--- title: "Vol 2 1" book: "Final Trends in Indian Education" category: "General" publisher: "Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd." type: "Educational Material" --- According to Latest Syllabus Read For Sure Success In University Examination RATAN TEXT BOOK TRENDS IN INDIAN EDUCATION Vol-2 M.A.Education (Sem-II) Dr. Rajendra Vyas Published by Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd. 2nd Floor, Centre Plaza, Parinay Kunj, Lajpat Kunj Marg, Agra-282002 Copyright Authors & Publishers Revised Edition ISBN :978-93-0970-625-7 Price '175.00 only Printed at : KIDS INTERNATIONAL PVT. LTD. C-60, 61, 62, 63, EPIP, Shastripuram, Agra - 282007 Ph. : +91 9719004921 Unit-6 LORD CURZON’S EDUCATION POLICY, INDIAN UNIVERSITY COMMISSION 1902 AND INDIAN UNIVERSITY ACT 1904 Structure: 6.1    Introduction 6.2   Learning Objectives 6.3   Lord Curzon’s Education policy Self Check Exercise-1 6.4   Indian University Commission 1902 Self Check Exercise-2 6.5   Indian University Act 1904 Self Check Exercise-3 6.6  Summary 6.7   Glossary 6.8   Answers to Self Check Exercises 6.9   References/Suggested Readings 6.10  Terminal Questions 6.1   INTRODUCTION In this Unit we shall discuss Lord Curzon, Curzon’s educational policy. Lord Curzon came to India in a very crucial period of Indian history. This was the beginning of 20th century and severe famine and epidemic of Plague had crippled the social life of the people. Primary education was in a very bad shape. But with the establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885 there was a revival of a national spirit in the field of education. The people of the country started realizing the need for a systemof education that would represent our national character. Several national leaders like B.G. Tilak, Annie Besant, C. R. Das, Dadabhai Naoroji, Gokhale had emerged and helpedin the development of the spirit of nationalism. Lord Curzon came to India as Viceroyin 1899. During his vice-royalty education in India was reviewed very critically and steps were taken to improve the different levels of education. This unit will focus on Lord Curzon’s educational policy in different levels of education and how it influenced in the development of education or our country. 6.2  LEARNING OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you will be able to: •     Describe Shimla Education Conference, 1901, •     Identify and assess Primary Education Policy of Lord Curzon, •     Describe Secondary Education Policy and assess its influence, •     Explain University Education Policy and assess its impact on higher education, •     Describe other Educational Reforms, and Examine Lord Curzon’s contribution to Indian Education 6.3    LORD CURZON’S EDUCATION POLICY In 1899 Lord Curzon was appointed Governor General of India. He toured Asia from 1882 to February 1885 prior to the appointment and got ample opportunity to study geographical conditions and the importance of India. Therefore, when he became Governor General, it was natural for him to make certain fundamental reforms in the Indian administrative set up. The work that he accomplished in his seven years rule, would have taken decades for others to perform. Within this short period Curzon paid his attention to each and every aspect of administration. There was scarcely a day when some commission was not sitting or some reform was not being done in respect of administration. He paid his attention towards the reforms of Indian education. At that time, the wave of nationalism was flowing fast. Some able and sacrificing social reformers were demanding ‘national education’. They thought that only national education could safeguard the culture, civilization, literature and language of India. The educational institutions supporting the national education were Dayanand Anglo College of Lahore and Gurukula Kangri institution established by Swami Sharddhanand at Haridwar, the central Hindu College of Banaras etc. Indian National Congress was established in 1885. It was the most popular national institution of the country. Later it brought freedom to India. The period from 1897 to 1902 was the period of silence in Indian history. The number of students was meager. Schools were very few. Two dreadful famines and ravaging plagues had shaken India. Thus, it was natural for Lord Curzon to pay attention towards Indian education. SHIMLA EDUCATION CONFERENCE (1901) The first step in the educational reform that Lord Curzon initiated was the holding of a conference at Shimla in September 1901. This was the first conference on all India bases. The conference was attended by the Provincial Directors of Public Instruction, representatives of the Christian Missionaries and a few selected educationists. But the representatives of the Indian people were conspicuously absent. The conference continued for a fortnight. Lord Curzon himself presided over the conference and took a very prominent part in drafting the resolution. All total 150 resolutions were passed, which were mostly unanimous and which covered all the stages of Indian education from primary to university level. These resolutions formed the basis of the Government Resolution of 1904 on Education Policy. The Government identified the shortcomings of Indian education and the major policy decisions were as follows— 1.    The Government should fully control all stages of education. 2.    The Government should spend more money on education. 3.    Government schools should be such that it could serve as models to private schools. 4.    