVE OF AN EARLIER EVENT OR TIMES
ASTONISHMENT- AMAZEMENT, GREAT SURPRISE
HOSTILE- NOT FRIENDLY, APPROPRIATE TO AN ENEMY; SHOWING THE DISPOSITION OF AN ENEMY
PROFANENESS - UNCLEAN; UNHOLY; RITUALLY IMPURE

15.7    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISES
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-I

1.  (L)

2.  (2)
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-II

1.    JOHN DRYDEN, JOHN BUNYAN, SAMUEL PEPYS, AND OTHERS WERE PROMINENT FIGURES.

2.    DRYDEN'S WORK SPANNED POETRY, DRAMA, ESSAYS, AND CRITICISM, LEAVING A LASTING IMPACT ON ENGLISH LITERATURE.

15.8    SUGGESTED READINGS/ REFERENCES
ENGLISH LITERATURE 3RD EDITION BY ANDREW SANDERS.
HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE BY WILLIAM J. LONG.

15.9 . TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1.    HOW DID RESTORATION LITERATURE REFLECT THE TRANSITION OF
THE ERA AND WHAT WERE ITS MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS?

2.    TRACE THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE HEROIC TRAGEDY IN THE RESTORATION PERIOD WITH REFERENCE TO DRYDEN’S WORK “ALL FOR LOVE”.
BLOCK-IV UNIT-16 THE 18TH CENTURY'S SOCIO-POLITICAL UPHEAVAL AND ITS LITERARY ECHOES

16.1.    INTRODUCTION

16.2.    LEARNING OBJECTIVES

16.3.    LITERARY EVOLUTION IN THE 18TH CENTURY SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-I

16.4.    UNVEILING THE ENLIGHTENMENT: THE 18TH CENTURY'S INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTION


16.4.1    THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-II

16.5.    AGE OF POPE AND CLASSICAL RESURGENCE SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-III

16.6.    SUMMARY

16.7.    GLOSSARY

16.8    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISES

16.9    SUGGESTED READINGS/ REFERENCES

16.10.    TERMINAL QUESTIONS

16.1    INTRODUCTION
UNIT 16 OPENS THE DOORS TO THE 18TH CENTURY, A TIME OF SEISMIC CHANGE ACROSS SOCIO-POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC REALMS. AS WE STEP INTO THIS ERA OFTEN DUBBED THE “AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT,” WE WILL NAVIGATE
THE CURRENTS OF REASON, WITNESS THE BIRTH OF DEMOCRATIC IDEALS, AND EXAMINE THE FISSURES IN SOCIAL HIERARCHY. JOIN US ON A LITERARY EXPLORATION OF HOW THESE TRANSFORMATIVE FORCES SCULPTED THE LITERARY MASTERPIECES OF THE TIME, REVEALING THE INTRICATE INTERPLAY BETWEEN IDEAS, SOCIETY, AND ARTISTIC EXPRESSION.

16.2.    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
WELCOME, LEARNERS, TO UNIT 16, A CAPTIVATING JOURNEY INTO THE HEART OF THE 18TH CENTURY’S SOCIO-POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATIONS AND THEIR PROFOUND IMPACT ON LITERATURE. THROUGHOUT THIS UNIT, YOU WILL EXPLORE THE TUMULTUOUS SHIFT FROM TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY TO ENLIGHTENMENT IDEALS, DEALS WITH THE EMERGENCE OF DEMOCRATIC ASPIRATIONS, AND UNCOVER HOW SOCIAL INEQUALITY AND ECONOMIC EVOLUTION SHAPED THE LITERARY LANDSCAPE. BY THE END OF THIS UNIT, YOU WILL HAVE GAINED A COMPREHENSIVE UNDERSTANDING OF THE “AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT” AND ITS ROLE IN SHAPING LITERATURE DURING THIS PIVOTAL ERA.

16.3.    LITERARY EVOLUTION IN THE 18TH CENTURY
THE 18TH CENTURY WAS A PERIOD OF SIGNIFICANT TRANSFORMATION ACROSS SOCIO-POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC SPHERES, AND THESE CHANGES HAD A PROFOUND IMPACT ON LITERATURE. THIS ERA, OFTEN REFERRED TO AS THE “AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT” OR THE “AGE OF REASON,” SPANNED FROM THE EARLY 1700S TO THE LATE 1700S AND WITNESSED THE RISE OF NEW IDEAS, PHILOSOPHIES, AND SOCIOECONOMIC STRUCTURES THAT GREATLY INFLUENCED LITERARY PRODUCTION AND STYLE.
SOCIO-POLITICAL CONDITIONS:
ENLIGHTENMENT THOUGHT: THE 18TH CENTURY WAS CHARACTERIZED BY A SHIFT TOWARDS RATIONALISM, EMPIRICISM, AND THE QUESTIONING OF TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY. ENLIGHTENMENT THINKERS ADVOCATED FOR REASON, INDIVIDUALISM, AND LIBERTY. THESE IDEAS ENCOURAGED WRITERS TO EXPLORE THEMES RELATED TO HUMAN NATURE, SOCIETY, AND GOVERNMENT.
EMERGENCE OF DEMOCRACY AND REPUBLICANISM: THE ENLIGHTENMENT ERA CONTRIBUTED TO THE SPREAD OF DEMOCRATIC
AND REPUBLICAN IDEALS. THE AMERICAN AND FRENCH REVOLUTIONS DURING THIS PERIOD HIGHLIGHTED THE IMPORTANCE OF SELFGOVERNANCE AND THE REJECTION OF MONARCHICAL RULE. WRITERS BEGAN TO DELVE INTO THEMES OF POLITICAL REPRESENTATION, NATURAL RIGHTS, AND SOCIAL CONTRACTS.
SOCIAL INEQUALITY AND CRITIQUE OF ARISTOCRACY: THE RIGID CLASS STRUCTURE AND INEQUALITY PREVALENT IN THE 18TH CENTURY WERE INCREASINGLY QUESTIONED BY WRITERS. THEY CRITIQUED ARISTOCRATIC PRIVILEGES AND ADVOCATED FOR GREATER SOCIAL MOBILITY AND EQUALITY. THIS DISCONTENT WITH THE ARISTOCRACY IS EVIDENT IN MANY LITERARY WORKS OF THE TIME.
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS:
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: THE 18TH CENTURY MARKED THE EARLY STAGES OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, WHICH BROUGHT ABOUT SIGNIFICANT ECONOMIC CHANGES. THE SHIFT FROM AGRARIAN ECONOMIES TO INDUSTRIAL AND URBAN ECONOMIES LED TO CHANGES IN WORK PATTERNS, LIVING CONDITIONS, AND SOCIAL DYNAMICS. THESE TRANSFORMATIONS INFLUENCED LITERARY PORTRAYALS OF URBAN LIFE, LABOR STRUGGLES, AND SOCIETAL UPHEAVAL.
MERCANTILISM TO CAPITALISM: THE ECONOMIC LANDSCAPE TRANSITIONED FROM MERCANTILISM, WHERE TRADE WAS HEAVILY REGULATED BY THE STATE, TO CAPITALISM, CHARACTERIZED BY THE RISE OF FREE MARKETS AND PRIVATE ENTERPRISE. THIS SHIFT HAD IMPLICATIONS FOR CLASS RELATIONS, ECONOMIC POWER, AND INDIVIDUAL AGENCY, ALL OF WHICH FOUND THEIR WAY INTO LITERATURE.
EFFECTS ON LITERATURE:
NEW LITERARY FORMS AND STYLES: THE CHANGING INTELLECTUAL CLIMATE PROMPTED THE EMERGENCE OF NEW LITERARY FORMS AND STYLES. THE NOVEL, IN PARTICULAR, FLOURISHED DURING THIS PERIOD. WRITERS BEGAN TO FOCUS ON CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT, PSYCHOLOGICAL REALISM, AND THE DEPICTION OF EVERYDAY LIFE.
NOTABLE EXAMPLES INCLUDE DANIEL DEFOE’S “ROBINSON CRUSOE” AND SAMUEL RICHARDSON’S “PAMELA.”
PHILOSOPHICAL AND POLITICAL DISCOURSE: LITERATURE BECAME A PLATFORM FOR DISCUSSING PHILOSOPHICAL AND POLITICAL IDEAS. WORKS LIKE VOLTAIRE’S “CANDIDE” AND JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU’S “THE SOCIAL CONTRACT” ENGAGED WITH NOTIONS OF HUMAN NATURE, SOCIETY, AND GOVERNANCE, REFLECTING THE PREVAILING ENLIGHTENMENT THOUGHT.
SATIRE AND SOCIAL CRITIQUE: SATIRICAL LITERATURE GAINED PROMINENCE AS WRITERS USED HUMOR AND IRONY TO CRITIQUE SOCIAL NORMS, INSTITUTIONS, AND FIGURES OF AUTHORITY. JONATHAN SWIFT’S “GULLIVER’S TRAVELS” IS A NOTABLE EXAMPLE, WHERE HE USED FANTASTICAL SETTINGS TO COMMENT ON VARIOUS ASPECTS OF SOCIETY.
EXPLORATION OF HUMAN NATURE: WITH THE RISE OF EMPIRICISM AND A FOCUS ON REASON, LITERATURE DELVED INTO THE COMPLEXITIES OF HUMAN NATURE. WRITERS EXPLORED THE PSYCHOLOGY OF CHARACTERS, THEIR MOTIVATIONS, AND THEIR INTERACTIONS WITH THE WORLD. THIS MARKED A DEPARTURE FROM RELIGIOUS OR MYTHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR. CULTURAL AND NATIONAL IDENTITY: AS SOCIETIES GRAPPLED WITH CHANGING POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC STRUCTURES, LITERATURE PLAYED A ROLE IN SHAPING CULTURAL AND NATIONAL IDENTITIES. WRITERS OFTEN CELEBRATED THEIR NATIONAL HERITAGE AND EXPLORED UNIQUE CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS.
HENCE, THE 18TH-CENTURY SOCIO-POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS, CHARACTERIZED BY ENLIGHTENMENT IDEALS, DEMOCRATIC ASPIRATIONS, INDUSTRIALIZATION, AND THE SHIFT TO CAPITALISM, HAD A PROFOUND IMPACT ON LITERATURE. THIS ERA SAW THE RISE OF NEW LITERARY FORMS, PHILOSOPHICAL DISCOURSE, AND AN EXPLORATION OF HUMAN NATURE, ALL OF WHICH WERE SHAPED BY THE EVOLVING SOCIETAL AND INTELLECTUAL LANDSCAPE.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-I

1. . WHAT WERE THE KEY SOCIO-POLITICAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 18TH-CENTURY ENLIGHTENMENT?

2.    HOW DID THE ECONOMIC CHANGES OF THE INDUSTRIAL    REVOLUTION    INFLUENCE
LITERATURE DURING THE 18TH CENTURY?

3.    WHAT NEW LITERARY FORMS AND STYLES EMERGED DURING THE 18TH CENTURY DUE TO CHANGING INTELLECTUAL TRENDS?

16.4.    UNVEILING THE ENLIGHTENMENT:  THE 18TH CENTURY'S
INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTION
THE 18TH CENTURY IS OFTEN REFERRED TO BY SEVERAL OTHER TITLES, EACH HIGHLIGHTING DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF THE ERA'S CHARACTER AND SIGNIFICANCE. ONE OF THE MOST NOTABLE ALTERNATIVE TITLES FOR THE 18TH CENTURY IS THE "AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT" OR SIMPLY THE "ENLIGHTENMENT." THIS TITLE REFLECTS THE DOMINANT INTELLECTUAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL TRENDS THAT EMERGED DURING THIS PERIOD AND UNDERSCORES ITS EMPHASIS ON REASON, RATIONALITY, AND THE PURSUIT OF KNOWLEDGE. HERE'S AN IN-DEPTH EXPLANATION OF WHY THE 18TH CENTURY IS KNOWN AS THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT:

16.4.1    THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT:
INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTION: THE 18TH CENTURY WAS MARKED BY A PROFOUND SHIFT IN THOUGHT, WITH A GROWING EMPHASIS ON REASON, EMPIRICAL OBSERVATION, AND CRITICAL THINKING. ENLIGHTENMENT THINKERS BELIEVED IN THE POWER OF HUMAN REASON TO UNDERSTAND AND IMPROVE THE WORLD. THEY ADVOCATED FOR THE APPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS TO ALL ASPECTS OF LIFE, INCLUDING POLITICS, SOCIETY, AND RELIGION.
EMPHASIS ON KNOWLEDGE AND EDUCATION: ENLIGHTENMENT THINKERS PROMOTED THE IDEA THAT KNOWLEDGE AND EDUCATION WERE THE KEYS TO PROGRESS AND HUMAN BETTERMENT. THEY BELIEVED THAT BY SPREADING KNOWLEDGE,
IGNORANCE AND SUPERSTITION COULD BE OVERCOME, LEADING TO A MORE JUST AND ENLIGHTENED SOCIETY. THIS EMPHASIS ON EDUCATION CONTRIBUTED TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, AND LIBRARIES ACROSS EUROPE.
RATIONALISM AND EMPIRICISM: ENLIGHTENMENT PHILOSOPHY WAS CHARACTERIZED BY A COMBINATION OF RATIONALISM AND EMPIRICISM. RATIONALISM EMPHASIZED THE ROLE OF REASON AND LOGICAL DEDUCTION IN UNDERSTANDING THE WORLD, WHILE EMPIRICISM STRESSED THE IMPORTANCE OF SENSORY EXPERIENCE AND OBSERVATION. THIS PHILOSOPHICAL FRAMEWORK INFLUENCED VARIOUS FIELDS, FROM SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY TO LITERATURE AND POLITICS.
CRITIQUE OF AUTHORITY AND TRADITION: ENLIGHTENMENT THINKERS WERE CRITICAL OF ESTABLISHED AUTHORITY, DOGMA, AND TRADITIONAL BELIEFS. THEY CHALLENGED THE AUTHORITY OF THE CHURCH, MONARCHY, AND ARISTOCRACY, ADVOCATING FOR GREATER INDIVIDUAL FREEDOMS AND QUESTIONING THE LEGITIMACY OF ABSOLUTE POWER. THIS SKEPTICISM TOWARD AUTHORITY LAID THE GROUNDWORK FOR MODERN DEMOCRATIC AND REPUBLICAN IDEALS.
SPREAD OF IDEAS AND ENLIGHTENMENT SALONS: DURING THE 18TH CENTURY, IDEAS SPREAD MORE RAPIDLY THAN EVER BEFORE, THANKS IN PART TO THE RISE OF PRINTING AND PUBLISHING. INTELLECTUALS GATHERED IN INFORMAL GATHERINGS KNOWN AS SALONS, WHERE THEY ENGAGED IN DISCUSSIONS AND DEBATES ON VARIOUS TOPICS, FURTHER DISSEMINATING ENLIGHTENMENT IDEALS. THESE GATHERINGS FACILITATED THE EXCHANGE OF IDEAS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF NEW PHILOSOPHIES.
INFLUENCE ON LITERATURE AND ART: THE ENLIGHTENMENT HAD A SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ON LITERATURE, ART, AND CULTURE. WRITERS AND ARTISTS EMBRACED RATIONALISM, FOCUSING ON THEMES OF INDIVIDUALISM, HUMAN RIGHTS, AND SOCIETAL PROGRESS. SATIRE AND SOCIAL CRITIQUE BECAME POPULAR
LITERARY FORMS, ALLOWING AUTHORS TO MOCK AND CRITICIZE SOCIAL NORMS, INSTITUTIONS, AND THE ARISTOCRACY.
CONNECTION   TO   POLITICAL   MOVEMENTS:   THE
ENLIGHTENMENT PLAYED A CRUCIAL ROLE IN SHAPING POLITICAL MOVEMENTS OF THE TIME, INCLUDING THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. ENLIGHTENMENT IDEAS OF EQUALITY, NATURAL RIGHTS, AND SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY WERE CENTRAL TO THESE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS, WHICH SOUGHT TO OVERTHROW OPPRESSIVE REGIMES AND ESTABLISH MORE JUST SOCIETIES.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-II

1.    WHY IS THE 18TH CENTURY OFTEN REFERRED TO AS THE "AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT"?

2.    WHAT WERE SOME KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF ENLIGHTENMENT PHILOSOPHY DURING THE 18TH CENTURY?
THE 18TH CENTURY IS KNOWN AS THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT BECAUSE OF THE DOMINANT INTELLECTUAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL TRENDS THAT CHARACTERIZED THE ERA. THIS PERIOD SAW A SHIFT TOWARDS REASON, EDUCATION, AND THE SPREAD OF KNOWLEDGE, LEADING TO CRITICAL EXAMINATIONS OF AUTHORITY, THE RISE OF DEMOCRATIC IDEALS, AND LASTING IMPACTS ON VARIOUS FIELDS, INCLUDING LITERATURE, SCIENCE, POLITICS, AND ART.

16.5.    AGE OF POPE AND CLASSICAL RESURGENCE
THE 18TH CENTURY IS ALSO KNOWN AS THE "CLASSICAL AGE" OR THE "AGE OF POPE" IN REFERENCE TO THE PROMINENT ENGLISH POET ALEXANDER POPE AND HIS INFLUENCE ON THE LITERARY AND CULTURAL LANDSCAPE OF THAT TIME. THIS ALTERNATE TITLE HIGHLIGHTS A SPECIFIC LITERARY MOVEMENT AND THE KEY FIGURES ASSOCIATED WITH IT.
THE AGE OF POPE:
ALEXANDER POPE (1688–1744) WAS A CENTRAL FIGURE IN 18TH-CENTURY ENGLISH LITERATURE. HIS WORKS, INCLUDING THE RAPE OF THE LOCK, ESSAY ON CRITICISM, AND THE DUNCIAD, EMBODIED THE LITERARY IDEALS OF THE ERA. POPE WAS A MASTER OF SATIRE, WIT, AND
POLISHED POETIC FORM. HIS WRITINGS EXEMPLIFIED THE NEOCLASSICAL STYLE THAT DOMINATED THE 18TH CENTURY.
POPE'S POETRY WAS INFLUENCED BY THE CLASSICAL WORKS OF ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME, AND HE OFTEN FOLLOWED STRICT POETIC STRUCTURES AND FORMS. HE WAS A PROPONENT OF THE "CORRECT" USE OF LANGUAGE, CLEAR EXPRESSION, AND ADHERENCE TO RULES OF COMPOSITION. HIS EMPHASIS ON WIT, REASON, AND DECORUM IN LITERATURE REFLECTED THE BROADER VALUES OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT.
THE TERM "AGE OF POPE" NOT ONLY REFERS TO ALEXANDER POPE'S CONTRIBUTIONS BUT ALSO SYMBOLIZES THE LITERARY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TIME. NEOCLASSICAL LITERATURE, CHARACTERIZED BY ITS ADHERENCE TO CLASSICAL FORMS, EMPHASIS ON REASON, MORAL LESSONS, AND SATIRICAL CRITIQUE, WAS A HALLMARK OF THE 18TH CENTURY. WRITERS OF THIS PERIOD AIMED TO EMULATE THE WORKS OF ANCIENT GREEK AND ROMAN AUTHORS WHILE ADDRESSING CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS.
THE CLASSICAL AGE:
THE TERM "CLASSICAL AGE" IS USED TO DESCRIBE A PERIOD IN WHICH THERE WAS A RETURN TO CLASSICAL IDEALS IN VARIOUS DISCIPLINES, INCLUDING LITERATURE, ART, MUSIC, AND ARCHITECTURE. IN THE CONTEXT OF THE 18TH CENTURY, THIS TITLE HIGHLIGHTS THE REVIVAL OF INTEREST IN CLASSICAL THOUGHT, AESTHETICS, AND FORMS.
THE CLASSICAL INFLUENCE WAS EVIDENT IN LITERATURE THROUGH THE USE OF BALANCED STRUCTURES, CLEAR LANGUAGE, AND A FOCUS ON MORAL AND DIDACTIC THEMES. NEOCLASSICAL WRITERS SOUGHT TO ACHIEVE ELEGANCE AND HARMONY IN THEIR WORKS BY FOLLOWING THE PRINCIPLES OF BALANCE, ORDER, AND REASON.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-III

1.    G. WHY IS THE 18TH CENTURY REFERRED TO AS THE "AGE OF POPE"?

2.    H. HOW DOES THE TERM "CLASSICAL AGE" RELATE TO THE LITERARY AND CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 18TH CENTURY?
BOTH TITLES, "AGE OF POPE" AND "CLASSICAL AGE," CAPTURE DIFFERENT FACETS OF THE 18TH CENTURY LITERARY LANDSCAPE. THE AGE OF POPE EMPHASIZES THE INFLUENCE OF A SPECIFIC LITERARY FIGURE AND HIS NEOCLASSICAL STYLE, WHILE THE CLASSICAL AGE TITLE UNDERSCORES THE BROADER RETURN TO CLASSICAL IDEALS AND FORMS THAT CHARACTERIZED THE LITERARY AND CULTURAL PRODUCTION OF THE TIME.