The Central Government will have complete control over Indian education. Their educational policy shall also be conducted and directed. All the proceedings of Shimla conference were not disclosed. It did not have any Indian representative in it. Hence, Indian took it to be a conspiracy against them and felt annoyed. They thought that probably the Government wanted to abolish the national feeling through discarding Indian from educational field and handing it over to European and Christian missionaries. Now we are going to discuss the policy on Primary, Secondary, and University education one by one as under: (A)    Policy on Primary Education: Now you know about Shimla Education conference, which was the basis of all reforms on education introduced by Lord Curzon. In this section we shall discuss his primary education policy. Lord Curzon realized the poor condition of primary education in India in terms of quality and quantity. Therefore he gave priority to this stage of education. In the Government Resolution of 1904 he declared that the primary education had received insufficient attention and it was the duty of both the central and provincial Governments to pay more attention for the expansion and improvement of primary education. Some of the significant steps taken by him in this regard are mentioned below— >    Liberal grant- in-aid: Lord Curzon had realized that primary education in India had suffered mainly because limited funds available for it. He therefore directed the provincial Governments to spend larger amounts on primary education by giving necessary recurring grants to the local boards and the Municipalities. He raised the Government grant to local authorities from one third to one half of the total expenditure. He also sanctioned special grants for the diseased and famine stricken people. >    Abolition of the system of payment by results: Lord Curzon stopped the system of aiding primary schools on the basis of examination results, i.e., ‘Payment by Results’ as was introduced by the Hunter Commission 1882. Due to this system primary education failed to develop substantially. Curzon introduced more scientific methods of paying grant in aid and suggested that the Government should follow a more liberal policy for providing grants to primary schools. >    Training of Teachers: For qualitative improvement of primary education specific importance was given on training of teachers. Steps were taken to establish training centres for primary teachers and it was directed that the duration of training should not be less than two years. It was further suggested that the village school teachers should be given training in agricultural education. >    Improvement of Teacher’s Salary: Lord Curzon gave importance on raising the standard of living of the primary school teachers by restructuring their pay scale. He observed that there were differences in pay scales of the teachers in different states. Curzon tried to bring the pay scale of teacher to the equal level but he could not make it fully due to his short span of time in office. >    Reform in curriculum: Lord Curzon wanted to upgrade the primary school curriculum. Besides teaching three R’s, he directed to include Agriculture as a subject in the primary school curriculum as India is a predominantly an agricultural country. Physical education was another useful subject introduced in the curriculum. Lord Curzon felt that the primary school curriculum needed to be intimately related to local environment and therefore, suggested that the curriculum of rural and urban schools should be different. >    Method of Teaching: Curzon observed that the methods of teaching in primary schools had been old and unscientific for which children were not attracted to these schools. He tried to introduce better and scientific methods of teaching like kindergarten method for improvement of the teaching method. This type of method was to be adopted where competent teachers were available. Assessment of Curzon’s Primary Education Policy: Now you know about the steps taken by Lord Curzon for improving the condition of Primary Education, you should also understand the impact of his policy, i.e., how far it helped to improve primary education in India. Actually, the policy of Lord Curzon marked the beginning of a new era in the history of primary education in India. He correctly identified that money was the main hurdle to achieving the objectives of primary education. Accordingly, he followed the policy of sanctioning liberal grants from the Government funds for its expansion and consequently there was a considerable increase in the number of pupils attending primary schools. Curzon also stopped the discriminatory system of payment by results and introduced the more scientific method of paying recurring and non-recurring grants to remove financial difficulties. As a result the number of recognized primary schools increased from 93,604 in 1901-02 to 1, 18,262 in 1911-12, i.e., within a period of 10 years (NaikandNurallp.263). Lord Curzon also tried to remove traditionalism in our primary education system and introduced subjects like Agriculture and Physical education in the primary school curriculum to make it more useful, practical and modern. He made provision for training of the teachers and make their pay scale improved and uniform. Besides these, Curzon tried to introduce improved method of teaching like the Kindergarten method and gave importance on developing the reasoning power rather than mechanical memorization. By observing all these we must admit that Lord Curzon tried to bring the spirit of modernization in our primary education. (B)    Policy on Secondary Education: We have already discussed the Primary Education Policy of Lord Curzon. Let us now turn our attention towards the Secondary Education Policy and see how he wanted to improve it. Curzon’s Secondary Education Policy can be divided into two parts— (i) Policy of control and (ii)    Policy of improvement. First we will discuss the Policy of control. (i)    Policy of control: The Hunter Commission of 1882 suggested that the Government should withdraw from the field of secondary education and its expansion should be left to the private bodies which were to be given liberal grant in aid. As a result the number of private schools increased. Although the Government fixed certain rules and regulations for the Government aided schools there was no such regulation for the privately managed schools, most of which were inefficiently and poorly staffed and poorly equipped. In the Government Resolution on Education of 1904, it is stated that whether these schools are managed by public authority or by private persons and whether they have received public funds or not, the Government is bound in the interest of the community to see that education provided to them are sound. The Government at that time tried to control the private schools in the following way: The managing committee of the school should be properly constituted. •  The financial condition of the school should be stable. •  The school must make provision for the health and recreation of its pupils. •    The number of teachers should be suitable and properly qualified. •    For establishing secondary schools in a particular area the necessity of the school will be assessed. •    Every secondary school whether Government aided or privately managed must receive recognition from the Director of Public Instruction of the concerned state. •    In addition to the recognition from the Education Department, it must obtain recognition from a University also if it wants to present students at the Matriculation examination conducted by the University. •    Recognized schools will be eligible to receive Government grant-in-aid and pupils to receive scholarships. Transfer of students from an unrecognized school to a recognized school was prohibited. (ii)    Policy of Improvement: Curzon realized that Government control alone cannot improve the conditions of secondary schools. For qualitative improvement he adopted the following measures: •  Provincial Governments should sanction more financial grants to improve the condition of secondary school. •  Government secondary schools should serve as a model for private secondary schools. •    Grants should be provided to private schools also to make them equal to standard schools like the public schools. •    The number of teacher training centers should be increased and teachers should be encouraged to receive training. •    The inspectorate was to be made more efficient for effecting rigorous control over secondary education and the number of inspectors should be increased. •    Curriculum of the secondary schools should be modified by including practical and vocational subjects. Physical education should be included as a subject in the curriculum. •    The medium of instruction should be mother tongue up to middle school level. But the study of English must not be neglected. •    Importance should be given to improving discipline among students and teachers. Assessment of Curzon’s Secondary Education Policy: Now we must make a critical assessment of Lord Curzon’s Secondary Education Policy. As a whole, we may term his secondary education policy as ‘successful’ because it raised the quality of secondary education. His policy to make the secondary schools receive recognition from the Government as well as from the university helped in improving its quality of education. Many private secondary schools had to close down for the failure to get recognition because of which many nationalist Indians criticized Lord Curzon for his policy and expressed that he wanted to crush nationalistic upsurge. But his strict policy helped to improve not only the quality of education but also the quality of administration of secondary schools also. Secondly, as the schools had to take recognition from the University, they had to give importance on teacher training and raising the academic standard in order to send their students for matriculation examination. Thirdly, it is worth mentioning that it was Lord Curzon who insisted that mother tongue should be the medium of instruction up to middle level. For these measures many poor students were able to receive education through their own languages. This paved the way for introducing mother tongue as a medium of instruction in secondary schools in later stages. SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-1 Q.1 What was one of Lord Curzon's primary objectives in his education policy during his tenure as Viceroy of India? A.    To establish new primary schools in every village B.    To reform and regulate higher education institutions and their administration C.    To eliminate English as the medium of instruction D.    To promote exclusively traditional Indian education Q.2 What was a major criticism of Lord Curzon’s educational policies? A.    They provided too much autonomy to universities B.    They were perceived as increasing colonial control over the education system C.    They focused too much on primary education and neglected higher education D.    They led to the closure of many educational institutions Q.3 How did Lord Curzon's policies affect the administration of Indian universities? A.    They decentralized university administration B.    They increased government oversight and control over university administration C.    They granted universities full autonomy in their governance D.    