16.6.    SUMMARY
UNIT 16 CONCLUDES WITH A PANORAMIC VIEW OF THE 18TH CENTURY'S DYNAMIC LANDSCAPE, WHERE ENLIGHTENMENT IDEALS SPARKED INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS, DEMOCRATIC DREAMS FOUND THEIR VOICE, AND LITERATURE BECAME A MIRROR REFLECTING SOCIETY'S EVOLUTION. THIS JOURNEY THROUGH SOCIO-POLITICAL UPHEAVAL AND ECONOMIC METAMORPHOSIS HAS ILLUMINATED THE PROFOUND SYNERGY BETWEEN HISTORICAL FORCES AND LITERARY CREATIVITY, LEAVING US WITH A DEEPER APPRECIATION FOR HOW THE "AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT" LEFT AN INDELIBLE MARK ON THE WRITTEN WORD.

16.7.    GLOSSARY
ENLIGHTENMENT: A PHILOSOPHICAL MOVEMENT DURING THE 18TH CENTURY EMPHASIZING REASON, KNOWLEDGE, AND CRITICAL THINKING TO CHALLENGE TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY AND PROMOTE INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS AND SOCIETAL PROGRESS.
DEMOCRATIC: RELATING TO A SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT IN WHICH POWER IS HELD BY THE PEOPLE, OFTEN THROUGH ELECTED REPRESENTATIVES, AND EMPHASIZING PRINCIPLES OF EQUALITY, PARTICIPATION, AND CIVIC ENGAGEMENT.
ARISTOCRACY: A PRIVILEGED SOCIAL CLASS CONSISTING OF
HEREDITARY NOBILITY WITH INHERITED TITLES, OFTEN POSSESSING POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC INFLUENCE, WHICH WAS INCREASINGLY CRITICIZED DURING THE 18TH CENTURY FOR PERPETUATING INEQUALITY.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: A PERIOD OF RAPID INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE DURING THE 18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES, CHARACTERIZED BY THE TRANSITION FROM AGRARIAN ECONOMIES TO URBAN INDUSTRIALIZATION, LEADING TO SIGNIFICANT SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, AND CULTURAL SHIFTS.
NEOCLASSICAL: AN ARTISTIC AND LITERARY MOVEMENT INFLUENCED BY CLASSICAL GRECO-ROMAN AESTHETICS, CHARACTERIZED BY A FOCUS ON ORDER, BALANCE, CLARITY, AND ADHERENCE TO ESTABLISHED FORMS, PROMINENT DURING THE 18TH CENTURY.

16.8    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISES
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-I

1.    THE 18TH CENTURY ENLIGHTENMENT PROMOTED REASON, INDIVIDUALISM, AND LIBERTY, ENCOURAGING EXPLORATION OF THEMES LIKE HUMAN NATURE AND GOVERNMENT.

2.    THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION'S ECONOMIC SHIFTS INFLUENCED LITERATURE'S PORTRAYAL OF URBAN LIFE, LABOR STRUGGLES, AND SOCIETAL CHANGES.

3.    THE 18TH CENTURY SAW THE FLOURISHING OF THE NOVEL FORM WITH A FOCUS ON CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT, PSYCHOLOGICAL REALISM, AND EVERYDAY LIFE DEPICTION.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-II

1.    THE 18TH CENTURY IS CALLED THE "AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT" DUE TO ITS EMPHASIS ON REASON, EDUCATION, AND THE SPREAD OF KNOWLEDGE, LEADING TO CRITICAL EXAMINATIONS OF AUTHORITY AND THE RISE OF DEMOCRATIC IDEALS.

2.    ENLIGHTENMENT PHILOSOPHY IN THE 18TH CENTURY EMPHASIZED REASON, EMPIRICAL OBSERVATION, CRITIQUE OF AUTHORITY, AND THE SPREAD OF KNOWLEDGE TO IMPROVE SOCIETY.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-III

1.    THE TERM "AGE OF POPE" REFERS TO THE 18TH CENTURY DUE TO THE INFLUENCE OF ALEXANDER POPE, AN EMINENT ENGLISH POET KNOWN FOR HIS NEOCLASSICAL WORKS AND MASTERY OF SATIRE
AND WIT.

2.    THE "CLASSICAL AGE" DESIGNATION HIGHLIGHTS THE RETURN TO CLASSICAL IDEALS IN LITERATURE, ART, AND OTHER DISCIPLINES DURING THE 18TH CENTURY. IT SIGNIFIES THE REVIVAL OF BALANCED STRUCTURES, MORAL THEMES, AND AN EMPHASIS ON ELEGANCE AND REASON.

16.9  SUGGESTED READINGS/ REFERENCES
THE NORTON ANTHOLOGY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE" (MULTIPLE VOLUMES): EDITED BY VARIOUS SCHOLARS, THIS ANTHOLOGY IS A COMPREHENSIVE COLLECTION OF WORKS SPANNING FROM THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD TO THE 20TH CENTURY.
A HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE BY MICHAEL ALEXANDER

16.10 . TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1.    HOW DID ENLIGHTENMENT IDEALS SHAPE THE LITERATURE OF THE 18TH CENTURY?

2.    DISCUSS THE IMPACT OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ON LITERATURE DURING THE 18TH CENTURY.

3.    EXAMINE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE EMERGENCE OF DEMOCRATIC AND REPUBLICAN IDEALS AND THE LITERARY OUTPUT OF THE 18TH CENTURY.
UNIT-17
CLASSICISM: THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL OF POETRY

17.1    INTRODUCTION

17.2.    LEARNING OBJECTIVES

17.3.    CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CLASSIC AGE IN LITERATURE
(18TH CENTURY)
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-I

17.4.    ENGLISH RULE
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-II

17.5.    CLASSICAL PERIOD
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-III

17.6.    POETRY
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-IV

17.7.    SUMMARY

17.8.    GLOSSARY

17.9    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISES

17.10    SUGGESTED READINGS/ REFERENCES

17.11.    TERMINAL QUESTIONS

17.1    INTRODUCTION
THIS UNIT EMBARKS ON A JOURNEY THROUGH THE INTRICATE THREADS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE'S HISTORICAL PROGRESSION, FROM ITS EARLIEST ORIGINS TO THE CONTEMPORARY LANDSCAPE. THIS UNIT NAVIGATES THE DIVERSE LITERARY PANORAMA THAT HAS UNFOLDED ACROSS CENTURIES, SHEDDING LIGHT ON PIVOTAL EPOCHS, NOTABLE WRITERS, AND SIGNIFICANT LITERARY MOVEMENTS THAT HAVE SCULPTED THE TRAJECTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. FROM THE LYRICAL BRILLIANCE OF THE ELIZABETHAN AGE TO THE SOCIETAL REFLECTIONS OF THE VICTORIAN ERA, AND THE INNOVATIVE EXPERIMENTATION OF THE MODERNIST EPOCH, THIS UNIT PRESENTS A PANORAMIC VIEW OF THE MULTI-DIMENSIONAL EVOLUTION OF LITERARY EXPRESSION. BY EXPLORING DIVERSE GENRES, STYLES, AND CULTURAL INFLUENCES, UNIT 17 OFFERS AN OPPORTUNITY TO TRACE THE INTRICATE NARRATIVE OF LITERARY DEVELOPMENT THAT HAS CONTRIBUTED TO THE CAPTIVATING LEGACY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE.

17.2.    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
THE OBJECTIVE OF THIS UNIT IS TO GIVE YOU IDEA ABOUT CLASSICISM. WE WILL ALSO GET TO KNOW ABOUT MAJOR POETS OF THIS ERA, FOR EXAMPLE ALEXANDER POPE, JONATHAN SWIFT, MATHEW PRIOR. SAMUEL GARTH, EDWARD YOUNG ETC.

17.3.    CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CLASSIC AGE IN LITERATURE (18TH CENTURY)
THE TERM “CLASSICISM” IS USED HERE ACCORDING TO THE USUAL CONVENTION TO DENOTE A PERIOD OF LITERATURE WITH A UNIFORM CHARACTER OF ITS OWN. THE WRITERS OF THIS PERIOD BELIEVED THEMSELVES TO HAVE ACHIEVED THE CLASSICAL VIRTUES OF FORM AND STYLE IN A DEGREE BEYOND THEIR PREDECESSORS, AND THEY WERE INCLINED TO BELIEVE THAT THEY UNDERSTOOD THE CLASSICAL AUTHORS BETTER SEEING THAT EVERY GENERATION SINCE THE RENAISSANCE HAS BELIEVED THAT IT BEST UNDERSTOOD THE CLASSICS, THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY NEED NOT BE BLAMED FOR SHARING THAT OPINION, WHILE THE
OTHER PART OF THEIR CLAIM THAT THEY REPRODUCED THE SPECIAL QUALITIES OF CLASSICAL STYLE IN A SUPERIOR MANNER HAS IN IT CONSIDERABLE TRUTH, THOUGH LESS THAN SUPPOSED.
SPEAKING LITERATURE OF EVERY COUNTRY HAS AT LEAST ONE PERIOD IN WHICH AN UNUSUAL NUMBER OF GREAT WRITERS ARE PRODUCING BOOKS AND THAT IS CALLED THE CLASSIC PERIOD OF A NATION’S LITERATURE. THUS, THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS IS THE CLASSIC OR GOLDEN AGE OF ROME: THE GENERATION OF DANTE IS THE CLASSIC AGE OF ITALIAN LITERATURE; THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV IS THE FRENCH CLASSIC AGE AND THE AGE OF QUEEN ANNE IS OFTEN CALLED THE CLASSIC AGE OF ENGLAND.
AS THE CONFLICTS AND ENTHUSIASMS OF THE MID-SEVENTEENTH CENTURY RECEDED INTO THE PAST, AND ENGLISH SOCIETY AND CULTURE SETTLED DOWN INTO A PERIOD OF RELATIVE STABILITY UNTIL POLITICAL REVOLUTION IN FRANCE AND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AT HOME HELPED TO PRODUCE ANOTHER ERA OF MORE RAPID CHANGE AND MORE VIOLENT CONFLICT OF IDEAS, IT BECOMES POSSIBLE TO DISTINGUISH THAT VIEW OF LIFE AND LETTERS WHICH THOSE WHO HELD IT, LIKED TO CONSIDER “AUGUSTAN” HENCE THE PERIOD WE HAVE BEFORE US FOR STUDYING IS KNOWN TO US BY VARIOUS NAMES. IT IS OFTEN CALLED THE AGE OF QUEEN ANNE, BUT THE AUGUSTAN OR CLASSIC AGE ARE MORE POPULAR NAMES TO DENOTE THE PERIOD (1702 TO 1770) TO EIGHTEENTH CENTURY LITERATURE.
THE WORD “CLASSIC” WILL BE BETTER UNDERSTOOD WITH REFERENCE TO THE STUDY OF PRECEDING AGES. THE ELIZABE THAN WRITERS WERE LED BY PATRIOTISM, ENTHUSIASM AND, IN GENERAL, BY ROMANTIC EMOTIONS. THEY WROTE NATURAL’ AND HAD A REGARD FOR RULES. IN THE FOLLOWING AGE PATRIOTISM HAD LARGELY DISAPPEARED, FROM POLITICS AND ENTHUSIASM FROM LITERATURE. POETS WERE ARTIFICIAL WITH STRANGE AND FANTASTIC VERSE FORMS TO GIVE EFFECT, SINCE FINE FEELING WERE WANTING IN THEM. AND THAT SUMS UP THE GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE PURITAN AGE. GRADUALLY, OUR WRITERS REBELLED AGAINST THE EXAGGERATIONS OF BOTH THE NATURAL AND FANTASTIC STYLE. THEY WERE INFLUENCED BY FRENCH WRITERS WHO PROFESSED TO HAVE DISCOVERED THOSE EXACT RULES IN THE CLASSICS OF HORACE AND ARISTOTLE AND HENCE JUSTIFY THE NAME OF THE CLASSICAL AGE TO THEIR ERA. THE
GENERAL TENDENCY OF LITERATURE WAS TO LOOK AT LIFE CRITICALLY, TO EMPHASIZE INTELLECT RATHER THAN IMAGINATION, THE FORM RATHER THAN THE CONTENT OF A SENTENCE. WRITERS STROVE TO REPRESS ALL EMOTION AND ENTHUSIASM. APPEAL WARS NORMALLY SOUGHT TO WHAT WAS VARIOUSLY CALLED REASON. NATURE OR COMMON SENSE. POLISH AND ELEGANCE OF FORM WERE OF MORE IMPORTANCE THAN SUBTLETY OR ORIGINALITY OF THOUGHT.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-1.

1.    HOW DID THE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY WRITERS VIEW THEIR UNDERSTANDING OF CLASSICAL AUTHORS   COMPARED TO   PREVIOUS
GENERATIONS?

2.    WHAT IS CONSIDERED THE 'CLASSIC PERIOD' OF A NATION'S LITERATURE?

17.4.    ENGLISH RULE
THE EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY SHOWS A CONTINUATION OF THE SOCIAL AND LITERARY FORCES SEEN IN THE RESTORATION. THE REVOLUTION OF 1688, WHICH BANISHED THE LAST OF THE STUART KINGS AND CALLED WILLIAM OF ORANGE TO THE THRONE, MARKS THE END OF THE LONG STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL FREEDOM IN ENGLAND. THE FREE ENGLISHMAN HAD NOW MORE ENERGY TO IMPROVE HIS GOVERNMENT. IN ORDER TO BRING ABOUT REFORMS, VOTES WERE NOW NECESSARY AND TO GET VOTES THE PEOPLE OF ENGLAND WERE TO BE APPROACHED WITH IDEAS, FACTS, ARGUMENTS, AND INFORMATION. SO, THE NEWSPAPER WAS BORN. LITERATURE IN ITS WIDEST SENSE, INCLUDING THE BOOK, THE NEWSPAPER AND THE MAGAZINE BECAME THE CHIEF INSTRUMENT OF A NATION’S PROGRESS. THE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN ENGLAND WAS ACCELERATED WITH THE BIRTH OF NEARLY TWO THOUSAND PUBLIC COFFEE-HOUSES, EACH A CENTER OF SOCIABILITY, AND ALMOST A EQUAL NUMBER OF PRIVATE CLUBS. THE NEW SOCIAL LIFE ALSO HAD A MARKED EFFECT IN POLISHING AND REFINING MAN’S WORDS AND MANNERS IN EVERY SPHERE OF ACTIVITIES.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-1I

1.    WHAT MARKED THE END OF THE LONG STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL FREEDOM IN ENGLAND?

2.    WHAT SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN ENGLAND ACCELERATED LITERARY AND SOCIAL LIFE?

17.5.    CLASSICAL PERIOD
IN THE BROADEST SENSE OF THE TERM THE “CLASSICAL PERIOD” COMES AFTER THE RESTORATION AND EXTENDS AS FAR AS THE DECISIVE ADVENT OF ROMANTICISM. CLASSICISM WAS FOSTERED AND ENCOURAGED BY THE POLITICAL NEEDS OF THE AGE, BUT EVEN THEN, THE CHANGE MIGHT HAVE BEEN MORE GRADUAL, LESS DECISIVE, HAD IT NOT BEEN FOR THE FACT, THAT A BRILLIANT SET OF WRITERS HAD ARISEN IN FRANCE, ACTUATED BY CLASSICAL METHODS, WHO EXERCISED PROFOUND INFLUENCE UPON THE LITERATURE OF EUROPE. THE INFLUENCE UPON ENGLAND WAS ESPECIALLY MARKED. THE NEW SPIRIT WAS ALL CRITICAL AND ANALYTICAL, NOT CREATIVE, AND SYMPATHETIC, BRINGING THE INTELLECT RATHER THAN THE POETIC IMAGINATION INTO PLAY.
CLEARNESS, CONCISENESS, AND CONCENTRATION WERE THE KEY WORDS OF THIS KIND OF LITERATURE. THE OBJECT OF THE LEADING WRITERS TO THE TIME WAS TO AVOID EXTRAVAGANCE AND EMOTIONALISM. DEVOID OF EMOTIONALISM, THE POETRY OF THE AGE HAD TO FALL BACK ON THE EPIGRAM. DRIFTING AWAY FROM THE POETRY OF PASSION WAS MORE PRONOUNCED THAN EVER, THE IDEALS OF ‘WIT’ AND ‘COMMON SENSE’ WERE MORE ENTHUSIASTICALLY PURSUED AND LYRICAL NOTE WAS ALMOST UNHEARD. THERE WAS ONLY ONE FORM OF VERSE THE CLOSED HEROIC COUPLET. THE TRADITION OF DIDACTIC POETRY AND OF BRILLIANT TOPICAL SATIRE ALSO CONTINUED. THE POETRY WAS ESSENTIALLY ‘GENTEEL’ THAT IS URBANE OR POLISHED, REFLECTING THE TASTE AND MANNERS OF THE ARTIFICIAL ‘TOWN’ SOCIETY.
HOWEVER, THE GREATEST ACHIEVEMENTS OF THIS ERA WERE IN THE REALM OF PROSE. THE GRACEFUL ELEGANCE OF ADDISON’S ESSAYS, THE TERSE VIGOR OF SWIFT’S SATIRES, THE ARTISTIC FINISH OF FIELDING’S ORATION-THESE HAVE NO PARALLEL IN THE HISTORY OF LITERATURE. HENCE, WE SHALL NOT BE WRONG IN SAYING THAT THE MOST IMPORTANT
CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY PROPER ARE THE ESSAY AND THE NOVEL.
IN PROSE THE OUTSTANDING FEATURE IS THE EMERGENCE OF THE MIDDLE STYLE. THE CHIEF EXPONENT OF THIS STYLE IS ADDISON, OF WHOM JOHNSON SAYS. “HIS PROSE IS THE MODEL OF THE MIDDLE STYLE PURE SWIFT REVEALS THE STYLE AT ITS BEST-SURE, CLEAN, AND STRONG. ANOTHER TENDENCY PREVALENT IN THE CLASSICAL AGE WAS THAT OF SATIRE. THERE HAD BEEN A GOOD DEAL OF SATIRE COMPOSED IN THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES, BUT IT HAD NOT ATTAINED A STEADY LEVEL OF EXCELLENCE. ONE REASON WAS UNDOUBTEDLY THIS, THAT IT WAS COMPOSED UNDER THE IMPRESSION THAT SATIRE OUGHT TO BE RUGGED, IF NOT WITH LITERATURE. NEARLY EVERY WRITER OF THE FIRST HALF OF THE CENTURY WAS USED AND REWARDED BY WHIGS OR TORIES FOR SATIRIZING THEIR ENEMIES AND FOR ADVANCING THEIR SPECIAL POLITICAL INTEREST. POPE WAS MARKED EXCEPTION, BUT HE NEVERTHELESS FOLLOWED THE PROSE WRITERS IN USING SATIRE TOO LARGELY FOR GRATIFYING HIS PERSONAL FEELINGS OF REVENGE AND ILL-WILL. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY EXCELLED NOT ONLY IN SATIRE AS IN MAC FLECKNOE AND THE DUNCIAD. BUT IT MAY BE FOUNDING THE RAPE OF THE LOCK. IF I WERE ASKED WHY THE ENGLISH EIGHTEENTH CENTURY DID SO MUCH BETTER IN MOCK-EPIC THAN IN THE EPIC ITSELF, WHICH IT NEVERTHELESS KEPT ATTEMPTING WITH EQUAL INDUSTRY AND ILL SUCCESS, THE ANSWER MIGHT SUGGEST ITSELF THAT THIS WAS JUST BECAUSE THE CENTURY WAS THOROUGHLY ENGLISH AT HEART AND IN SECRET REBELLION AGAINST THE LATIN INFLUENCE. BUT IT MUST BE REMEMBERED THAT IN GENERAL PEOPLE PARODY WHAT THEY LIKE RATHER THAN WHAT THEY DISLIKE. THE MOCK-HEROIC IS THE TRIBUTE THAT SATIRE PAYS TO THE HEROIC.
SO FAR, WE HAVE DISCUSSED CLASSICISM IN GENERAL AND THE LITERARY CHARACTERISTICS OF THIS MOVEMENT IN A NUT SHELL.
SELF- CHECK EXERCISE-III

1.    WHAT WERE THE KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF LITERATURE DURING THE CLASSICAL PERIOD?

2.    WHY DID THE POETRY OF THE CLASSICAL
PERIOD LACK EMOTIONALISM?

17.6.    POETRY
THE GREATEST POET OF THE PERIOD, THE DIRECT CONTINUATOR OF THE TRADITION OF DRYDEN AND THE MOST BRILLIANT MAN OF LETTERS OF THE EARLY PART OF THE CENTURY WAS ALEXANDER POPE (1788-1744). BEING THE SON OF CATHOLIC PARENTS, HE WAS NOT ALLOWED TO ENTER PUBLIC SERVICE AS IT WAS THE PREVAILING LAW THAT CATHOLICS BE KEPT AWAY FROM THE ORDINARY CAREER OF AN ENGLISHMAN IN PARLIAMENT, THE CHURCH, OR THE ARMY. AS A RESULT OF AN AUTHOR WHO WAS ENTIRELY A MAN OF LETTERS, THE EVENTS OF HIS LIFE ARE ALTOGETHER LITERARY EVENTS. HE BEGAN HIS CAREER EARLY. HIS PASTORALS, WRITTEN WHEN HE WAS ONLY SEVENTEEN, WERE PUBLISHED IN 1709. THESE WERE THE LIMITATIONS OF VIRGIL ADOPTED TO MODERN LIFE AND ENGLISH SOIL WITH GREAT SKILL.
ALEXANDER POPE
NEVER WAS THE LANGUAGE OF POETRY MORE LIQUID AND ITS MEASURE MORE EVEN AND SMOOTH. THE ESSAY ON CRITICISM, TWO YEARS LATER, ATTRACTED ADDISON’S NOTICE, AND POPE’S OTHER EARLY POEMS, WINDSOR FOREST, ELOTSA TO A BERLARD AND ABOVE ALL THE RAPE OF THE LOCK, OF WHICH THE FIRST DRAFT APPEARED IN 1712, ADDED TO HIS REPUTATION. NOW HE SET ABOUT HIS AMBITIOUS SCHEME OF TRANSLATING THE ILIAD WHICH WAS COMPLETED IN 1720. ALTHOUGH IT IS A BRILLIANT POEM, FAST MOVING AND FULL OF ELOQUENT SPEECHES AS A TRANSLATION IT IS FAULTY, FOR POPE HAD NO SOUND KNOWLEDGE OF GREEK. THE NAME OF POPE’S ILIAD, WHICH WAS FINANCIALLY THE MOST SUCCESSFUL OF HIS BOOKS, WAS DUE TO THE FACT THAT HE INTERPRETED HOMER IN THE ELEGANT ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE OF HIS OWN AGE. THE ILIAD WAS FOLLOWED BY THE ODYSSEY IN 1725 AND 1726. TRANSLATED WITH THE AID OF TWO CLASSICAL SCHOLARS, FELTON AND BROOME. BOTH WORKS WERE VERY SUCCESSFUL, AND MADE POPE A WEALTHY MAN, BUT BROUGHT UPON HIM JEALOUSY AND CRITICISM WHICH EVENTUALLY LED TO MANY QUARRELS. STILL MORE CRITICISM WAS EVOKED BY HIS EDITION OF SHAKESPEARE, PUBLISHED IN 1725. THIS WAS A TASK FOR WHICH HE LACKED THE NECESSARY ELIZABETHAN SCHOLARSHIP, BUT HE
PREFACED THE WORK WITH A FINE APPRECIATION. AS REVENGE FOR THE
ATTACKS, HE HAD RECEIVED EARLIER, HE PUBLISHED IN 1728, A GREAT SATIRE ENTITLED. THE DUNCIAD INDEED A COARSE AND REVENGEFUL SATIRE UPON ALL THE LITERARY MEN OF THE AGE. WHO HAD AROUSED POPE’S ANGER BY THEIR CRITICISM OR LACK OF APPRECIATION OF HIS GENIUS. THE DUNCIAD IS UNDOUBTEDLY CLEAR AND BRILLIANT IN ITS BITING ABUSE AND WAS IMMENSELY POPULAR BUT AT THE SAME TIME IT AROUSES PITY THAT POPE SHOULD HAVE STOOPED SO LOW AS TO USE HIS TALENTS FOR THE GRATIFICATION OF PERSONAL SPITE. AN EPISTLE TO DR. ARBUTHNOT (1735), WAS THE PROLOGUE TO THE SATIRES. HE PRESENTS HIMSELF AS A MAN OF PEACE GOADED INTO SATIRE BY THE INTOLERABLE BEHAVIORS OF FOOLS AND KNAVES. IT CONTAINS THE POPE’S REVENGE FOR ADDISON’S SUPPORT OF A RIVAL TRANSLATION OF HOMER, THE BITING LINES IN WHICH ADDISON IS DESCRIBED AS ATTICUS. HERE, AS IN THE LEAST OF ALL PERSONAL SATIRE, THE INDIVIDUAL ADDISON BECOMES THE STIMULUS FOR MORAL INDIGNATION OF UNIVERSAL SIGNIFICANCE, FOR THOUGH ADDISON MAY OR MAY NOT HAVE BEEN AN ENVIOUS, COLDHEARTED CRITIC, THERE ARE ALWAYS SUCH IN THE WORLD, AND HENCE THE SATIRE HAS A CERTAIN UNIVERSAL VALIDITY.
THE ROPE OF THE LOCK IS A MOCK-HEROIC POEM WHICH SATIRIZES FASHIONABLE SOCIETY OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. AROUND THE TRIVIAL INCIDENT OF RUDE BEHAVIOUR OF LORD PETRE IN CUTTING A LOCK FROM THE HEAD OF A BEAUTIFUL MAID NAMED ARABELLA FERMOR, POPE WOVE AN ELABORATE STORY CAST IN THE EPIC FORM, IT IS A WITTY PARODY OF THE HEROIC STYLE WITH SHAFTS OF HUMOUR AND GOOD-NATURED SATIRE. MANNERISMS OF SOCIETY ARE PICTURED IN MINUTEST DETAIL AND SATIRIZED WITH THE MOST DELICATE WIT.
THE ESSAY ON CRITICISM, PUBLISHED IN 1741, ALSO WRITTEN IN POLISHED HEROIC COUPLETS SUMS UP THE ART OF POETRY AS TAUGHT FIRST BY HORACE, THEN BY BILEAU AND THE, EIGHTEENTH CENTURY CLASSICISTS. THIS CAN HARDLY BE CONSIDERED A POEM BUT RATHER A STOREHOUSE OF CRITICAL MAXIMS: “FOR FOOLS RUSH IN WHERE ANGELS FEAR TO TREAD,” “TO ERR IS HUMAN, TO FORGIVE DIVINE,” “A
LITTLE KNOWLEDGE IS A DANGEROUS THING,” THESE LINES AND MANY MORE LIKE THEM FROM THE SAME SOURCE ARE USED IN OUR EVERYDAY USAGE.
THE ESSAY ON MAN IN WHICH HE DISCUSSES MAN’S PLACE IN THE UNIVERSE IS THE BEST KNOWN AND THE MOST QUOTED OF ALL POPE’S WORKS. LIKE MILTON’S PARADISE LOST, ITS OBJECT IS, “TO VINDICATE THE WAYS OF GOD TO MAN,” TO SHOW THAT THE SCHEME OF THE UNIVERSE IS PERFECT, THAT GOD’S PROVIDENCE IS WISE AND JUST, THAT IT IS OUR LIMITED VISION THAT PREVENTS OUR SEEING THIS PERFECTION, TO SHOW IN EFFECT THAT “WHATEVER IS RIGHT.” ITS EXCELLENCE LIES IN ITS APHORISTIC VERSE. IT ABOUNDS IN QUOTABLE LINES SUCH AS THE FOLLOWING:
HOPE SPRINGS ETERNAL IN THE HUMAN BREAST; MAN NEVER IS BUT ALWAYS TO BE LEST.
KNOW THEM THEY SELF, PRESUME NOT GOD TO SCAN; THE PROPER STUDY OF MANKIND IS MAN.
BEHOLD THE CHILD, BY NATURE’S KINDLY LAW. PLEASED WITH A RATTLE, HICKED WITH A STRAW SOME LIVELIER PLAYING GIVES HIS YOUTH DELIGHT A LITTLE LOUDER, BUT AS EMPTY QUITE;
SC RAFTS, GARTERS, GOLD AMUSE HIS RIPER STAGE, AND BEADS AND PRAYER BOOKS ARE THE TOYS OF AGE; PREASED WITH THIS BAUBLE STILLS, AS THAT BEFORE; TILL TIRED HE SLEEPS, AND LIFE’S POOR PLAY IS O’ER.
THE ESSAY ON MAN IS A MARVELOUS CRYSTALLIZATION OF THE FLUID POPULAR THINKING OF HIS DAY;
POPE’S CLAIM TO THE FIRST PLACE AMONG THE POETS OF HIS TIME CANNOT BE GAINSAID, BUT TRUE PLACE AMONG THE POETS OF ALL TIME HAS BEEN A MATTER OF DISPUTE. CERTAIN QUALITIES WHICH WE EXPECT TO FIND IN POETRY ARE NECESSARILY ABSENT IN POPE. HE RARELY DIPS BELOW THE SURFACE AND WHEN HE DOES SO HE IS NOT AT HIS BEST. HIS STYLE IS ALMOST WHOLLY RESTRICTED TO THE HEROIC COUPLET. HE IS ALMOST, DEVOID OF THE LYRICAL FACULTY AND THE HIGHER ARTISTIC EMOTIONS. THE POET’S AIM WAS NOT AT ALL SELFEXPRESSION, HE STROVE TO UTTER “WHAT OFT WAS THOUGHT, BUT
NEVER SO WELL EXPRESSED.” IN OTHER WORDS HE AVOIDED OBSCURE DRIVE EMOTIONS AND ALL HIGHLY PARTICULAR PERSONAL EXPERIENCE. HE VALUED THE UNIVERSAL WHICH UNFORTUNATELY ARE LIKELY TO BE TREATED AS COMMONPLACE WITH LACK OF SUBTLETY AND POIGNANCY.
THE THREE POEMS IN WHICH POPE IS EMPHATICALLY THE SPOKESMAN OF HIS AGE ARE THE RAPE OF THE LOCK, PICTURING ITS FRIVOLITIES; THE DUNCIAD, UNVEILING ITS SQUALOR; THE ESSAY ON MAN, ECHOING ITS PHILOSOPHY. OF HIS WORK AS A WHOLE IT MAY BE SAID THAT HE WAS THE MASTER OF LITERARY MOSAIC. ONE OF HIS EARLIEST FRIENDS AND CRITICS. WILLIAM WALSH, POINTED OUT TO HIM THAT “THOUGH WE HAD SEVERAL GREAT POETS, WE NEVER HAD ANY ONE GREAT POET THAT WAS CORRECT.” CORRECTNESS, ACCORDINGLY, POPE MADE HIS AIM FROM THE VERY BEGINNING. CORRECTNESS REQUIRES PATIENCE AND GENIUS FOR TAKING PAINS WHICH POPE HAD IN ABUNDANCE. NOR DID HE SACRIFICE TO MERE EXACTNESS OF METER AND RHYME THE OTHER VIRTUES OF COUPLET, VERSE, COMPRESSION, EPIGRAMMATIC FORCE AND BRILLIANCY OF DICTION.
AMONG MINOR VERSE WRITERS OF THE AGE IS JOHN GAY, COUPLET, AND RESEMBLING POPE’S PASTORALS. THE SHEPARD’S WEEK WHOL D’YE CALL IT AND MOCK-HEROIC POEMS THE FAN AND TRIVIA. HIS FAME IN HIS OWN DAY RESTED PERHAPS CHIEFLY UPON THE BEGGARS OPERA (1728), ANOTHER BURLESQUE CENTERING ABOUT THE ADVENTURES OF CAPTAIN MACHEALTH, A FASCINATING HIGHWAYMAN. GAY FILLED HIS OPERA WITH BRIGHT LYRICS SET TO POPULAR ARIS, AND HIS DIALOGUE AND SITUATIONS GAVE A BRILLIANTLY VIVID PICTURE OF THE LONDON UNDERWORLD OF POLITICS AND HIGH SOCIETY; THE IMMORALITIES AND TREACHERIES OF HIGHWAYMEN, CROOKS AND TROLLOPS. JOHN GAY WAS A GOOD-NATURED LIKEABLE MAN WHO’S BENT OF MIND WAS TOWARD BROAD GENIAL HUMOR RATHER THAN BITTER SATIRE. INDEED, GAY IS NOW REMEMBERED CHIEFLY FOR HIS LYRICAL GIFT, WHICH PRODUCED THE TWO FAMOUS SONGS, “WAS WHEN THE SEAS WERE ROARING” AND “BLACK-EYED SUSAN.”
MATHEW PRIOR (1644-1712)
FROM THE VERY BEGINNING OF HIS WRITING CAREER WAS ENGAGED ON BEHALF OF THE TORIES, FROM WHOM HE RECEIVED VALUABLE APPOINTMENTS. HIS FIRST LONG WORK IS THE HIND AND THE PANTHER TRANSVERS’S TO THE STORY OF THE COUNTRY AND THE CITY MOUSE (1687). OTHER LONGER WORKS ARE ALMA; OR THE PROGRESS OF THE MIND (1718) AND SOLOMON, ON THE VANITY OF THE WORLD. PRIOR’S CHIEF DISTINCTION LIES IN HIS MISCELLANEOUS VERSE, WHICH IS VARIED, BULKY AND OF HIGH QUALITY. HE WAS WITTY AND FULL OF GRACEFUL HUMOUR. THE NATURALNESS OF HIS STYLE COUPLED WITH EPIGRAMMATIC ARCHERS OF PHRASE GIVES TO HIS SEEMING TRIVIALITIES A CHARM NOT EQUALED IN ANY OTHER WRITER OF LIGHT VERSE. SOME OF THE BESTS OF THIS SHORTER PIECES ARE THE CHAMELEON, THE THIEF AND THE CORDELIER, AND NUMBER OF POEMS TO CHOLE WHERE PRIOR MANAGES TO BALANCE ELEGANCE AND FAMILIARITY AS HE DOES IN HIS BEST POEM. HE SPEAKS FOR HIS AGE IN A RATHER SPECIAL WAY FOR THAT BALANCE REPRESENTED EXACTLY WHAT THE AUGUSTAN WRITER’S SOUGHT TO BE BOTH POLITIC AND EASY WAS THEIR IDEAL.
SIR SAMUEL GARTH (1661-1719)
THE PHYSICIAN PUBLISHED THE DISPENSARY IN 1699, AN AMUSING DESCRIPTION OF A DOCTOR’S QUARREL, WRITTEN IN THE VERSIFICATION OF DRYDEN. THIS WAS THE ONLY IMPORTANT WORK OF SAMUEL GARTH. IT WAS WRITTEN IN A KIND OF HEROIC COUPLET WHICH WAS THE LINK IN STYLE BETWEEN DRYDEN AND POPE.
EDWARD YOUNG (1683-1765)
EDWARD YOUNG WAS BORN IN HAMPSHIRE, WENT TO OXFORD AND PRODUCED A LARGE AMOUNT OF LITERARY WORK OF VARIABLE QUALITY. HIS CHIEF WORKS INCLUDE THE LAST DAY (1714) AND THE FORCE OF RELIGION (1714) WHICH WERE IN TUNE WITH THE AGE MORALIZING WRITTEN IN HEROIC COUPLET. THE LOVE OF FAME, THE COMPLAINT, DEATH AND IMMORTALITY WERE ALSO POPULAR IN HIS DAYS. HE IS REMEMBERED PRINCIPALLY BY HIS STILL FAMOUS BUT LITTLE READ NIGHT THOUGHTS WRITTEN IN BLANK VERSE.
WE CAN SAY THAT THE POETRY OF THE AUGUSTAN AGE WORKED WITHIN RELATIVELY NARROW LIMITS. IT WAS A CIVILIZED ACTIVITY, AND CIVILIZATION DEMANDED A CERTAIN KIND OF PERSPECTIVE IN LOOKING AT THINGS; A CERTAIN POLISH AND ELEGANCE AND CONSCIOUSNESS OF GOOD SOCIETY, WIT, RESTRAINT, GOOD TASTE, AND THE SUBORDINATION OF PERSONNEL IDIOSYNCRASY TO A SOCIAL NORM. THE HEROIC COUPLET OBVIOUSLY WAS THE STANDARD AND THE ONLY VEST TECHNIQUE PARTLY BECAUSE IT WAS THE BEST FORM FOR CONVEYING THAT COMBINATION OF ELEGANCE AND WIT, OF CASE AND POLISH, WHICH THE AGE DEMANDED, BUT ALSO BECAUSE IT LENT ITSELF TO THE UTTERANCE OF “WHAT OFT WAS THOUGHT BUT NE’ER SO WELL EXPRESSED” AND ENCOURAGED A NICE BALANCE BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL INSIGHT AND THE RHETORIC OF SOCIAL BELIEF.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE

1.    WHO IS THE POET OF THE POEM RAPE OF THE LOCK.

1.    ALEXANDER POPE   3. EDWARD YOUNG

2.    MATHEW PRIOR     4. SAMUEL GARTH

2. . WHO WROTE THE POEM TITLED NIGHT THOUGHTS.

1.    MATHEW PRIOR 3. ALEXANDER POPE

2.    EDWARD YOUNG    4. SAMUEL GARTH

17.7.    SUMMARY
CLASSICISM, IN ARTS, REFERS GENERALLY TO A HIGH REGARD FOR A CLASSICAL PERIOD, CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY IN THE WESTERN TRADITION, AS SETTING STANDARDS FOR TASTE WHICH THE CLASSICISTS SEEK TO EMULATE.
THE ART OF CLASSICISM TYPICALLY SEEKS TO BE FORMAL AND RESTRAINED. SIR KENNETH CLARK OBSERVES, “IF WE OBJECT TO HIS RESTRAINT AND COMPRESSION, WE ARE SIMPLY OBJECTING TO THE CLASSICISM OF CLASSIC ART. A VIOLENT EMPHASIS OR A SUDDEN ACCELERATION OF RHYTHMIC MOVEMENT WOULD HAVE DESTROYED THOSE QUALITIES OF BALANCE AND COMPLETENESS THROUGH WHICH IT RETAINED UNTIL THE PRESENT CENTURY ITS POSITION OF AUTHORITY IN THE RESTRICTED REPERTOIRE OF VISUAL IMAGE.”

17.8.    GLOSSARY
GRATIFY- TO PLEASE, TO MAKE CONTENT; TO SATISFY
WIT- SANITY, THE SENSE
FRIVOLITY- ACT OF BEING SILLY
ENVIOUS- CAREFUL, CAUTIOUS

17.9. ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISES
SELF- CHECK EXERCISE-I

1.    THE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY WRITERS BELIEVED THEY UNDERSTOOD THE CLASSICAL AUTHORS BETTER THAN PREVIOUS GENERATIONS.

2.    THE 'CLASSIC PERIOD' OF A NATION'S LITERATURE IS WHEN AN UNUSUAL NUMBER OF GREAT WRITERS PRODUCE SIGNIFICANT WORKS.
SELF- CHECK EXERCISE-II

1.    THE REVOLUTION OF 1688 MARKED THE END OF THE LONG STRUGGLE FOR POLITICAL FREEDOM IN ENGLAND.

2.    THE BIRTH OF NEARLY TWO THOUSAND PUBLIC COFFEE-HOUSES ACCELERATED LITERARY AND SOCIAL LIFE IN ENGLAND.
SELF- CHECK EXERCISE-III

1.    THE KEY CHARACTERISTICS WERE CLEARNESS, CONCISENESS, AND CONCENTRATION.

2.    THE POETRY OF THE CLASSICAL PERIOD LACKED EMOTIONALISM AS IT EMPHASIZED INTELLECT OVER POETIC IMAGINATION.
SELF- CHECK EXERCISE-IV

1.    (1)

2.    (2)

17.10    SUGGESTED READINGS/ REFERENCES
HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE (FIFTH EDITION) BY EDWARD ALBERT.
A CRITICAL HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE BY DAVID DAICHES

17.11 . TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1.    WHAT IS CLASSICISM IN ENGLISH LITERATURE?