They led to the establishment of private universities Q.4 What impact did Lord Curzon's reforms have on the role of university senates and syndicates? A.    They were given more power and autonomy B.    They were abolished C.    They were required to operate under increased government guidelines and oversight D.    They became independent from government control Q.5 Which of the following was a focus area of Lord Curzon’s educational reforms? A.    Expansion of vocational training programs B.    Promotion of Indian languages in higher education C.    Improvement of the quality and governance of universities D.    Establishment of new primary schools in rural areas Q.6 Lord Curzon's educational reforms aimed to address which of the following issues in Indian higher education? A.    Overemphasis on vernacular languages B.    Lack of government control and regulatory standards C.    Insufficient funding for primary education D.    Excessive number of universities Q.7 How did Lord Curzon's policies affect the funding of Indian universities? A.    Funding was reduced to limit university expansion B.    Funding was increased but accompanied by tighter government control C.    Funding was completely removed from universities D.    Funding was redirected exclusively to primary education Q.8 What was a significant outcome of Lord Curzon’s educational policies? A.    Increased autonomy for universities B.    Greater involvement of Indians in university governance C.    Enhanced government oversight and centralized control over universities D.    Establishment of a network of new universities throughout India 6.4 INDIAN UNIVERSITY COMMISSION 1902 Lord Curzon was the first person to appoint a commission on University education. On January,27, 1902, the Indian University Commission was appointed under the Chairmanship of Sir Thomas Ralley to enquire into the conditions of the Universities established in British India, and to consider and report upon the proposals for improving their constitution and working. Main reason for the appointment of this commission was that Curzon himself thought that an ideal university should have two aspects. Firstly, it should aim at expanding and encouraging knowledge and education. Secondly, it should build the character of the students. From this point view, Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Punjab and Allahabad universities had certain shortcomings which were responsible for lowering the standard of education. Thus it was necessary to enquire in to the present condition of the universities. He saw that Indian universities had become out-dated. Though the London University had been reorganized in 1898, but Indian universities maintained the old structure and pattern. The expansion of higher education was too great for excising universities to manage, the pressure of work on them was so great that they could not discharge their duties well, and no university attached any importance to its real functions. So Curzon appointed the Indian Universities Commission to report upon any proposal that might be made for “proving the constitution and working of universities and to recommend to the Governor-General-in-Council such measures as may elevate the standard of university teaching and promote advancement of learning. The commission submitted its report in June of the same year (1902) stressing the need for reorganization of the Universities. It rejected the idea of setting up new Universities. Its main recommendations are as follows— 1.     The jurisdiction of each University should be fixed and new Universities should not be established. 2.    The constitution of the Universities should be changed to make provisions for teaching in the Universities. 3.     Undergraduate and Post-graduate curricula should be introduced. 4.     Conditions for recognizing colleges should be stern. 5.    The syndicates should have about 9-15 members. 6.    The standard of the matric examination should be improved. 7.     Importance should be given to the study of classical languages and arrangements should be made for the best possible teaching of English. 8.     Hostels should be built for the students. 9.     Affiliated colleges should be strictly supervised by the universities. 10.    Suitable amendments should be made in the curriculum and the examination system of the universities. 11.    Arrangements of scholarships should take place according to the position of the students. 12.    There should be a managing committee for every college. Besides managing the colleges concerned it should also appoint competent teachers. It should pay attention towards the discipline of the students and the construction of buildings and hostels, etc. Certain facilities for teaching should be given after amending the constitution of the universities. Terms of Reference: Following were the terms of reference of Indian University Commission: 1.     To survey future prospects and the conditions of the universities in india established by the British Government. 2.    To suggest ways and means for the organization and working of Indian universities. 3.    To lay down the procedures by which he standards of Higher education may go up at the earliest. Evaluation: The commission did not aim at introducing any revolutionary change in the system of university education. It sought to recognize the existing pattern, though its recommendations did not find favour with the Indian public. There was no representation of any Indian in the commission though later on, Dr. Gurdas Banerjee and Syed Hasan Bilgrami were made members. Even then Indians did not feel happy. They were suspicious of the intentions of Curzon. They thought that Government wanted to suppres nationalism. By recommending the abolition of second- rate degree colleges the commission created a wave of anger among the Indian educationists. SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-2 Q.1 What was the primary purpose of the Indian University Commission established by Lord Curzon in 1902? A.    