2.    WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLASSICISM AND NEOCLASSICISM?

3.    WHAT IS CLASSICISM IN THE RENAISSANCE?
UNIT-18
CLASSICISM: ITS SURVIVAL

18.1.    INTRODUCTION

18.2.    LEARNING OBJECTIVES

18.3.1    JONATHAN SWIFT
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-I

18.3.2    ADDISON
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-II

18.3.3    RICHARD STEELE
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-III

18.3.4    DANIEL DEFOE
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-IV

18.3.5    SAMUEL RICHARDSON
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-V

18.3.6    HENRY FIELDING
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-VI

18.3.7    LAWRENCE STERNE
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-VII

18.3.8    OLIVER GOLDSMITH
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-VIII

18.4.    SUMMARY

18.5.    GLOSSARY

18.6    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISES

18.7    SUGGESTED READINGS/ REFERENCES

18.8.    TERMINAL QUESTIONS

18.1    INTRODUCTION
AN AGE LIKE AN INDIVIDUAL OFTEN VALUES ITSELF MOST ON WHAT IS
NOT ITS STRONGEST POINT. CLASSICISM, WHILE IT BREASTED OF ‘REFORMING OUR NUMBER’, WAS FAR MORE SUCCESSFUL IN REFORMING OUR PROSE. THE
ESSAY AND THE NOVEL ARE THE TWO CHIEF GIFTS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. THE AGE OF QUEEN ANNE IS ESPECIALLY NOTABLE FOR ITS PROSE WRITING, FOR IT SAW THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PERIODICAL ESSAY BY ADDISON AND STEELS, AND THE BEGINNING OF PROSE FICTION, NOT OF THE NOVEL PROPER, IN THE WORKS OF DEFOE AND SWIFT.
LUCIDITY HAD NEVER BEEN ABSENT FROM ENGLISH PROSE, AS THE LANGUAGE OF THE BIBLE SHOWS, BUT THE AMBITIONS WRITERS, ESPECIALLY OF THE EARLY SEVENTEENTH CENTURY HAD AIMED NOT AT LUCIDITY BUT AT GRANDEUR. BUT GRADUALLY THE SPIRIT OF ENQUIRY EXTENDED BEYOND SCIENCE, PLAIN, UNAFFECTED, NATURAL WAY OF WRITING. IF IT DID NOT HAVE MANY LATIN WORDS AND CONSTRUCTIONS IT HAD IN A HIGHER DEGREE THE CLASSICAL VIRTUES OF DEFINITION AND LUCIDITY.

18.2.    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
THE OBJECTIVE OF THIS LESSON IS TO PROVIDE AN IDEA OF THE SOCIAL, CULTURAL, AND POLITICAL BACKGROUND OF THE PERIOD. WE WILL DISCUSS CLASSICISM AND DOMINANCE OF SATIRE, WORKS AND LIFE OF ALEXANDER POPE, JONATHAN SWIFT, ADDISON. RICHARD STEELE, THEIR PAMPHLETS AND NOVELIST LIKE DANIEL DEFOE, SAMUEL RICHARDSON, HENRY FIELDING, AND LAWRENCE STERNE ETC.

18.3.    SATIRE
THE SPIRIT OF SATIRE IS PRESENT IN THE PROSE AS IT WAS IN THE POETRY OF CLASSICAL AGE. THE RATIONAL CRITICISM OF MANNERS IS ALSO BEING DIFFUSED INTO MANIFOLD LITERARY EXPRESSIONS OF PROSE, OF NOVEL, OF LETTERS AND MEMORIES AND SERMONS PAMPHLETS.

18.3.1    JONATHAN SWIFT
WHEN STEEL AND ADDISON WROTE FOR THEIR AUDIENCES, DETERMINED NOT TO OFFEND THEM, JONATHAN SWIFT (1667-1745) WROTE, WITHOUT REGARD FOR ANY MAN, THE VISION OF LIFE AS HE SAW IT. BORN IN IRELAND OF ENGLISH PARENTS SWIFT WAS POSTHUMOUS CHILD. AFTER AN IRISH UPBRINGING, HE WAS ADMITTED TO THE HOUSEHOLD OF SIR WILLIAM TEMPLE. IN HIS COMPANY SWIFT BEGAN HIS LITERARY CAREER IN 1700 WITH THE PUBLICATION OF THE
BATTLE OF THE BOOKS AND A TALE OF A TUB, WHICH SATRIZED CORRUPTION IN LITERATURE AND LEARNING WITH AN EFFECT WHICH STARTLED EVERY READER THE BATTLE OF THE BOOKS WAS A CONTRIBUTION TO THE CONTROVERSY WHICH TEMPLE WAS CARRYING ON THE GREAT SCHOLAR BENTLEY AS TO COMPARATIVE MERITS OF ANCIENT AND MODEM WRITERS. THE INTEREST OF THIS WORK LIES ENTIRELY IN THE FLASHES SATIRICAL FANCY WITH WHICH HE LIGHTS UP HIS SUBJECT. WITH ITS MOCK-EPIC THEME. THE BATTLE OF THE BOOKS IS WORTH-READING MOCK FOR ITS AMUSING DIALOGUE OF THE BEES AND THE SPIDER. THE INCONCLUSIVE FINISH TO BATTLE IS A GOOD TOUCH.
AT THE SAME TIME, HE ALSO WROTE A SATIRE ON THE DIVISION OF CHRISTIANLY, CALLED A TALE OF TUB- PETER, MARTIN, AND JACK, ALLEGORICALLY STAND FOR ROMAN CATHOLICS, ANGLICANS, AND PURITANS. SWIFT CLAIMED THAT THE BOOK WAS WRITTEN FOR “THE UNIVERSAL IMPROVEMENT OF MANKIND” AND THAT IT SATIRIZED NOT RELIGION BUT THE ABUSE OF RELIGION. IT WAS EARLIER DIRECTED AGAINST THE FOIBLES OF HUMANITY AS A WHOLE-FOIBLE WHICH REAPPEAR IN EACH NEW AGE UNDER VARIOUS GUISES.
SWIFT HAS OFTEN BEEN PRESENTED AS A DISEASED MISANTHROPIST, WHO SAW HIS FELLOW MEN AS THE YAHOOS OF THE FOURTH BOOK OF GULLIVER’S TRAVELS (1726-1727). IT DEALS WITH IMAGINARY VOYAGES AMONG THE PIGMIES, THE: GIANTS, THE MOONSTRUCK PHILOSOPHERS, AND THE RACE OF HORSES WITH THEIR HUMAN SERFS THE YAHOOS. SWIFT MAGNIFIES MAN INTO A GIANT, AND INSOLENT THROUGHOUT THE DIFFERENT VOLUMES.
A QUITE DIFFERENT SIDE OF SWIFT IS REVEALED IN HIS JOURNAL TO STELLA, LETTERS WRITTEN DAILY BETWEEN 1710 TO 1713, TO ESTHER JOHNSON, ILLEGITIMATE DAUGHTER OF SIR WILLIAM TEMPLE. SWIFT’S PRECISE RELATIONS WITH STELLA ARE STILL ARGUED ABOUT BY HIS BIOGRAPHERS; THEY MAY HAVE BEEN SECRETLY MARRIED; BUT THERE IS DOUBT OF THEIR MUTUAL LOVE AND OF THE FACT THAT STELLA’S DEATH IN 1718 LEFT SWIFT A BROKEN MAN. THE LETTERS GIVE THE MOST INTIMATE DETAILS OF POLITICAL DISCUSSIONS AND INTRIGUES OF THE PERIODS THEY ARE SOMETIMES TENDER AND WHIMSICAL AND
SOMETIMES EMBARRASSINGLY SENTIMENTAL. SOMETIMES ONE FEELS THAT SWIFT HAD AN IMPOSSIBLE IDEALISTIC VIEW OF THE WORLD AND HE FOUND THAT HIS OWN EXPERIENCE OF MEN DID NOT BEAR THIS OUT HE REVERSED HIS ORIGINAL VIEW WITH SAVAGE MASOCHISM.
IN AN ESSAY WITH ITS UNPROMISING TITLE OF A LETTER TO A YOUNG CLERGYMAN HE SPEAKS UP FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND DEFINES THE VIRTUES OF GOOD WRITING, AND UNLIKE SOME, ADVISERS HE PRACTICED WHAT HE PREACHED. IN THE SAME ESSAY HE SAYS, “PROPER WORDS IN PROPER PLACES MAKE THE TRUE DEFINITION OF A STYLE.” THIS IS UNDOUBTEDLY ONE OF THE MOST PROFOUND STATEMENTS EVER MADE ABOUT PROSE OR, INDEED ABOUT WRITING IN GENERAL.
SWIFT’S POETRY HAS A DRY IRONIC FORCE OF ITS OWN A QUALITY MORE ADMIRED TODAY THAN IT WAS IN EARLIER PERIODS. HE CAN HE HUMOROUS AND INTIMATE, AS IN HIS POEMS ON STELLA’S BIRTHDAY.’ BUT HE IS MOST IMPRESSIVE IN HIS STRONG IRONIC OCTOSYLLABIC COUPLETS, NOTABLY IN THE BEAST CONFESSION AND VERSES ON THE DEATH OF DR. SWIFT, BOTH DATING FROM THE EARLY 1730S.
THAT SWIFT IS MASTER OF IRONY, A POLITICAL PAMPHLETEER OF GENIUS A WOUNDED MORALIST WHO NEVER FORGAVE THE WORLD FOR NOT BEING WHAT ITS OPTIMISTIC PHILOSOPHERS SAID IT WAS ‘POSSESSOR OF AN IMAGINATION BOTH BRILLIANT AND BITTER AND OF A NARRATIVE AND EXPOSITORY STYLE CHARACTERIZED BY CLARITY, COGENCY AN ELOQUENT MANNER IS UNDENIABLE.
HE COVERED ALL ASPECTS OF LIFE IN HIS WRITING; RELIGION SOCIAL, INSTITUTIONS, POLITICS, EDUCATION, PHILOSOPHY, AND LITERATURE. HIS SATIRE WAS REFORMIST AND INSTEAD OF THE PULPIT, HE CHOSE THE PEN TO EXPRESS HIS VIEWS ON THE DEVIATION OF MANKIND, IN GENERAL, FROM IDEAL STANDARDS.
NO CHARACTER IN ENGLISH LETTERS IS BETTER KNOWN OR MORE GENERALLY ADMIRED THAN ADDISON. HIS TEMPERAMENT AND HIS LIFE REFLECT A HAPPY BALANCE, UNDISTURBED BY ANY ACCIDENTS OR DOUBTS, THE POWER OF ATTRACTING IS LARGELY DUE TO A CERTAIN
CLASSIC QUALITY WHICH SHOWED ITSELF IN HIS LITERARY IDEALS IN HIS PURE REGULAR STYLE, IN HIS JUST APPRECIATION OF HIS LIFE AS IN HIS WRITING WHAT HE DID WAS WELL DONE.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-I

1.    WHAT ARE THE KEY THEMES IN SWIFT'S "THE BATTLE OF THE BOOKS"?

18.3.2 ADDISON
ADDISON WROTE HYMEN AND SECULAR VERSE AND WAS A POPULAR MEMBER OF KIT-CAT CLUB, BUT HIS BEST CONTRIBUTION OF LETTERS AROSE FROM THE OUTLOOK OF A SCHOLAR AND TRAVELER, THE GOOD SENSE, CHARM, AND MODERATION WHICH HE BROUGHT TO JOURNALISM, ESPECIALLY BY CONTRIBUTIONS HE MADE IN THE TWO PERIODICALS. THE TOILER AND THE SPECTATOR.
THE TALLER WAS STALLED BY SIR RICHARD STEELE IN 1709. ADDISON WAS STEELE’S ASSISTANT AND CONTRIBUTED 42 OF THE TOTALS OF 271 PAPERS ALTHOUGH THE TALLER APPEALED TO THE PUBLIC WITHOUT DISTINCTION OF PARTY, IT WAS COLOURED BY STEEL’S WHIG VIEWS ACCORDINGLY, WHEN THE AUTHOR WISHED TO AVOID POLITICS ALTOGETHER, THEY ABANDONED THE TALLER REPLACING IT BY THE SPECTATOR (1711) IN WHICH ADDISON WAS THE SENIOR PARTNER AND PRODUCED 274 PAPERS TO STEELE’S 240. THE SPECTATOR COVERED EVERYTHING NECESSARY FOR A PROPER SOCIAL EDUCATION FROM WHAT KIND OF HATS LADIES SHOULD WEAR TO HOW TO APPRECIATE MILTON. MOST OF ADDISON’S ESSAYS ARE MORE OR LESS OF UNIFORM LENGTH, OF ALMOST UNTYING EXCELLENCE OF STYLE, AND OF A WIDE DIVERSITY OF SUBJECT MANY OF THEM ARE DIRECTED AGAINST THE COARSER VICES OF THE TIMER, AGAINST GAMBLING, DRINKING, SWEARING, INDECENCY OF CONVERSATION, CRUELTY, PRACTICAL JOKING, DWELLING OTHER ATTACK THE TRIVIALITY OF LIFE, SPECIAL FOLLIES, AND FOIBLES OF DRESS, OF MANNERS OR OF, THOUGHT; OTHERS, THE LACK OF ORDER AND COMFORT IN THE LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY. HE ALSO GAVE IMPORTANCE TO THE LITERARY CULTIVATION OF HIS READERS AS SHOWN BY A SERIES OF PAPERS OF CRITICISM ON MILTON. JOHNSON CONSIDERED HIS PROSE “THE MODEL
OF THE MIDDLE STYLE.” AND CONCLUDED THAT “WHOEVER WISHES TO ATTAIN AN ENGLISH STYLE, FAMILIAR BUT NOT COARSE, AND ELEGANT BUT NOT OSTENTATIOUS, MUST GIVE HIS DAYS AND NIGHTS TO THE VOLUMES OF ADDISON.”
ADDISON ALSO WROTE POEMS WHICH WERE VERY POPULAR IN HIS DAY. THE CAMPAIGN, WRITTEN IN 1704, GAVE HIM THE REPUTATION OF BEING ONE OF THE MAJOR POETS OF THE AGE. HIS CATO, ROSAMOND, AND THE DRUMMER WERE DRAMAS WHICH MET WITH FAIR SUCCESS. NEITHER HE NOR STELLE HAD THE DRAMATIC GIFT. BUT TOGETHER THEY SET THEIR MARK UPON EIGHTEENTH CENTURY PROSE, HELPING TO RAISE THE STANDARD OF MANNERS AND ELEGANCE IN LIFE AND LETTERS.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-II

2.    WHAT DID ADDISON PRIMARILY CONTRIBUTE
TO THE SPECTATOR?

18.3.3 RICHARD STEELS (1627-1729)
RICHARD STEELS WAS IN ALMOST EVERY RESPECT THE ANTITHESIS OF HIS FRIEND AND FELLOW WORKERS A GENIUS, IMPULSIVE, GOOD NATURED, EMOTIONAL LOVABLE IRISHMAN. STEELE’S LIFE WAS A MISCELLANEOUS ONE, FILLED WITH ALL SORTS OF VENTURES, LITERARY, POLITICAL, AND COMMERCIAL. HE LEFT OXFORD WITHOUT HIS DEGREE TO ENLIST AS A SOLDIER. HE GAVE UP THE ARMY IN ORDER TO BECOME AN ACTIVE PAMPHLETEER AND JOURNALIST IN THE INTEREST OF THE WHIGS, BY WHOM HE WAS GIVEN VARIOUS GOVERNMENT POSITIONS. HE WAS ELECTED TO PARLIAMENT. ALTOGETHER HIS LIFE WAS A THING OF FRAGMENTS. THE INCONSISTENCY IN STEEL’S LIFE IS REFLECTED IN HIS STYLE. AT TIMES HE IS DIGNIFIED AND GRACIOUS AND AT TIMES HIS IS CARELESS, FLEXIBLE, AND FREE. ADDISON AND STELLE BOTH WEE MORALISTS, AND THEIR DOCTRINE IS IN HIGH DEGREE CHARACTERISTIC OF THEIR TIME. HE STARTED THE TALLER IN 1709 AND THE SPECTATOR IN 1711 AND SEVERAL OTHER SHORT-LIVED PERIODICALS, SUCH AS THE GUARDIAN,
THE ENGLISHMAN, AND THE READER, STEELE LOVED CHILDREN AND HAD A DEEP RESPECT FOR WOMANHOOD AND SOME OF HIS ESSAYS ON CHILDREN ARE CHARMING AND FULL OF HUMAN SYMPATHY. HE ALSO RIDICULES VICE AND APPRECIATES VIRTUE.
HE WAS A GOOD PLAYWRIGHT, AND HIS ATTEMPT TO REDEEM THE DRAMA FROM THE GROSSNESS AND LICENSE OF THE RESTORATION DRAMA, LED HIM INTO MANY SENTIMENTAL INEPTITUDES. IN FACT, ADDISON AND STEEL WERE REALLY SUITED AS CO-CRAFT MEN, FOR EACH COULD GIVE WHAT THE OTHER LACKED.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-III

3.    WHAT WAS RICHARD STEELE'S ROLE IN THE CREATION OF THE SPECTATOR?

18.3.4    DANIEL DEFOE
IF TO DELIGHT THE YOUNG, FOR GENERATION, AFTER GENERATIONS A PROOF OF VITALITY, THE AUTHOR OF ROBINSON CRUSOE, THE PROTOTYPE OF THE DESERT ISLAND STORY, HAD IT IN FULL MEASURE. I HOPE YOU GET MY POINTS; I AM TELLING ABOUT DANIEL DAFOE. LIKE BUNYAN, DEFOE’S WAS DISSENTER THOROUGHLY MAN OF THE PEOPLE, A STRANGER TO THE IDEALS AND REFINEMENTS OF ARISTOCRATIC LIFE. THE CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF DEFOE’S WORK ARE HIS ARISTOCRATIC LIFE. THE CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF DAFOE’S WORK ARE HIS REALISTIC IMAGINATION, HIS POWER OF GIVING LUCID DETAILS AND HIS INTEREST IN THE CONTEMPORARY LIFE OF AVERAGE HUMANITY. HE WAS A NOVELIST WITH THE INTENTION TO REDUCE ALL LITERATURE TO JOURNALISM, TO TELL INVENTED THINGS AS THOUGH HE WERE A REPORTER WRITING AN ACCOUNT FOR THE PRESS. ALL THESE FACTS MAKE HIS BEST FICTION HISTORICALLY IMPORTANT AND INTRINSICALLY INTERESTING. HIS FICTION SHOWS WITH CONVINCING CLARITY THE WAY IN WHICH THE DEVELOPING ENGLISH NOVEL WAS LINKED WITH THE HABITS OF MIND AND LITERARY NEEDS OF THE RISING MIDDLE CLASSES. DEFOE IS NOT CALLED “THE FATHER OF THE ENGLISH NOVEL” FOR NOTHING. THE GREATNESS OF ‘ROBINSON CRUSOE’ IS
PERHAPS ACCIDENTAL, BUT THE NOVEL IS NOT ONLY THE FIRST FULLLENGTH PIECE OF PROSE FICTION WRITTEN IN THE PLAIN STYLE OF EARLY EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY EXPOSITORY PROSE WITH CONTINUOUS COLLOQUIAL OVERTONES; IT IS ALSO THE FIRST ENGLISH POPULAR NOVEL (AS DISTINCT FROM ROMANCE LEGEND, ALLEGORY, AND OTHER VARIETIES OF NARRATIVE) AND THE FIRST TO HAVE AS A HERO A MAN WHO SEEKS COMFORT AND SAFETY RATHER THAN ITS INTRINSIC MATERIAL VALUE.
OVER THE YEARS A FLOOD OF PROSE POURED OUT FROM DEFOE’S PEN CONTROVERSY COMMENTARY, TRAVEL, HISTORY, JOURNALISM, AND A SERIES OF NOVELS WRITTEN WITH DETAILED VERISIMILITUDE AND AN UNFAILING FLOW OF NARRATIVE INVENTION. CAPTAIN SIGLETON, MOLL FLANDER’S JOURNAL OF THE PLAQUE YEARS, THE MEMORIES OF A CAVALIER AND THE PERENNIAL ROBINSON CRUSOE ARE WELL KNOWN. THE STORIES ARE ALL PICTURESQUE IN MATTER AND IN FORM; THE HERE, WHO IS THE NARRATOR CONSTITUTES THE CHIEF ELEMENT OF UNITY; THE OTHER CHARACTERS APPEAR AND PASS AWAY, NO ATTEMPT IS BEING MADE TO WORK THEM INTO A PLOT. DEFOE CONCEALS HIS PERSONALITY BEHIND THAT OF HIS HERO, AS HE HAS DONE IN THE CASE OF CRUSOE, YET HIS PERSONAL ATTITUDE TOWARDS LIFE APPEARS IN THE PURPOSE WHICH EACH TALE CLEARLY HAS.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-IV

1.    WHICH WAS DEFOE’S LAST NOVEL?

1 . ROBINSON CRUSOE 3. COLONEL JACK

2 .MOLL FLANDERS 4. ROXANA

18.3.5    SAMUEL RICHARDSON
SAMUEL RICHARDSON, LIKE, DEFORE IS ALSO A REPRESENTATIVE OF THE AVERAGE MIDDLE CLASS. HIS ENORMOUS POPULARITY IS DUE TO THE FACT THAT HE INTRODUCES SENTIMENTALITY INTO ENGLISH FICTION AND POPULARIZED IT FOREVER. IN HIS DAYS WHEN SENTIMENT WAS TABOOED IN VERSE, A GENEROUS SUPPLY OF IT IN FICTION PROVED ESPECIALLY ACCEPTABLE.
RICHARDSON WAS SUCCESSFUL PRINTER WHO TURNED NOVELIST LATE IN LIFE AS THE RESULT OF CIRCUMSTANCES RATHER THAN INNER
COMPULSION. AT THE REQUEST OF HIS FELLOW CRAFTSMEN IN 1740, HE PREPARED A LITTLE VOLUME OF LETTERS, IN A COMMON STYLE, ON SUCH SUBJECTS AS MIGHT BE OF USE TO COUNTRY READERS WHO ARE UNABLE TO WRITE FOR THEMSELVES. THIS WAS THE GERM OF PAMELA, WHICH DEVELOPED INTO STORY WHICH STRUCK A GENUINE IF OVERPROTECTED NOTE OF SENTIMENT. IT HAS A MAID-SERVANT INSTEAD OF A FASHIONABLE WOMAN AS THE HEROINE, AND IT WENT STRAIGHT TO THE HEART OF THE COMMON READER. PAMELA WAS FOLLOWED BY CLARISO HORLOWE, WHICH IS GENERALLY ACCOUNTED AS RICHARDSON’S MASTERPIECE AND SURPASSED EVEN ITS PRECURSOR IN POPULARITY, BRINGING THE AUTHOR EUROPEAN FAME DESPITE A SAD FATE FOR ITS HEROINE, AND DEATH IN A DUEL FOR THE MAN WHO ABDUCTED HER. RICHARDSON COMPOSED A FINAL NOVEL, SIR CHARLES GANDISON, WHICH APPEARED IN 1754, WITH A HAPPY ENDING. IT EXPRESSED HIS IDEAL OF A CHRISTIAN GENTLEMAN. THE THEME OF ALL THREE WORKS-THAT ONLY THROUGH MEANS OF A WEDDING RING SHOULD A MAN IS AD MITTED TO A WOMAN’S BED-CHAMBER-ADMITS OF INFINITE OVERSELLS AND STRATAGEMS TO ILLUMINATE THE SEX-WAR WHICH WAS RICHARDSON’S SUBJECT. IN OTHER WORDS, THE IDEALS RICHARDSON APPRECIATES IN HIS NOVELS ARE PRUDENCE AND VIRTUE, GENTILITY, REPUTATION, AND CHARACTER. THE RELATION BETWEEN THEM IS OFTEN COMPLEX.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-V

1.    RICHARDSON’S PAMELA MARRIES TO WHOM?

1 .MONSIEUR CALBRAND 3. MR. B

2 .MR JEWKES         4. MR. ANDREWS

18.3.6    HENRY FIELDING
A CONTEMPORARY OF RICHARDSON WAS HENRY FIELDING (170754). HE WAS ON AN ARISTOCRATIC FAMILY, WELL-EDUCATED WITH A WIDER AND GENUINE TASTE FOR THE CLASSIC A DRAMATIST, A JOURNALIST AND A LAWYER. IN 1742 HE PUBLISHED JOSEPH ANDREWS TO RIDICULE RICHARDSON’S PAMELA. HE CONTRIVED THIS SATIRE BY REVERSING THE SITUATION IN RICHARDSON’S NOVEL. INSTEAD OF THE VIRTUOUS SERVING MAID. FIELDING PRESENTS JOSEPH, THE CHASTE
SERVANT WHOM LADY BOOBY SO TEMPTS FROM THE PATH OF VIRTUE THAT HE HAS TO RUN AWAY.
THEN FOLLOWS A SERIES OF ADVENTURES ON THE ROAD WHERE JOSEPH IS ACCOMPANIED BY PARSON ADAMS, A CLERICAL DON QUIXOTE. IT IS GOOD MORAL COMEDY WITH ITS PICTURE OF HUMBLE CONTEMPORARY LIFE AND GENIAL HUMOUR. REALISM IS THE KEY NOTE OF ALL HIS WORK. HE WRITES OF REAL MEN AND WOMEN WITH A PRECISION THAT COMES FROM DIRECT OBSERVATION. FIELDING’S NEXT NOVEL. JONATHAN WILD WAS A LOOSE NARRATIVE BUT HIS LAST TWO NOVELS TOM JONES AND AMELIA HAVE GENUINE PLOTS.
TOM JONES IS COMIC EPIC IS PROSE, WITH MOCK HEROIC INVOCATIONS AND DESCRIPTION SCATTERED THROUGH THE NARRATIVE. BUT THE COMIC AND “MOCK” ELEMENT SERVES AN IMPORTANT ARTISTIC PURPOSE. IT IS NOT SIMPLY A JOKE AT THE EXPENSE OF NEO-CLASSIC CATEGORIES. IT ENABLES FIELDING TO MAKE CERTAIN POINTS ABOUT SOCIETY, TO DEFLATE CERTAIN KINDS OF PRETENTIOUSNESS TO COMMUNICATE HIS RELISH OF THE COLOUR AND VARIETY OF HUMAN LIFE SIMULTANEOUSLY WITH HIS RELISH OF THE COLOUR AND VARIETY OF HUMAN LIFE SIMULTANEOUSLY WITH HIS IRONIC PERCEPTION OF THE UNDER-LINING IDENTITY OF HIGH CLASS DUELING OR BATTLING AND LOW CLASS BRAWLING, AND OF OTHER PARALLELS BETWEEN THE HIGH” AND ‘LOW” WHICH THE HIGH WOULD NEVER ADMIT AND THE LOW NEVER SURMISE.
FIELDING’S LAST NOVEL AMELIA (1751) IS ALTOGETHER DIFFERENT IN TONE FROM ANY OF HIS PREVIOUS FICTION. PATHOS REPLACES HUMOURS. MORAL GRAVITY RATHER THAN COMIC VIOLENCE OR IRONY SETS THE MOOD. THE HEROINE IS DRAWN WITH A TENDERNESS AND A PERSONAL SYMPATHY QUITE NEW IN FIELDING. THE PATIENT SUFFERING OF THE VIRTUOUS WIFE IS TREATED AGAINST A BACKGROUND OF QUIETLY AND PRECISELY DRAWN ATTENTION TO A VARIETY OF SOCIAL ABUSES.
FIELDING’S YOUNGER CONTEMPORARY TOBIAS SMOLLET (172171) IS NOT OF AN EQUAL STATURE AS FIELDING, FOR BE LACKED THE NECESSARY GENIUS, HUMOUR AS WELL AS INHERENT KINDNESS. HIS
FIRST NOVEL WAS RODERICK RANDOM. HERE HE FOLLOWS THE OUTLINES OF HIS OWN LIFE, BUT CRAMMED THE STORY WITH INNUMERABLE INVENTED INCIDENTS AND EPISODES, MANY OF THEM VIOLENT AND CRUEL. THE ADVENTURES OF PEREGRINE PICKLE (1751) IS THE LONGEST AND MOST RAMBLING OF SMOLLETT’S NOVEL, TOLD IN THE THIRD PERSON. THOUGH IT IS LESS VIOLENT AND A MORE CAREFUL ART THAN RODERICK RANDAN, ITS COMPOSITION IS JUST AS LOOSE. SMOLLETT’S MOST POPULAR AND MOST ATTRACTIVE NOVEL IS HIS LAST. HUMPREY CLINKER (1771), WRITTEN IN RELAXATION IN ITALY, WHERE HE CERTAINLY WAS MELLOWER IN MOOD THAN DURING MOST OF HIS LIFE BEFORE HIS SUDDEN DEATH IN 1771. SMOLLETT’S CHIEF CONTRIBUTION OF AT LEAST ONE SPECIAL INTEREST, THE SEA, AND SEAMEN. THEY WERE REAL, LIFE, AND WERE VALUABLE ADDITIONS TO THE PORTRAIT GALLERY OF FICTION.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-VI
1. HOW DOES FIELDING'S "JOSEPH ANDREWS" DIFFER FROM RICHARDSON'S "PAMELA"?

18.3.7    LAWRENCE STERNE
THE TWO BOOKS BY WHICH LAWRENCE STERNE IS REMEMBERED ARE TRISTRAM SHANDY PUBLISHED IN NINE VOLUMES BETWEEN 1759 AND 1767. REVEALED A WHOLLY NEW CONSENT OF FORM IN FICTION AS WELL AS KIND OF SENTIMENTAL COMEDY REMOVED FROM FIELDING’S COMIC EPIC AND DIDACTIC HUMOURS OF HUMPHERY CLINKER. TOLD IN THE FIRST PERSON BY A NARRATOR WHOSE PERSONALITY AND TRAM OF ASSOCIATION DETERMINE THE TONE AND ORGANIZATION OF THE NARRATIVE (AND WHO IS NOT BORN UNTIL THE END OF THE THIRD VOLUME). TRISTRAM SHANDY IS ON THE SURFACE A RAMBLING AND ECCENTRIC PATCHWORK OF ANECDOTES, DIGRESSIONS, REFLECTION, JESTS, PARODIES, AND DIALOGUE AND DIALOGUES CENTERING ON THE SENTIMENTAL INCIDENTS. THE PERPETUATION CONSISTS LARGELY OF DISHES, AND THE BOOK IS INTERLARDED WITH ASTERISK BLANKS AND A VARIETY OF TYPOGRAPHICAL AND OTHER ECCENTRICITIES. ITS STRENGTH LIES CHIEFLY IN ITS ODD CHARACTERS LIKE UNCLE TOBEY
AND CORPORAL TRIM, WHICH WITH ALL THEIR ECCENTRICITIES ARE SO HUMANIZED BY THE AUTHOR’S GENIUS THAT THEY BELONG TO THE GREAT “CREATIONS” OF OUR LITERLURE. YOU MAY ASK ME, “WHAT IS STERNE’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ‘ENGLISH NOVEL?” WELL, IF RICHARDSON GAVE SENTIMENTALITY. FIELDING HUMOUR, SMOLLETT'S LIVELINESS, THEN STERNE BLENDS HUMOUR AND SENTIMENT IN A WAY PECULIARITY OF HIS OWN AS TO ADVANCE THE ART OF CHARACTERIZATION ONE STEP FURTHER.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-VII
1. WHAT NARRATIVE TECHNIQUE DID STERNE USE IN "TRISTRAM SHANDY"?

18.3.8    OLIVER GOLDSMITH
A MORE WHOLESOME VIEW OF LIFE IS TO BE FOUND IN A BOOK AS FAMOUS AS TRISTRAM SHANDY. OLIVER GOLDSMITH’S THE VICAR OF WAKEFIELD (1766), IS A PERFECT EXPRESSION OF HOMELY ENGLISH SENTIMENT. IT HAS BEEN SUCCESSFUL FROM THE DAY OF PUBLICATION UNTIL THE PRESENT. THERE HAD TO BE THREE EDITIONS IN A GREAT STRENGTH IN THE QUALITY OF STOICAL RESIGNATION. TROUBLE AND DISASTERS ACCUMULATE LIKE THREADING CLOUDS, BUT ONLY TO RESOLVE THEMSELVES INTO BENEFICENT SHOWERS. FOLLOWING THE VICTOR OF WAKEFIELD CAME THE GOOD NATURED MAN. HIS FIRST PLAY, THE DESERTED VILLAGE SHOWED HIM AS A POET OF NO MEAN ORDER, AND HIS BEST COMEDY, SHE STOOPS TO CONQUER, THESE WORKS EARNED HIM A CONTEMPORARY REPUTATION SECOND ONLY TO THAT OF THE EPITAPH THAT WAS INSCRIBED ON A TABLET BENEATH HIS BEST IN WESTMINSTER ABBEY THE FIRST LINES ON WHICH READS :
OF OLIVER GOLDSMITH
A POET. NATURALIST AND HISTORIAN WHO LEFT ANY STYLE OF WRITING UNTOUCHED. AND TOUCHED NOTHING THAT HE DID NOT ADORN, OF ALL THE PASSONS.
WHETHER SMILES WERE TO BE MOVED OR TEARY..
A POWERFUL YET GENTLE MASTER
IN GENIUS. SUBLIME, VIVID, VERSATILE. IN STYLE, ELEVATED, CLEAR, ELEGANT.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE -VIII
C. WHO IS THE WRITER OF THE VICAR OF WAKEFIELD.

1.    OLIVER GOLDSMITH 3. CHARLES DICKENS

2.    THOMAS HARDY     4. JANE AUSTEN

18.4.    SUMMARY
CLASSICISM, IN THE ARTS, REFERS GENERALLY TO A HIGH REGARD FOR A CLASSICAL PERIOD, CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY IN THE WESTERN TRADITION, AS SETTING STANDARDS FOR TASTE WHICH THE CLASSICIST SEEK TO EMULATE. THE ART OF CLASSICISM TYPICALLY SEEKS TO BE FORMAL AND RESTRAINED. SIR KENNETH CLARK OBSERVES,” IF WE OBJECT TO HIS RESTRAINT AND COMPRESSION WE ARE SIMPLY OBJECTING TO THE CLASSICISM OF CLASSIC ART. A VIOLENT EMPHASIS OR A SUDDEN ACCELERATION OF RHYTHMIC MOVEMENT WOULD HAVE DESTROYED THOSE QUALITIES OF BALANCE AND COMPLETENESS THROUGH WHICH IT RETAINED UNTIL THE PRESENT CENTURY ITS POSITION OF AUTHORITY IN THE RESTRICTED REPERTOIRE OF VISUAL IMAGES.”

18.5.    GLOSSARY
INTRIGUE- A COMPLICATED OR CLANDESTINE PLOT OR SCHEME INTENDED TO EFFECT SOME PURPOSE BY SECRET ARTIFICE; CONSPIRACY
ADORN- TO MAKE MORE BEAUTIFUL AND ATTRACTIVE
EXPOSITORY- SERVING TO EXPLAIN, EXPLICATE, OR ELUCIDATE
EPITAPH- AN INSCRIPTION ON A GRAVESTONE IN MEMORY OF THE DECEASED

18.6.    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISES
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE -I

1.   THE KEY THEMES IN SWIFT'S "THE BATTLE OF THE BOOKS"
INCLUDE THE SATIRE OF THE LITERARY AND SCHOLARLY DEBATES OF HIS TIME, FOCUSING ON THE MERITS OF ANCIENT VERSUS MODERN WRITERS.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE -II

1.   ADDISON PRIMARILY CONTRIBUTED ESSAYS THAT OFFERED
SOCIAL AND LITERARY CRITICISM, PROMOTING GOOD MANNERS AND VIRTUES IN THE SPECTATOR.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE -III

1.   RICHARD STEELE  CO-FOUNDED  THE SPECTATOR AND
CONTRIBUTED ESSAYS THAT FOCUSED ON MORAL AND SOCIAL THEMES, OFTEN EMPHASIZING VIRTUES AND CRITICIZING VICES.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE -IV
A (4),
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE -V
B (3),
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE -VI

1.   FIELDING'S "JOSEPH ANDREWS" PARODIES RICHARDSON'S
"PAMELA" BY REVERSING THE GENDER ROLES AND PRESENTING A MALE SERVANT RESISTING THE ADVANCES OF A WEALTHY WOMAN, HIGHLIGHTING COMEDIC AND REALISTIC ELEMENTS OF SOCIETY.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE -VII

1.    STERNE USED A FIRST-PERSON NARRATIVE TECHNIQUE IN "TRISTRAM SHANDY," CHARACTERIZED BY DIGRESSIONS, ANECDOTES, AND A FOCUS ON THE NARRATOR'S PERSONALITY AND THOUGHTS.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE -VIII

1.      (1)

18.7    SUGGESTED READINGS/ REFERENCES
HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE BY DAVID DAICHES.
HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE BY EDWARD ALBERT.

18.8 . TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1.    WHY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY CALLED AN AGE OF PROSE AND REASON? DISCUSS CRITICALLY.

2.    WRITE AN ELABORATE NOTE ON THE 18TH CENTURY SATIRIC POETRY.
UNIT-19
UNVEILING THE 18TH CENTURY NOVEL: FROM EVOLUTION TO REVOLUTION

19.1.    INTRODUCTION

19.2.    LEARNING OBJECTIVES

19.3.    NOVEL DEVELOPMENT IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY


19.3.1    REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE NOVELS IN EIGHTEENTH
CENTURY
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-I

19.4.    RISE OF NOVELS
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-II

19.5.    FIELDING’S WORK AND CONTRIBUTION
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-III

19.6.    DR. JONSON AS CRITIC
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-IV

19.7.    PRECURSORS OF ROMANTIC REVIVAL AND THE EMERGENCE OF THE
NOVEL OF TERROR
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-V

19.8.    SUMMARY

19.9.    GLOSSARY

19.10.    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISES

19.11.    SUGGESTED READINGS/ REFERENCES

19.12.    TERMINAL QUESTIONS

19.1.    INTRODUCTION
IN THE 18TH CENTURY, A REMARKABLE TRANSFORMATION OCCURRED IN THE WORLD OF LITERATURE WITH THE EMERGENCE OF A NEW KIND OF STORYTELLING - THE NOVEL. THIS PERIOD WITNESSED A SURGE IN NOVEL POPULARITY DRIVEN BY VARIOUS FACTORS SUCH AS SOCIETAL SHIFTS, ADVANCEMENTS IN PRINTING TECHNOLOGY, AND THE DESIRE FOR RELATABLE NARRATIVES. AS URBANIZATION AND THE RISE OF THE MIDDLE CLASS CHANGED SOCIAL DYNAMICS, MORE PEOPLE SOUGHT ACCESSIBLE AND ENGAGING LITERATURE, LEADING TO THE NOVEL'S RISE. THIS INTRODUCTION DELVES INTO THE REASONS BEHIND THE 18TH-CENTURY NOVEL'S ASCENT, EXPLORING THE SOCIETAL CHANGES AND LITERARY INNOVATIONS THAT PAVED THE WAY FOR THIS ENDURING LITERARY FORM.

19.2.    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
DEAR LEARNERS DO YOU KNOW THAT IN THE 18TH CENTURY, NOVELS BECAME POPULAR DUE TO SOCIAL CHANGES AND ACCESSIBLE BOOKS. THE RISE OF THE MIDDLE CLASS LED TO RELATABLE STORIES, AND PRINTING ADVANCEMENTS MADE NOVELS EASIER TO SHARE. AUTHORS LIKE DEFOE AND RICHARDSON ADDED DEPTH TO CHARACTERS' THOUGHTS AND FEELINGS. NOVELS ALSO DISCUSSED SOCIETY'S VALUES AND WOMEN'S ROLES. THIS PERIOD SHAPED NOVELS INTO A DIVERSE AND INFLUENTIAL FORM OF STORYTELLING.

19.3.    NOVEL DEVELOPMENT IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
THE MODERN NOVEL, AS A DISTINCT LITERARY FORM, BEGAN TO EMERGE IN THE 18TH CENTURY. WHILE THERE WERE EARLIER PROSE NARRATIVES AND PROTO-NOVELS, IT WAS DURING THE 18TH CENTURY THAT NOVELS AS WE UNDERSTAND THEM TODAY GAINED PROMINENCE. ONE OF THE EARLIEST NOVELS OFTEN CONSIDERED AS A DEFINING WORK OF THIS PERIOD IS DANIEL DEFOE'S ROBINSON CRUSOE, PUBLISHED IN 1719. THIS MARKED THE BEGINNING OF THE NOVEL'S EVOLUTION INTO A DISTINCT AND POPULAR LITERARY FORM.

19.3.1    REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE NOVELS IN EIGHTEENTH
CENTURY
THE 18TH CENTURY WITNESSED A SIGNIFICANT RISE IN THE POPULARITY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE NOVEL AS A LITERARY FORM. SEVERAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTED TO THIS RISE, SHAPING THE LANDSCAPE OF STORYTELLING AND READING DURING THAT ERA: CHANGING SOCIAL DYNAMICS: THE 18TH CENTURY WAS MARKED BY PROFOUND SOCIAL CHANGES DUE TO URBANIZATION, THE RISE OF THE MIDDLE CLASS, AND INCREASED LITERACY RATES. AS MORE PEOPLE GAINED ACCESS TO EDUCATION AND LEISURE TIME, THERE WAS A GROWING DEMAND FOR ACCESSIBLE AND ENTERTAINING FORMS OF LITERATURE. NOVELS FILLED THIS GAP, OFFERING LONGER NARRATIVES THAT COULD BE ENJOYED BY A WIDER AUDIENCE.
EMERGENCE OF THE MIDDLE CLASS: THE RISE OF THE MIDDLE CLASS BROUGHT WITH IT A DESIRE FOR LITERATURE THAT REFLECTED THE EXPERIENCES AND CONCERNS OF THIS NEW SOCIAL GROUP. NOVELS OFTEN EXPLORED THE LIVES, AMBITIONS, AND CHALLENGES FACED BY INDIVIDUALS FROM MIDDLE-CLASS BACKGROUNDS. THIS RELATABILITY MADE NOVELS APPEALING TO A BROADER READERSHIP.
DEVELOPMENT OF PRINT CULTURE: THE 18TH CENTURY SAW ADVANCEMENTS IN PRINTING TECHNOLOGY AND THE EXPANSION OF PUBLISHING. THIS MADE BOOKS MORE AFFORDABLE AND ACCESSIBLE TO A LARGER AUDIENCE. NOVELS, WITH THEIR LONGER NARRATIVES, BECAME MORE FEASIBLE TO PRODUCE AND DISTRIBUTE. THE RISE OF LENDING LIBRARIES ALSO FACILITATED ACCESS TO NOVELS.
REALISM AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DEPTH: THE NOVEL ALLOWED AUTHORS TO DELVE INTO CHARACTERS' THOUGHTS, EMOTIONS, AND INTERNAL STRUGGLES IN A WAY THAT SHORTER LITERARY FORMS COULD NOT. THIS PSYCHOLOGICAL DEPTH APPEALED TO READERS' DESIRE FOR REALISTIC AND RELATABLE PORTRAYALS OF HUMAN EXPERIENCES.
EXPLORATION OF EVERYDAY LIFE: NOVELS OFTEN DEPICTED ORDINARY PEOPLE AND THEIR EVERYDAY LIVES, PRESENTING READERS WITH A MIRROR TO THEIR OWN REALITIES. THIS CONTRASTED WITH THE
MORE FANTASTICAL OR MORALLY DIDACTIC CONTENT OF EARLIER LITERARY FORMS.
NEW LITERARY TECHNIQUES: THE NOVEL PROVIDED AUTHORS WITH A CANVAS FOR EXPERIMENTING WITH NARRATIVE TECHNIQUES. EPISTOLARY NOVELS (TOLD THROUGH LETTERS), PICARESQUE NOVELS (FOLLOWING A ROGUE OR ADVENTURER), AND NOVELS WITH MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES ALLOWED FOR CREATIVE STORYTELLING.
REFLECTION OF ENLIGHTENMENT VALUES: THE ENLIGHTENMENT'S EMPHASIS ON REASON, INDIVIDUALISM, AND THE POWER OF THE HUMAN MIND INFLUENCED NOVELISTS TO EXPLORE CHARACTERS' PERSONAL GROWTH, MORAL DILEMMAS, AND SOCIETAL ISSUES. NOVELS BECAME A PLATFORM FOR DISCUSSING AND DEBATING THESE IDEAS.
SATIRICAL AND SOCIAL COMMENTARY: NOVELS, LIKE "TOM JONES" BY HENRY FIELDING, OFTEN USED SATIRE TO COMMENT ON SOCIETAL NORMS, INSTITUTIONS, AND HYPOCRISIES. THIS ALLOWED AUTHORS TO CRITIQUE VARIOUS ASPECTS OF SOCIETY WHILE ENGAGING READERS IN ENTERTAINING NARRATIVES.
EVOLVING VIEWS OF FEMALE READERSHIP: NOVELS GAINED POPULARITY AMONG WOMEN READERS, PROVIDING THEM WITH A LITERARY SPACE TO EXPLORE THEIR OWN THOUGHTS AND EMOTIONS. NOVELS OFTEN DEPICTED FEMALE PROTAGONISTS FACING CHALLENGES AND MAKING CHOICES, REFLECTING CHANGING GENDER ROLES.
OVERALL, THE RISE OF THE NOVEL IN THE 18TH CENTURY WAS A CONVERGENCE OF CHANGING SOCIAL DYNAMICS, TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS, AND A GROWING DEMAND FOR RELATABLE, REALISTIC, AND PSYCHOLOGICALLY RICH NARRATIVES. THIS PERIOD SAW THE NOVEL EVOLVE FROM EARLY FORMS LIKE EPISTOLARY NOVELS AND PICARESQUE TALES INTO A DIVERSE AND INFLUENTIAL LITERARY GENRE THAT CONTINUES TO SHAPE LITERATURE TODAY.

1.   WHAT WERE SOME OF THE KEY SOCIAL CHANGES IN
THE 18TH CENTURY THAT CONTRIBUTED TO THE RISE OF THE NOVEL?

2.   HOW DID THE EMERGENCE OF THE MIDDLE CLASS
IMPACT THE POPULARITY OF NOVELS DURING THIS PERIOD?

3.   WHAT ROLE DID PRINT CULTURE AND
ADVANCEMENTS IN PRINTING TECHNOLOGY PLAY IN THE GROWTH OF THE NOVEL AS A LITERARY FORM?

19.4.    RISE OF NOVELS
IN THE 18TH CENTURY, THE RISE OF THE NOVEL AS A DISTINCT LITERARY FORM WAS SHAPED BY THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF BOTH PREDECESSORS AND MASTERFUL AUTHORS OF THE TIME. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NOVEL CAN BE UNDERSTOOD THROUGH THE TRANSITION FROM EARLIER LITERARY FORMS AND THE MASTERY ACHIEVED BY KEY WRITERS DURING THE 18TH CENTURY.
PREDECESSORS AND EARLY FORMS:
BEFORE THE 18TH CENTURY, LITERARY FORMS SUCH AS EPIC POETRY, PLAYS, AND SHORTER PROSE WORKS DOMINATED THE LITERARY LANDSCAPE. STORIES WERE OFTEN TOLD THROUGH EPIC NARRATIVES, PLAYS, AND FABLES. WHILE LONGER NARRATIVES EXISTED, THEY WERE NOT NECESSARILY WHAT WE WOULD CONSIDER NOVELS TODAY. WORKS LIKE "DON QUIXOTE" BY MIGUEL DE CERVANTES AND "THE GOLDEN ASS" BY APULEIUS DEMONSTRATED ELEMENTS OF STORYTELLING THAT WOULD LATER INFLUENCE THE NOVEL.
MASTERS OF THE 18TH CENTURY:
THE 18TH CENTURY WITNESSED THE EMERGENCE OF SKILLED WRITERS WHO CONTRIBUTED SIGNIFICANTLY TO THE DEVELOPMENT AND POPULARIZATION OF THE NOVEL:
DANIEL DEFOE (1660–1731): OFTEN CONSIDERED ONE OF THE PIONEERS OF THE NOVEL, DEFOE'S ROBINSON CRUSOE (1719) IS REGARDED AS ONE OF THE EARLIEST EXAMPLES OF A TRUE NOVEL. THE STORY OF A CASTAWAY ON A DESERT ISLAND WAS GROUNDBREAKING IN ITS FOCUS
ON A SINGLE CHARACTER'S EXPERIENCES AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OVER AN EXTENDED NARRATIVE.
SAMUEL RICHARDSON (1689–1761): RICHARDSON'S PAMELA, OR VIRTUE REWARDED (1740) IS AN EARLY EXAMPLE OF THE EPISTOLARY NOVEL, WRITTEN IN THE FORM OF LETTERS. IT EXPLORED THE LIFE OF A YOUNG MAID AND HER INTERACTIONS WITH A WEALTHY LANDOWNER, SHOWCASING EMOTIONAL DEPTH AND CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT.
HENRY FIELDING (1707–1754): FIELDING'S TOM JONES (1749) IS A PRIME EXAMPLE OF A PICARESQUE NOVEL, FOLLOWING THE ADVENTUROUS LIFE OF ITS TITULAR CHARACTER. KNOWN FOR HIS WIT AND SATIRICAL APPROACH, FIELDING'S WORK BLENDED HUMOR WITH SOCIAL COMMENTARY.
TOBIAS SMOLLETT (1721–1771): SMOLLETT'S THE ADVENTURES OF RODERICK RANDOM (1748) AND THE EXPEDITION OF HUMPHRY CLINKER (1771) CONTRIBUTED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PICARESQUE NOVEL. HIS WORKS OFTEN FEATURED REALISTIC PORTRAYALS OF CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY AND HUMOR.
LAURENCE STERNE (1713–1768): STERNE'S THE LIFE AND OPINIONS OF TRISTRAM SHANDY, GENTLEMAN (1759–1767) CHALLENGED TRADITIONAL NARRATIVE STRUCTURE AND PLAYED WITH METAFICTIONAL TECHNIQUES. STERNE'S EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH AND EXPLORATION OF NARRATIVE FORM WERE AHEAD OF ITS TIME.
THESE AUTHORS ARE CONSIDERED MASTERS OF THE 18TH CENTURY NOVEL BECAUSE THEY NOT ONLY EXPANDED THE FORM'S BOUNDARIES BUT ALSO ADDRESSED A DIVERSE RANGE OF THEMES, CHARACTERS, AND NARRATIVE TECHNIQUES. THEIR WORKS LAID THE FOUNDATION FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN NOVEL BY SHOWCASING PSYCHOLOGICAL DEPTH, CHARACTER GROWTH, AND SOCIAL COMMENTARY. THROUGH THEIR INNOVATIONS AND MASTERY, THEY CONTRIBUTED SIGNIFICANTLY TO THE RISE OF THE NOVEL AS A PROMINENT AND ENDURING LITERARY GENRE.

1.    WHO ARE SOME OF THE KEY AUTHORS FROM THE 18TH CENTURY WHO SIGNIFICANTLY CONTRIBUTED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NOVEL?

2.    WHAT IS A COMMON TRAIT SHARED BY THE NOVELS OF DANIEL DEFOE, SAMUEL RICHARDSON, AND HENRY FIELDING?

3.    HOW DID LAURENCE STERNE'S THE LIFE AND OPINIONS OF TRISTRAM SHANDY, GENTLEMAN STAND OUT IN TERMS OF NARRATIVE STRUCTURE AND APPROACH?

19.5.    FIELDING’S WORK AND CONTRIBUTION
HENRY FIELDING (1707–1754) WAS A PROMINENT ENGLISH NOVELIST AND PLAYWRIGHT OF THE 18TH CENTURY WHO MADE SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NOVEL AS A LITERARY FORM. HIS WORK NOT ONLY ENTERTAINED READERS BUT ALSO SHOWCASED A KEEN UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN NATURE, SOCIETY, AND SATIRE. FIELDING'S CONTRIBUTIONS CAN BE UNDERSTOOD THROUGH HIS NOTABLE WORKS AND THE WAYS IN WHICH HE INFLUENCED THE TRAJECTORY OF THE NOVEL:
INNOVATIVE NARRATIVE TECHNIQUES: FIELDING IS KNOWN FOR HIS PIONEERING USE OF NARRATIVE TECHNIQUES THAT INFLUENCED SUBSEQUENT NOVELISTS. IN TOM JONES (1749), ONE OF HIS MOST FAMOUS WORKS, FIELDING UTILIZED A PICARESQUE NARRATIVE STYLE. THIS APPROACH INVOLVED EPISODIC ADVENTURES OF THE PROTAGONIST, TOM JONES, ALLOWING FIELDING TO EXPLORE VARIOUS ASPECTS OF SOCIETY WHILE MAINTAINING AN ENGAGING AND DYNAMIC PLOT.
SOCIAL COMMENTARY AND SATIRE: FIELDING'S NOVELS OFTEN CONTAINED SHARP SOCIAL COMMENTARY AND SATIRICAL ELEMENTS. THROUGH HUMOR AND WIT, HE CRITIQUED THE FOLLIES, HYPOCRISIES, AND MORAL AMBIGUITIES OF HIS SOCIETY. TOM JONES, FOR INSTANCE, SATIRIZES CLASS DISTINCTIONS, MORAL JUDGMENTS, AND THE COMPLEXITIES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR.
CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT: FIELDING'S CHARACTERS ARE NOTABLE FOR THEIR COMPLEXITY AND REALISM. IN TOM JONES, HE CRAFTED CHARACTERS WITH BOTH VIRTUES AND FLAWS, MAKING THEM RELATABLE AND HUMAN. THIS DEPARTURE FROM PURELY IDEALIZED CHARACTERS OF EARLIER LITERATURE ADDED DEPTH AND AUTHENTICITY TO HIS STORIES.
BLENDING OF HUMOR AND SERIOUS THEMES: FIELDING'S NOVELS BALANCED HUMOR WITH SERIOUS THEMES. WHILE HIS WORKS ARE ENTERTAINING, THEY ALSO GRAPPLE WITH ISSUES OF MORALITY, ETHICS, AND SOCIETAL NORMS. THIS APPROACH ALLOWED HIM TO ENGAGE READERS ON MULTIPLE LEVELS AND EXPLORE THE COMPLEXITIES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR.
CONTRIBUTION TO THE PICARESQUE TRADITION: FIELDING'S USE OF THE PICARESQUE TRADITION, CHARACTERIZED BY THE ADVENTURES OF A ROGUISH PROTAGONIST, MARKED A DEPARTURE FROM THE MORE STRUCTURED NARRATIVES OF HIS TIME. THIS DYNAMIC STORYTELLING STYLE INFLUENCED LATER NOVELISTS WHO EXPLORED EPISODIC PLOTS AND DIVERSE CHARACTER INTERACTIONS.
INFLUENCE ON LATER AUTHORS: FIELDING'S NARRATIVE TECHNIQUES AND SATIRICAL APPROACH HAD A LASTING IMPACT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH NOVEL. AUTHORS LIKE CHARLES DICKENS AND MARK TWAIN DREW INSPIRATION FROM FIELDING'S ABILITY TO BLEND HUMOR, SOCIAL COMMENTARY, AND REALISTIC CHARACTERS.
HENCE, FIELDING'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE NOVEL IN THE 18TH CENTURY WERE MULTI-FACETED. HE CHALLENGED CONVENTIONAL NARRATIVE STRUCTURES, USED SATIRE TO CRITIQUE SOCIETY, AND CREATED CHARACTERS THAT RESONATED WITH READERS. THROUGH HIS WORKS, FIELDING PLAYED A CRUCIAL ROLE IN SHAPING THE NOVEL AS A GENRE THAT NOT ONLY ENTERTAINED BUT ALSO OFFERED INSIGHT INTO THE COMPLEXITIES OF HUMAN NATURE AND THE SOCIETY IN WHICH IT OPERATED.

1.    HOW DID HENRY FIELDING CONTRIBUTE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NOVEL IN THE 18TH CENTURY?

2.    WHAT NARRATIVE TECHNIQUE DID FIELDING EMPLOY IN HIS FAMOUS WORK "TOM JONES," AND HOW DID IT CONTRIBUTE TO HIS EXPLORATION OF SOCIETY?

19.6.    DR. JONSON AS CRITIC
DR. SAMUEL JOHNSON (1709–1784) WAS A RENOWNED ENGLISH WRITER, POET, ESSAYIST, AND LEXICOGRAPHER, KNOWN FOR HIS SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTIONS TO VARIOUS LITERARY FORMS AND HIS ROLE AS A CRITIC. JOHNSON'S APPROACH TO LITERARY CRITICISM WAS DEEPLY ROOTED IN HIS WIDE-RANGING KNOWLEDGE, HIS KEEN SENSE OF AESTHETICS, AND HIS STRONG CONVICTIONS ABOUT THE STANDARDS AND VALUES OF LITERATURE. HIS CRITICAL WORK HAD A LASTING IMPACT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH LITERARY CRITICISM. HERE ARE SOME KEY ASPECTS OF JOHNSON AS A CRITIC:
THE "PREFACE" TO THE DICTIONARY: ONE OF JOHNSON'S NOTABLE CONTRIBUTIONS TO LITERARY CRITICISM IS FOUND IN THE PREFACE TO HIS MONUMENTAL WORK, A DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE (1755). IN THIS PREFACE, JOHNSON PROVIDES A COMPREHENSIVE DISCUSSION ON THE NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE, ADDRESSING MATTERS OF STYLE, MEANING, AND USAGE. HIS INSIGHTS INTO THE COMPLEXITIES OF LANGUAGE REVEAL HIS ANALYTICAL AND CRITICAL APPROACH.
THE RAMBLER ESSAYS: JOHNSON'S ESSAYS IN THE RAMBLER (1750–1752) EXEMPLIFY HIS CRITICAL STANCE ON VARIOUS TOPICS. THESE ESSAYS OFFERED INSIGHTFUL COMMENTARY ON LITERATURE, SOCIETY, MORALITY, AND HUMAN NATURE. JOHNSON'S STYLE COMBINES LOGICAL REASONING WITH A DEEP UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR, MAKING HIS ESSAYS BOTH INTELLECTUALLY STIMULATING AND SOCIALLY RELEVANT.
THE LIVES OF THE POETS: ONE OF JOHNSON'S MOST INFLUENTIAL WORKS IN LITERARY CRITICISM IS THE LIVES OF THE POETS (1779–1781).
IN THIS SERIES OF BIOGRAPHICAL ESSAYS, JOHNSON ASSESSES THE LIVES AND WORKS OF VARIOUS POETS, PROVIDING HISTORICAL CONTEXT, CRITICAL ANALYSIS, AND HIS OWN EVALUATIONS. THESE ESSAYS SHED LIGHT ON HIS VIEWS ABOUT POETIC EXCELLENCE, CRAFTSMANSHIP, AND THE ENDURING VALUE OF LITERATURE.
CLARITY AND PRECISION: JOHNSON'S CRITICISM IS CHARACTERIZED BY ITS CLARITY AND PRECISION. HE SOUGHT TO ESTABLISH CLEAR CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING LITERARY WORKS, EMPHASIZING QUALITIES SUCH AS ORIGINALITY, MORAL INSTRUCTION, AND ADHERENCE TO CLASSICAL PRINCIPLES. HIS CRITICISM OFTEN REFLECTED HIS PREFERENCE FOR CLARITY OF EXPRESSION AND THE RATIONAL USE OF LANGUAGE.
CONSERVATIVE STANCE: JOHNSON HELD CONSERVATIVE VIEWS ON LITERATURE, ADVOCATING FOR ADHERENCE TO ESTABLISHED LITERARY FORMS AND MORAL VALUES. HE WAS CRITICAL OF WHAT HE PERCEIVED AS EXCESSIVE INNOVATION OR DEVIATION FROM TRADITION. THIS STANCE IS EVIDENT IN HIS CRITICISM OF CERTAIN TYPES OF POETRY AND LITERARY TRENDS.
MORAL DIMENSION: JOHNSON'S CRITICISM OFTEN CARRIED A MORAL DIMENSION. HE BELIEVED THAT LITERATURE SHOULD NOT ONLY ENTERTAIN BUT ALSO EDUCATE AND EDIFY READERS. HE WAS CONCERNED WITH THE MORAL IMPACT OF LITERATURE ON SOCIETY AND CHAMPIONED WORKS THAT UPHELD VIRTUE AND ETHICAL PRINCIPLES.
INFLUENCE ON LATER CRITICS: JOHNSON'S APPROACH TO LITERARY CRITICISM SET A PRECEDENT FOR SUBSEQUENT GENERATIONS OF CRITICS. HIS EMPHASIS ON CLARITY, MORAL RESPONSIBILITY, AND THE IMPORTANCE OF CRAFTSMANSHIP RESONATED WITH LATER CRITICS AND THEORISTS WHO SOUGHT TO ENGAGE DEEPLY WITH THE ART OF WRITING.
DR. SAMUEL JOHNSON'S ROLE AS A CRITIC WAS CHARACTERIZED BY HIS PROFOUND INSIGHTS, DEEP APPRECIATION FOR LITERATURE, AND COMMITMENT TO SETTING STANDARDS FOR LITERARY EXCELLENCE. HIS
CRITICAL WRITINGS CONTRIBUTED TO THE SHAPING OF ENGLISH LITERARY CRITICISM AND LEFT A LASTING LEGACY THAT CONTINUES TO INFLUENCE THE WAY LITERATURE IS ANALYZED AND UNDERSTOOD TODAY.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-IV

1.    WHAT WERE SOME KEY ASPECTS OF DR. SAMUEL JOHNSON'S APPROACH TO LITERARY CRITICISM?

2.    HOW DID JOHNSON'S "THE LIVES OF THE POETS" CONTRIBUTE TO HIS ROLE AS A CRITIC AND HIS VIEWS ON POETIC EXCELLENCE?

19.7.    PRECURSORS OF ROMANTIC REVIVAL AND THE EMERGENCE OF THE NOVEL OF TERROR


19.7.1    PRECURSORS OF ROMANTIC REVIVAL:
THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL, WHICH SWEPT ACROSS EUROPE DURING THE LATE 18TH AND EARLY 19TH CENTURIES, WAS MARKED BY A DEEP YEARNING FOR INDIVIDUAL EXPRESSION, A CONNECTION WITH NATURE, AND AN EMPHASIS ON EMOTIONS AND IMAGINATION. THE PRECURSORS OF THIS MOVEMENT CAN BE TRACED BACK TO EARLIER PERIODS AND LITERARY FIGURES WHO LAID THE FOUNDATION FOR THE ROMANTIC IDEALS. NOTABLE PRECURSORS INCLUDE POETS LIKE WILLIAM BLAKE, WHO COMBINED MYSTICISM WITH ARTISTIC INNOVATION, AND ROBERT BURNS, WHO CELEBRATED THE SIMPLE AND NATURAL ASPECTS OF LIFE. ADDITIONALLY, THE SUPERNATURAL AND GOTHIC ELEMENTS OF THE WORKS OF HORACE WALPOLE AND MARY SHELLEY'S "FRANKENSTEIN" CONTRIBUTED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF ROMANTIC THEMES OF THE MYSTERIOUS AND UNCANNY. THESE PRECURSORS SET THE STAGE FOR THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL'S CELEBRATION OF THE HUMAN SPIRIT, NATURE'S BEAUTY, AND THE EXPLORATION OF THE SUBLIME.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-V

1.    WHICH POET COMBINED MYSTICISM WITH ARTISTIC INNOVATION, ACTING AS A
PRECURSOR TO THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL?
|  | 19.7.2 NOVEL OF TERROR: THE NOVEL OF TERROR, A SUBGENRE OF THE GOTHIC NOVEL, EMERGED DURING THE LATE 18TH CENTURY AND EARLY 19TH CENTURY, CAPITALIZING ON THE FASCINATION WITH THE MYSTERIOUS, SUPERNATURAL, AND MACABRE. THESE NOVELS AIMED TO EVOKE FEAR, HORROR, AND A SENSE OF UNEASE IN READERS THROUGH INTRICATE PLOTS, EERIE SETTINGS, AND ELEMENTS OF SUSPENSE. PROMINENT EXAMPLES OF THE NOVEL OF TERROR INCLUDE WORKS LIKE ANN RADCLIFFE'S THE MYSTERIES OF UDOLPHO AND MATTHEW LEWIS'S THE MONK. THESE NOVELS OFTEN FEATURED HAUNTED CASTLES, GHOSTLY APPARITIONS, AND CHARACTERS GRAPPLING WITH THEIR OWN PSYCHOLOGICAL TURMOIL. WHILE BELONGING TO THE GOTHIC TRADITION, THE NOVEL OF TERROR TOOK THE GENRE'S ELEMENTS TO NEW HEIGHTS, EXPLORING THE DARKER CORNERS OF THE HUMAN PSYCHE AND PUSHING THE BOUNDARIES OF FEAR-INDUCING STORYTELLING. SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-VI 1. WHICH SUBGENRE EMERGED DURING THE LATE  18TH AND EARLY 19TH CENTURY, FOCUSING    ON    THE    MYSTERIOUS, SUPERNATURAL, AND MACABRE? |
|---|---|
| 19.8. | SUMMARY UNIT 19, NOVEL DEVELOPMENT IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, PROVIDES A COMPREHENSIVE EXPLORATION OF THE RISE OF THE MODERN NOVEL DURING THE 18TH CENTURY. IT HIGHLIGHTS HOW SOCIETAL SHIFTS, INCLUDING URBANIZATION AND THE RISE OF THE MIDDLE CLASS, COUPLED WITH ADVANCEMENTS IN PRINTING TECHNOLOGY, LED TO A SURGE IN NOVEL POPULARITY. THE UNIT DISCUSSES KEY AUTHORS LIKE DANIEL DEFOE, SAMUEL RICHARDSON, AND HENRY FIELDING, WHO PIONEERED NARRATIVE TECHNIQUES AND CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT. DR. SAMUEL JOHNSON'S ROLE AS A CRITIC IS EXAMINED, SHOWCASING HIS PROFOUND INSIGHTS AND INFLUENCE ON LITERARY CRITICISM. MOREOVER, THE UNIT DELVES INTO THE |


PRECURSORS OF THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL AND THE EMERGENCE OF THE NOVEL OF TERROR, WHICH LAID THE FOUNDATION FOR THE THEMES AND STYLES OF ROMANTICISM.

19.9.    GLOSSARY
URBANIZATION: THE PROCESS OF THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF CITIES AND URBAN AREAS, OFTEN INVOLVING AN INCREASE IN POPULATION AND INFRASTRUCTURE.
MIDDLE CLASS: THE SOCIAL CLASS BETWEEN THE UPPER CLASS AND THE WORKING CLASS, TYPICALLY CHARACTERIZED BY A CERTAIN LEVEL OF WEALTH, EDUCATION, AND SOCIAL STATUS.
ADVANCEMENTS:  PROGRESS OR IMPROVEMENTS MADE IN
TECHNOLOGY, KNOWLEDGE, OR METHODS THAT LEAD TO BETTER OR MORE EFFICIENT OUTCOMES.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DEPTH: THE LEVEL OF INSIGHT AND EXPLORATION INTO CHARACTERS' THOUGHTS, EMOTIONS, AND INNER EXPERIENCES WITHIN A LITERARY WORK.
SATIRE: A LITERARY TECHNIQUE USED TO CRITICIZE OR MOCK INDIVIDUALS, INSTITUTIONS, OR SOCIETAL NORMS THROUGH HUMOR, IRONY, OR EXAGGERATION.

19.10.    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISES
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-I

1.   THE 18TH CENTURY WITNESSED URBANIZATION, THE RISE OF THE
MIDDLE CLASS, AND INCREASED LITERACY RATES, ALL OF WHICH CREATED A DEMAND FOR ACCESSIBLE AND RELATABLE FORMS OF LITERATURE LIKE NOVELS.

2.   THE RISE OF THE MIDDLE CLASS LED TO A DESIRE FOR
LITERATURE THAT REFLECTED THEIR EXPERIENCES AND CONCERNS. NOVELS, WITH THEIR EXPLORATION OF MIDDLECLASS LIVES AND CHALLENGES, APPEALED TO THIS NEW SOCIAL GROUP.

3.   DEVELOPMENTS IN PRINTING TECHNOLOGY AND THE EXPANSION
OF PUBLISHING MADE NOVELS MORE AFFORDABLE AND
ACCESSIBLE. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF LENDING LIBRARIES ALSO
FACILITATED WIDER ACCESS TO NOVELS, CONTRIBUTING TO THEIR POPULARITY.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-II

1.    SOME KEY AUTHORS FROM THE 18TH CENTURY WHO CONTRIBUTED TO THE NOVEL'S DEVELOPMENT ARE DANIEL DEFOE, SAMUEL RICHARDSON, HENRY FIELDING, TOBIAS SMOLLETT, AND LAURENCE STERNE.

2.    THESE AUTHORS EXPANDED THE BOUNDARIES OF THE NOVEL BY FOCUSING ON PSYCHOLOGICAL DEPTH, CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT, AND SOCIAL COMMENTARY.

3.    LAURENCE STERNE'S NOVEL CHALLENGED TRADITIONAL NARRATIVE STRUCTURE, EMPLOYED METAFICTIONAL TECHNIQUES, AND EXPLORED EXPERIMENTAL NARRATIVE FORMS.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-III

1.    HENRY FIELDING, A PROMINENT ENGLISH NOVELIST OF THE 18TH CENTURY, MADE SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE NOVEL'S DEVELOPMENT THROUGH INNOVATIVE NARRATIVE TECHNIQUES, SOCIAL COMMENTARY, AND REALISTIC CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT.

2.    IN "TOM JONES," FIELDING UTILIZED A PICARESQUE NARRATIVE STYLE, FEATURING EPISODIC ADVENTURES OF THE PROTAGONIST. THIS APPROACH ALLOWED HIM TO DELVE INTO VARIOUS SOCIETAL ASPECTS WHILE MAINTAINING AN ENGAGING PLOT STRUCTURE.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-IV

1.    DR. SAMUEL JOHNSON'S APPROACH TO LITERARY CRITICISM WAS ROOTED IN WIDE-RANGING KNOWLEDGE, A KEEN SENSE OF AESTHETICS, AND STRONG CONVICTIONS ABOUT LITERARY STANDARDS. HIS CRITICISM EMPHASIZED CLARITY, PRECISION, AND MORAL DIMENSIONS OF LITERATURE.

2.    "THE LIVES OF THE POETS" BY JOHNSON ASSESSED VARIOUS POETS' LIVES AND WORKS, OFFERING HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND CRITICAL ANALYSIS. THESE ESSAYS REVEALED HIS VIEWS ON POETRY, CRAFTSMANSHIP, AND THE ENDURING VALUE OF LITERATURE, CONTRIBUTING TO HIS LEGACY AS A CRITIC.

1.    WILLIAM BLAKE COMBINED MYSTICISM WITH ARTISTIC INNOVATION.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-VI

1.    THE NOVEL OF TERROR EMERGED DURING THIS PERIOD, FOCUSING ON THE MYSTERIOUS, SUPERNATURAL, AND MACABRE.

19.11.    SUGGESTED READINGS/ REFERENCES
LEGOUIS, EMILA AND LOUIS CAZAMAIN. A HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. DELHI BOMBAY, CALCUTTA AND MADRAS : MACMILLAN INDIAN LIMITED, 1981.
LONG, WILLIAM J. ENGLISH LITERATURE, ITS HISTORY AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE LUDHIANA AND NEW DELHI: KALYANI PUBLISHERS 1978, SIXTH INDIAN REPRINT : PAPER BACK.
TRIVEDI. R.D. A COMPENDIUMS HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. NEW DELHI, BOMBAY. BANGLORE, CALCUTTA AND KANPUR : VIKAS PUBLISHING HOUSE. 1978, SECOND REVISED EDITION : PAPERBACK.

19.12.    TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1.    HOW DID THE CHANGING SOCIAL DYNAMICS, INCLUDING URBANIZATION AND THE RISE OF THE MIDDLE CLASS, CONTRIBUTE TO THE POPULARITY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE NOVEL IN THE 18TH CENTURY?

2.    EXPLAIN THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RISE OF THE MIDDLE CLASS IN THE 18TH CENTURY AND ITS IMPACT ON THE POPULARITY OF NOVELS DURING THIS PERIOD.

3.    DESCRIBE THE INNOVATIVE NARRATIVE TECHNIQUES EMPLOYED BY HENRY FIELDING IN HIS NOVEL "TOM JONES" AND HOW THEY CONTRIBUTED TO HIS EXPLORATION OF SOCIETY.

4.    DISCUSS DR. SAMUEL JOHNSON'S ROLE AS A CRITIC, HIS APPROACH TO LITERARY CRITICISM, AND HIS LASTING INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH LITERARY ANALYSIS.
UNIT-20
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY MISCELLANEOUS WORKS

20.1.    INTRODUCTION

20.2.    LEARNING OBJECTIVES

20.3.    EXPLORING 18TH CENTURY PROSE LITERATURE: ESSAYS, ORATORY, AND THE IMPACT OF JOHNSON
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-I

20.4.    EDMUND BURKE
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-II

20.5.    DRAMA
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-III

20.6.    SUMMARY

20.7.    GLOSSARY

20.8    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISES

20.9    SUGGESTED READINGS/ REFERENCES

20.10.    TERMINAL QUESTIONS

20.1    INTRODUCTION
IN THE FINAL UNIT 20 OF THIS COURSE, WE EXPLORE THE LITERATURE FROM A LONG TIME AGO. WE LOOK AT DIFFERENT KINDS OF WRITING LIKE ESSAYS, DIALOGUE, AND ORATORY. WE ALSO SEE HOW HISTORY AND NOVELS WERE IMPORTANT BACK THEN. THESE WRITINGS HELPED SHAPE THE WAY PEOPLE WROTE AND TALKED. IT IS LIKE TAKING A JOURNEY INTO THE PAST TO LEARN ABOUT HOW STORIES AND IDEAS WERE SHARED IN SIMPLE WORDS.

20.2.    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
IN UNIT 20, THE FINAL SEGMENT OF THIS COURSE, WE THOROUGHLY EXPLORE THE REALM OF 18TH-CENTURY LITERATURE, DELVING DEEPLY INTO THE VARIOUS FORMS OF PROSE THAT GAINED PROMINENCE DURING THIS ERA. THIS UNIT METICULOUSLY EXAMINES GENRES LIKE ESSAYS, DIALOGUE, ORATORY, HISTORY, AND THE NOVEL, UNRAVELING THEIR SIGNIFICANCE AND ENDURING INFLUENCE ON LITERARY TRADITIONS.

20.3.    EXPLORING 18TH CENTURY PROSE LITERATURE: ESSAYS, ORATORY, AND THE IMPACT OF JOHNSON
THERE WERE CERTAIN KINDS OF PROSE LITERATURE WHICH THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY PRACTICED WITH SPECIAL ASSIDUITY AND SUCCESS, SUCH AS ESSAYS, DIALOGUE, AND ORATORY. HISTORY AND ABOVE ALL THE NOVEL. SO FAR, WE HAVE DISCUSSED THE ESSAY AND THE NOVEL UPON WHICH TO SOME EXTENT CLASSICAL INFLUENCES WERE AT WORK, THOUGH WITH VARYING ENERGY, UPON ALL OF THEM. THE AUTHORITY OF THE DOCTRINE IS NOT SHAKEN, ON THE CONTRARY, IT SEEMS TO BE ESTABLISHED WITH JOHNSON THE STRONGEST REPRESENTATIVE OF AUGUSTANS. HIS FAME IS THAT OF STALWART CHARACTER AND COMMON SENSE, OPINIONATIVE AND INDEPENDENT, BLUNT, AND DOGMATIC, HOLDING FAST BY A ROBUST TORY PATRIOTISM. FOR NEARLY FIFTY YEARS AFTER THE DEATH OF POPE, JOHNSON WAS THE DOMINANT FIGURE IN THE LITERARY LIFE OF THE DAY. HE IS THE TRIUMPH OF LIFE OVER LITTERS, FOR ALTHOUGH HE LEFT BEHIND HIM A DICTIONARY, A FEW EXCELLENT POEMS, MANY ESSAYS A SHORT NOVEL RASSLES, A DULL TRAGEDY, IRENE CRITICAL NOTICE ON SHAKESPEARE AND LIVES OF POETS, IT IS NOT SO MUCH FOR THEM HE IS REMEMBERED AS
BECAUSE OF BOSWELL, HIS BIOGRAPHER, WHO MADE HIM SUCH AN ENGROSSING CHARACTER THAT HE CASTS HIS SHADOW UPON AN AGE. IT WAS THE JOHNSON OF THE LATER YEARS THAT HE RECORDED, WORKING FROM MINUTE RECORDS OF HIS SAYINGS, AND HIS MANNERISMS AND WITH A REALISTIC ART THAT HAS NO PARALLEL. THE CAPACITY, THE WIT AND DOWN RIGHTNESS OF JOHNSON, ALONG WITH HIS OFTEN KINDLY AND DEVOUT APPROACH OF LIFE, ARE THE ELEMENTS OF THE PORTRAIT WHICH BOSWELL HAS CREATED, AND WITHOUT HIS BIOGRAPHER, JOHNSON WOULD BE A LESSER MAN. IN HIS POETRY HE FOLLOWED POPE’S USE OF THE HEROIC COUPLET. LIKE POPE, ALSO HE MODELED HIS POEMS ON THE WORKS OF LATIN, WRITERS; HIS ‘LONDON’ FOR EXAMPLE, IS A GENERAL ATTACK UPON THE EVILS OF SOCIETY IN CLOSE IMITATION OF ‘JUVENAL’ HIS SYMPATHY WITH CLASSICAL IDEALS LED HIM TO OBSERVE THE UNITIES IN HIS PLAY, IRENE IN HIS PROSE HE CONTINUED THE WORKS OF DRYDEN AND ADDISON. THE SERIOUSNESS OF JOHNSON’S MORAL ONE IN HIS ESSAYS ESTABLISHES HIM AS THE GENUINE REPRESENTATIVE OF THE CLASSICAL EAR. THE MORALITY PREACHED BY JOHNSON IN HIS ESSAYS IS PRACTICAL, NOT THEORETICAL; HE IS CONCERNED TO ADVICE THE READERS ON HOW TO CULTIVATE A PROPER SLATE OF MIND AND TO EMPLOY THEIR TIME AND THEIR ENERGIES PROPERLY “THE FOLLY OF MISSPENDING TIME.” DISADVANTAGES OF A BAD EDUCATION, “IDLENESS AN ANXIOUS AND MISERABLE STATE” ARE TYPICAL THEMES. WITH OUT QUESTION HE ACCEPTED THE CLASSICAL DICTUM THAT WORKS OF ARTS SHOULD BOTH PLEASE AND INSTRUCT.
JOHNSON’S DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
IN WHICH THE WORDS ARE DEDUCED FROM THESE ORIGINALS AND ILLUSTRATED IN THEIR DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATIONS, WAS NOT A PIONEER WORK NATHEMEL BAILEY’S UNIVERSAL ETYMOLOGICAL ENGLISH DICTIONARY APPEARED IN 1721 BUT IT WAS THE FIRST TO ATTEMPT TO STABILIZE THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, “TO PRESERVE THE PURITY AND ASCERTAIN THE MEANING OF OUR ENGLISH IDIOM,” THIS WAS AN AMBITIOUS AIM; IT WAS TO UNDERTAKE SINGLE HANDEDLY WHAT IT TOOK
THE FORTY MEMBERS OF THE FRENCH ACADEMY FORTY YEARS TO ACCOMPLISH.
JOHNSON’S INTENTION WAS NOT TO DICTATE, IT WAS TO DISCOVER, DEFINE, CLASSIFY, AND STANDARDIZE, HE WAS CONCERNED WITH GOOD USAGE, WHICH HE FOUND IN WRITERS OF THE LATE SIXTEENTH CENTURY, FROM WHOM HIS MAIN EXAMPLE IS CHOSEN. WITH ALL ITS DRAWBACKS THE DICTIONARY WAS A REMARKABLE WORK OF SCHOLARSHIP AND OF CLASSIFICATION, ONE OF THE GREAT WORKS OF ITS KIND IN ENGLISH A MONUMENT OF INDUSTRY AND INTELLECTUAL CONSCIENCE.
HIS MOST SUSTAINED AND MATURE CRITICAL WORK IS TO BE FOUND IN HIS PREFACE, BIOGRAPHICAL AND CRITICAL TO THE WORK OF THE ENGLISH POETS, GENERALLY KNOWN AS THE LIVES OF THE POETS, FIRST PUBLISHED BETWEEN 1779 AND 1781 AS A SERIES OF INTRODUCTION TO A TEN-VOLUME COLLECTION OF THE ENGLISH POETS FROM COWLEY, DENHAM, MILTON AND WALLER AT ONE END TO AKENSIDE AND GRAY AT THE OTHER. NO LIVING POETS WEE INCLUDED. ACCORDING TO MACAULAY HE “TOOK IT TO HEAR PRAISED FROM HIS CHILDHOOD, AND WHICH HE HIMSELF HAD WRITTEN WITH SUCCESS, WAS THE BEST KIND OF POETRY.”
THE RAMBLE, IDLER AND SPECTATOR
LED BY THE GREAT SUCCESS OF THE SPECTATOR IN WHICH HE REPRESENTED THE COUNTRY GENTLEMAN, JOHNSON STATED TWO MAGAZINES. THE RAMBLER AND THE IDLER LATER THE RAMBLES ESSAYS WERE PUBLISHED IN BOOK AND RAN RAPIDLY THROUGH TEN EDITIONS. WHEN HIS MOTHER DIED IN 1750 JOHNSON, ALTHOUGH ONE OF THE BEST-KNOWN MEN IN LONDON HAD NOMINEE, AND HURRIEDLY FINISHED RESSALAS HIS ONLY ROMANCE, IN ORDER IT IS SAID TO PAY FOR HIS MOTHER’S BURIAL.
HIS WORKS
IN HIS PREFACE TO SHAKESPEARE A BRAVE PIECE OF CRITICISM, HE PLAYS A TRIBUTE TO SHAKESPEARE’S LONG CONTINUED POPULARITY, WHICH JONSON CONSIDERED A PROPER CRITERION OF GREATNESS. IT WAS BECAUSE OF HIS VAST KNOWLEDGE OF GENERAL HUMAN NATURE THAT SHAKESPEARE WAS ABLE TO FILL HIS PLAYS “WITH PRACTICAL AXIOMS AND DOMESTIC WISDOM.”
FOR JOHNSON SHAKESPEARE IS ABOVE ALL WRITERS, AT LEAST ABOVE ALL MODEM ‘WRITERS, THE POET OF NATURE; THE POET THAT HOLDS UP TO HIS READERS A FAITHFUL MIRROR OF MANNERS AND OF LIFE. HIS CHARACTERS ARE NOT MODIFIED BY THE CUSTOMS OF PLACES, UNPRACTICED BY THE REST OF THE WORLD, BY THE PECULIARITIES OF STUDIES OR PROFESSIONS, WHICH CAN OPERATE BUT UPON SMALL NUMBERS; OR BY THE ACCIDENTS OF TRANSIENT FASHIONS OR, TEMPORARY OPINIONS; THEY ARE THE GENUINE PROGENY OF COMMON HUMANITY, SUCH AS THE WORLD WILL ALWAYS FIND.
IN 1775 HE HAD RECEIVED HIS DOCTOR’S DEGREE FROM OXFORD, AND WAS ALL THE HEIGHT OF HIS POPULARITY AND INFLUENCE, ILL HEALTH DID NOT ALLOW HIM TO WRITE MUCH IN HIS LAST YEARS. IN EARLIER WRITINGS, THE STYLE HE FOLLOWS IS CONSIDERED TO BE POMPOUS, ARTIFICIAL, AND FULL OF AFFECTIONS AND HIGHLY LATINIZED. BY THE COURSE OF TIME, HE HAD ATTAINED THE REQUIRED EASE, LUCIDITY, FORCE, AND VIGOROUS DIRECTNESS. BOTH IN HIS ORIGINAL WRITING AND IN HIS CRITICISM OF THE WRITINGS OF OILIER JOHNSON EMPHASIZES DEPENDENCE UPON ACCEPTED MODELS AND ATTAINED RESULTS, AS OPPOSED TO ROMANTIC EXPERIMENT.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-I

1.   JOHNSON’S LIVES OF POETS COMPRISES OF?
1.    THREE VOLUMES      3.        FIVE
VOLUMES

2.


FOUR VOLUMES


4. SIX VOLUMES


2.   WHO   REPRESENTED   THE   COUNTRY
GENTLEMAN IN THE SPECTATOR

1.   ANDREW FREEPORT    3.    CAPTAIN
SENTRY

2.   ROGER DE COVERLEY  4.       WILL
HONEYCOMB

20.4.    EDMUND BURKE
WITH JOHNSON, WHO SUCCEEDED DRYDEN AND POPE IN THE CHIEF PLACE OF ENGLISH LETTERS, THE CLASSIC MOVEMENT HAD LARGELY SPENT ITS FORCE. THE LATTER HALF OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY PRESENTS A NUMBER OF WRITERS WHO DIFFER SO WIDELY THAT IT IS ALMOST IMPOSSIBLE TO CLASSIFY THEM.
THAT ORATORY IS A BRANCH OF LITERATURE IS A DOGMA OF ANCIENT RATHER THAN OF MODEM CRITICISM, WHICH HAS ALMOST CREASED TO THINK OF THE PUBLIC SPEAKER’S ART AS A MODE OF LITERARY EXPRESSION AT ALL. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY HOWEVER AGREED ON THIS POINT WITH THE ANCIENTS, WE TOO MAY AGREE THAT BURKE AT LEAST MUST BE INCLUDED AMONG THE MASTERS OF ENGLISH PROSE A MAN WHO BELONGS IN SPIRIT TO THE NEW ROMANTIC SCHOOL, WHILE IN STYLE A MODEL FOR THE FORMAL CLASSICISTS IS EDMUND BURKE. HUS IRISH MAN WAS A GREAT ORATOR, STATESMAN AND POLITICAL WRITER. BURKE’S SENSE OF CONTINUITY AND TRADITION WAS IN SOME RESPECTS LIKE JOHNSON’S BUT IT WAS NEITHER SO PESSIMISTICALLY CONSERVATIVE NOR DID ITS APPLICATION LED TO THE SAME PRACTICAL CONCLUSION. HE IS NOT THE SLAVE OF THE PERIOD, BUT CONSTANTLY VARIES THE FORM OF HIS SENTENCES. WHICH ARE SOMETIMES LONG AND INVOLVED, SOMETIMES SHORT AND ABRUPT BURKE’S FIRST PUBLISHED WORK WAS’ A A VINDICATION OF NATURAL SOCIETY (1756), A SATIRE ON THE VIEWS OF BOLIGBROKE; AIMING TO PROVE THAT BOLIGBROKE’S THEORETICAL ARGUMENTS AGAINST CHRISTIANITY WERE FUNDAMENTALLY DISRUPTIVE OF AH CIVIL SOCIETY. A PHILOSOPHICAL ENQUIRE INTO THE ORIGIN OF OUR IDEAL:’ IF THE SUBLIME AND THE BEAUTIFUL FOLLOWED IN 1757. THESE TWO WORKS BROUGHT HIM POLITICAL AS WELL AS LITERARY
RECOGNITION. IN 1766 HE ENTERED PARLIAMENT, AND REMAINED A MEMBER FOR THE REST OF HIS LIFE. HIS SPEECHES AND WRITTEN PAMPHLETS ARE BRILLIANT, PARTICULARLY ON AMERICAN TAXATION AND ON CONCILIATION WITH THE COLONIES AND REFLECTIONS ON THE REVOLUTION IN FRANCE.
HE ALWAYS FOUGHT FOR JUSTICE AND FREEDOM. HE CONDEMNED REPRESSION AT HOME, IMPEACHED WARREN HASTINGS FOR HIS MISDEEDS IN INDIA.
AT TIMES BURKE’S LANGUAGE IS PSEUDOCLASSIC, REFLECTING THE INFLUENCE OF JOHNSON AND HIS SCHOOL; BUT HIS THOUGHT IS ALWAYS ROMANTIC. HE IS GOVERNED BY IDEAL RATHER THAN BY PRACTICAL INTEREST, PERHAPS THE MOST CHARACTERISTIC OF HIS WORKS. HIS FIGURES OF SPEECH ARE NUMEROUS, VIVID, AND ORIGINAL, HIS VOCABULARY ENORMOUS AND DRAWN FROM A WIDE RANGE OF READING.
IT IS A MATTER OF SOME SURPRISE THAT THIS COUNTRY HAD TO WAIT SO LONG FOR A TRUE HISTORIAN LIKE EDWARD GIBBON.
THERE HAD INDEED BEEN A VAST AMOUNT OF HISTORICAL OR QUASI HISTORICAL WRITING IN THE MIDDLE AGES AND LATER, BUT IT HAD BEEN MOSTLY IN LATIN. WHAT WAS IN ENGLISH CAME TO LITTLE MORE THAN CHRONICLES OF MEMOIRS OR BROCHURES LIKE MORE HISTORY OF RICHARD II OF BACON’S HISTORY OF HENRY VII EVEN CLARENDON’S HISTORY OF THE REBELLION IS NOT QUITE A TRUE HISTORY OF PERSONAL REMINISCENCES OF LID WARD HYDE WORKED UP INTO A CONTINUOUS AND REASONED NARRATIVE. HOWEVER, ONE OF THE GREATEST HISTORIANS OF THE CLASSICAL AGE WAS EDWARD GIBBSON (1773-93). AS LITERARY STYLIST HE IS REMARKABLE WITH HIS CLEAR, IMPOSING, RHYTHMIC PROSE. HE IS PERSONALLY KNOWN TO US THROUGH HIS FRANK ACCOUNT OF HIMSELF IN HIS MEMORIES A MAN WHO LOOKS WITH SATISFACTION ON THE MATERIAL SIDE OF THING. WHO SEEKS ALWAYS THE EASIEST PATH FOR HIMSELF AND AVOIDS LIFE’S DIFFICULTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES. THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE, PUBLISHED IN SIX VOLUMES, TREATS THE HISTORY OF ROME FROM THE SECOND CENTURY TO THE END OF THE FIFTH. FOR THIS GREAT TASK HE HAD ADEQUATE KNOWLEDGE AND FULL CONTROL OF HANDLING IT PROPERLY. THE RESULT WAS A PROSE ELOQUENT BALANCED AND FLEXIBLE,
MORE RAPID THAN ADDISON’S CAPABLE OF BOTH DESCRIPTIVE SPLENDOR AND DRY IRONY.
OTHER HISTORIANS OF THE ERA WERE DAVID HUME (1711-76) AND ROBERTSON (1721-93). THE TRUE HISTORICAL WRITING IN ENGLAND BEGAN WITH HUME’S HISTORY AND ENGLAND IN SIX VOLUMES AND POSSESSED AN EXCELLENT IF SLIGHTLY ARTIFICIAL STYLE; HE HAD AS A PHILOSOPHER TRAINED HIMSELF TO IMPARTIALITY, AND HE HAD A SURE WED THOUGH SOMEWHAT ABSTRACT UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN NATURE. YET THESE QUALITIES DID NOT MAKE HIM A GREAT HISTORIAN. HE NEVER TROUBLED TO GO BEYOND THE PRIMED EVIDENCE, OUT OF WHICH HE WAS CONTENT OF MAKE A DEAR AND CONTINUES NARRATIVE, SOMETIMES DOUBTING BUT NEVER INVESTIGATING HIS AUTHORITIES. HUME AND HE WAS FOLLOWED BY ANOTHER SCOTSMAN, WILLIAM ROBERTSON, WHO WROTE HISTORIES OF SCOTLAND, OF CHARLES V AND OF AMERICA. IT IS CERTAIN THAT ROBERTSON SPENT MORE TIME UPON HIS AUTHORITIES THAN HUME AND HE HAS MORE OF THE HISTORICAL IMAGINATION. BUT ESSENTIAL HE BELONGS TO THE SAME SCHOOL OF HISTORIAN’S ELEGANT AUTHORS WHO GET THEIR MATERIALS FROM BOOKS RATHER THAN ORIGINAL DOCUMENT. THE STYLE OF BOTH FLUME AND ROBERTSON IS CLASSICAL EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PROSE.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-II
1.   WHO WROTE THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN
EMPIRE?

1.   EDMUND BURKE 3. EDWARD YOUNG

2.   THOMAS GRAY       4. WILLIAM COLLINS

20.5.    DRAMA
THE DRAMA OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY HAS NOTHING MUCH TO BOAST ABOUT. THE BRILLIANT AND EXOTIC OF RESTORATION COMEDY HAD WITHERED, AND NOTHING OF MERIT TAKES ITS PLACE. ONE HAS TO WAIT TILL LATE IN THE CENTURY, FOR GOLDSMITH AND SHERIDAN, TO FIND WRITERS WHO MAKE ANY PERMANENT CONTRIBUTION TO THE ENGLISH STAGE. OF A NUMBER OF REASONS WHICH MIGHT BE INVENTED IN EXPLANATION, IT IS AT LEAST CERTAIN THAT THE LICENSING ACT OF 1737 RESTRICTED THE FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION BY DRAMATISTS AND DROVE A NUMBER OF GOOD MEN OUT OF THE THEATRE. HENRY FIELDING HAD BEEN A DRAMATIST BEFORE THAT DATE,
AND WITHOUT WALPOLE AND THE LICENSING ACT, HIS MORE MATURE GENIUS MIGHT HAVE GENE INTO THE THEATRE INSTEAD OF THE NOVEL. IT WAS ONLY IN 1968 THAT THE THEATRE CENSORSHIP ACT WAS ABOLISHED, FURTHER IT WAS CLEAR ALSO THAT THE MIDDLE-CLASS COMMERCIAL CLASSES WERE GAINING SUFFICIENT ASCENDANCY TO IMPOSE THEIR OBTUSE WIVES ON THE THEMES THEY WOULD BE ACCEPTABLE IN THE THEATRE.
IF ONE HAS TO LOOK IN THE THEATRE FOR A BRILLIANT COMEDY THAT VOICED VERY WELL THE TONE OF CLASSICAL LITERATURE, IT WOULD BE THE REGAR’S OPERA. ITS ROBUST VITALITY SPRIGHTLY MUSIC AND CHARMING SONGS MAKE IT STAND ALONE IN ITS GENERATION. A BEGGAR WHO COMES ON THE STAGE TOWARD THE END REMARKS: “THROUGHOUT THE WHOLE PIECE YOU MAY OBSERVE SUCH A SIMILITUDE OF MANNERS IN HIGH AND LOW LIFE, THAT IT IS DIFFICULT TO DETERMINE WHETHER (IN A FASHIONABLE VICES) THE FINE GENTLEMAN IMITATE THE GENTLEMAN OF THE ROAD, OR THE GENTLEMEN OF THE ROAD OF THE FINE GENTLEMAN.” GAY, A SIMPLE-MINDED MORALIST ACHIEVED SO MANY KINDS OF PARALLELED BETWEEN THE UNDERWORLD AND HIGH SOCIETY IN A WORK OF SUCH ATTRACTIVE EXUBERANCE.
OLIVER GOLDSMITH
OLIVER GOLDSMITH’S GOOD NATURAL MAN (1768) INTENDED TO EXCESS OF FALSE ‘CHARITY’. IT IS READ FEEBLY NOW, BUT IS EXCELLENT IN PARTS; ‘SHE STOOPS TO CONQUER (1713) IS EXCELLENT THROUGHOUT, WITH A BRIGHT, WHIMSICAL HUMOUR AND FRESH CHARM OF DIALOGUE NOT ATTAINED SINCE THE DAYS OF CONGREVE LESS WITTY THAN THE GREAT RESTORATION DRAMATISTS, “GOLDSMITH IS GREATLY SUPERIOR IN HIS HUMANITY AND TASTE.
GOLDSMITH’S PLAYS ARE; A REFLECTION OF THE IDEALISM WHICH WAS BEGINNING TO MANIFEST ITSELF IN THE REALISTIC AGE. OPPOSED TO HIM IS RICHARD BRINSLEY SHERIDAN (1751-1816), WHOSE DRAMAS ARE WRITTEN IN THE MOOD OF SATIRICAL OBSERVATION OF LIFE WHICH THE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY NOVEL EXPRESSED FROM FIELDING TO MISS BURNEY.
SHERIDAN
SHERIDAN WROTE THE SCHOOL FOR SCANDAL, THE RIVALS AND THE CRITIC, IN THE FIRST TWO HIS THREE GREAT PLAYS HE COMBINES THE COMEDY OF MANNERS WITH A SENTIMENTAL ADMIXTURE ONLY PARTIALLY SUCCESSFUL. IN THE RIVALS THE PLOT INVOLVES SOME ABSURDITIES BUT IT IS FERTILE IN AMUSING SITUATION, AND THE PLAY ABOUNDS IN CLEVER DIALOGUE IN THE SCHOOL FOR SCANDAL IT IS EVIDENT THAT HERE WE HAVE AN AMUSING MOCK WORD, WHERE THE PRINCIPLES, MORALS AND SOCIAL, ON WHICH HUMAN LIFE IS ACTUALLY CONDUCTED, ARE SUBORDINATED TO THE NECESSITIES OF INTRIGUE. AT FIRST SIGHT. THE SCHOOL FOR SCANDAL, WITH ITS OPENING SCENES IN WHICH GOSSIP RUNS WILD, SEEMS TO REVIVE THE WORLD OF THE RESTORATION DRAMA, BUT THERE IS DIFFERENCE, LIGHT, TRIFLING, INVOLVES AS IN SHERIDAN’S SOCIETY, IT IS NOT FUNDAMENTALLY AND FLAGRANTLY IMMORAL. HIS PEOPLE PLAY WITH FIRE, BUT THEY ARE NOT BURNED. SO MUCH HAD THE MORAL AND SOCIAL FORCE OF THE CENTURY ACCOMPLISHED, IN THE YEARS SINCE COILLER’S ATTACK ON THE STAGE.
SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-III

1.    WHAT SIGNIFICANT ACT IN 1737 RESTRICTED THE FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION BY DRAMATISTS IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, AND HOW DID IT AFFECT HENRY FIELDING'S CAREER?

2.    WHAT DISTINGUISHES OLIVER GOLDSMITH'S "SHE STOOPS TO CONQUER" AND RICHARD BRINSLEY SHERIDAN'S "THE SCHOOL FOR SCANDAL" IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY DRAMA?

20.6.    SUMMARY
IN THE REALM OF 18TH-CENTURY LITERATURE, VARIOUS FORMS SUCH AS ESSAYS, DIALOGUE, ORATORY, HISTORY, AND THE NOVEL FLOURISHED, SHAPED BY CLASSICAL INFLUENCES. SAMUEL JOHNSON EMERGED AS A TOWERING FIGURE, KNOWN FOR HIS ROBUST CHARACTER AND PROFOUND INSIGHTS. HIS LITERARY LEGACY ENCOMPASSED A DICTIONARY, POEMS, ESSAYS, AND EVEN A NOVEL, BUT IT WAS HIS BIOGRAPHER BOSWELL WHO
CAST AN ENDURING SHADOW ON HIS ERA. EDMUND BURKE, AN ELOQUENT ORATOR, AND WRITER, INTRODUCED A ROMANTIC TOUCH TO PROSE. THE ERA ALSO WITNESSED THE RISE OF HISTORIANS LIKE EDWARD GIBBON, WITH THEIR DISTINCT STYLES SHAPING THE INTELLECTUAL LANDSCAPE. AMIDST THIS, THE DRAMATIC DOMAIN UNDERWENT SHIFTS DUE TO RESTRICTIONS AND SOCIETAL CHANGES, GIVING RISE TO NOTABLE PLAYWRIGHTS LIKE GOLDSMITH AND SHERIDAN.

20.7.    GLOSSARY
JUVENAL- OF A YOUNG BIRD, THAT HAS ITS FIRST FLYING PLUMAGE.
PECULIAR- OUT OF THE ORDINARY; ODD; STRANGE, UNUSUAL.
ENORMOUS- DEVIATING FROM THE NORM; UNUSUAL, EXTRAORDINARY. INTRIGUE- A COMPLICATED OR CLANDESTINE PLOT OR SCHEME INTENDED TO EFFECT SOME PURPOSE BY SECRET ARTIFICE; CONSPIRACY.

20.8.    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISES SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-I

1.(2)

2.(2)
Self-Check Exercise-II

1.(l)
Self-Check Exercise-III

1.    The Licensing Act of 1737 restricted the freedom of expression by dramatists and drove Henry Fielding out of the theatre into novel writing.

2.    "She Stoops to Conquer" is noted for its bright humor and charming dialogue, while "The School for Scandal" combines comedy of manners with a less immoral tone compared to Restoration drama.

20.9    Suggested Reading
Hudson William Henry: An Introduction to the Study of Literature
Trivedi R.D. A Compendiums History of English Literature

20.10 . Terminal Questions

1.    Give a detailed account of the revival of Romanticism in the poetry of the later 18th century.

2.    All major works of literature in the 18th century combine instruction with delight. Do you agree?
More Suggested Readings on History of English Literature
Albert, Edward, A History of Literature. Calcutta Oxford University Press, 1980.
Revised and enlarged fifth edition; Paperback.
Compton-Rickett, A History of English Literature. Delhi: Universal Book Stall. 1978.
Reprinted second Indian edition: Paperback.
Evan, Ifor. A Short History of English Literature. New York: Middlesex and Victoria, Pengiun Books 1979. Reprinted fourth edition: Paperback.
Hudson William Henry. An Introduction to study of Literature. Ludhiana and New Delhi: Kalyani Diblishers, 1979. Reprinted ninth Indian edition: Paperback.
This book will be helpful in learning some way of studying poetry, fiction, drama and short criticism, including the evaluation of literature and’ the methods of studying it in general.
So, Dear learner as you reach the conclusion of this enriching course, we want to extend our heartfelt congratulations on your dedication and commitment to exploring the History of English Literature from Chaucer to 1800. Your journey through the realms of words, ideas, and creativity has been truly remarkable.
We hope that you have gained not only knowledge but also a profound appreciation for the literary gems that have shaped the English language and culture. From Chaucer's tales to the Restoration comedies, from the Elizabethan sonnets to the 18th-century novels, you have ventured through centuries of literary evolution.
But this is not the end; it is merely the end of Course I. We are thrilled to announce that your journey through the History of English Literature will continue in Course V, where we will explore the vibrant world of English literature from 1800 onwards. This next Course promises to be just as captivating, as you will connect with the works of Romantic poets, Victorian novelists, Modernist thinkers, and contemporary voices.
We encourage you to take some time to reflect on your accomplishments so far, the insights you have gained, and the connections you have made with fellow learners and instructors. Keep your curiosity alive, for the adventure is far from over.
As you await the beginning of Course V, remember that your passion for literature is the compass that will guide you through the upcoming chapters. Continue to read, question, and explore. We eagerly look forward to welcoming you back for the next leg of your journey through the fascinating world of English literature. Until then, congratulations once again on your achievements in Course I. Rest assured; your literary odyssey is bound to become even more rewarding as we move forward in Course-V, (Second Semester) of your Course.
Best wishes for your upcoming Examinations.

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