To promote the use of local languages in education B.    To review and recommend reforms for the Indian university system C.    To establish new primary schools across India D.    To focus solely on vocational training programs Q.2 Who was the chairperson of the Indian University Commission? A. Sir William Hunter B. Lord Curzon C. Sir Charles Wood D. Lord Minto Q.3 Which of the following was a key recommendation of the Indian University Commission? A.    Establishing a new network of primary schools B.    Increasing government control over university administration C.    Promoting the use of vernacular languages in higher education D.    Closing down all non-government universities Q.4 What was a significant criticism of the Indian University Commission's recommendations? A. The recommendations led to a reduction in the number of universities B.    The recommendations were too focused on increasing colonial control and did not address the needs of Indian society adequately C.    The recommendations completely ignored the importance of Western education D.    The recommendations were too revolutionary and faced widespread opposition Q.5 How did the Indian University Commission propose to address the quality of university education? A.    By reducing the number of universities to focus on quality B.    By emphasizing the study of Indian languages and culture C.    By implementing stricter regulations and increased government oversight D.    By decentralizing university administration Q.6 Which area of university administration did the Indian University Commission particularly focus on? A.    Financial management of universities B.    Curriculum development and teaching methods C. Governance and administrative structures D.    Infrastructure development Q.7 What impact did the Indian University Commission have on the autonomy of Indian universities? A.    It increased the autonomy of Indian universities B.    It had no impact on university autonomy C.    It reduced the autonomy of Indian universities by increasing government control D.    It recommended the establishment of autonomous regional universities Q.8 What aspect of higher education did the Indian University Commission emphasize? A.    Expansion of vocational education B.    Promotion of native Indian art and literature C.    Improvement of university governance and standards D.    Establishment of new research institutes Q.9 The Indian University Commission's recommendations were largely influenced by which broader political context? A.    The rise of Indian nationalism B.    The British policy of educational neglect C.    The need for economic development D.    The desire to centralize British control over India Q.10 What was the reaction of Indian educationalists to the Indian University Commission's recommendations? A.    They widely supported the increased focus on Indian languages B.    They were generally supportive of increased government funding C.    They were critical of the increased colonial control and lack of focus on Indian needs D. They were pleased with the emphasis on new research initiatives 6.5 INDIAN UNIVERSITIES ACT, 1904: This Act followed the earlier Act of 1902. The Indian Universities Act of 1904, passed on March, 21 was formulated on the basis of the recommendations of the Indian University Commission of 1902. The chief-architect of the educational policy published on March, 11, 1904 was Lord Curzon. It was a very significant Government Resolution. So the year, 1904, may be considered as an important landmark in the history of the educational development in India. In respect of organizational administration of the elementary schools, curriculum, appointment of teachers, management, finance etc. a beginning was made for bigger changes to follow in course of time. It was stated in the Resolution that “the shortcomings of the present system in point of quality arc well known. Four out of five villages are without a school. Three boys out of four grow up without education and only one girl in library attends any kind of school”. As much emphasis was given to English education the cultivation of vernaculars was neglected. The scope of technical education was very much limited and was not so useful for general masses for bringing about economical development of the country. The resolution suggested for the establishment of Agricultural Colleges and provision of training in Indian handicrafts and industries. The Resolution did not overlook to give concrete suggestions for the improvement of women education through the establishment of training schools for women teachers and model schools for girls. Pertaining to secondary education the Resolution opined that the standard of education at this level was far from satisfactory owing to the mushroom growth of schools under incapable teachers, inadequate furniture, lack of library, proper building etc. Hence for quality education at this level the Resolution recommended for proper inspection, control and systematic grant- in-aid. With regard to the medium of instruction the Resolution observed “English has no place and should have no place in the scheme of primary education. As a general rule, a child should not be allowed to learn English as a language until he has made some progress in the primary stages of instruction and has received through grounding in his mother tongue”. So at the secondary stage mother tongue as the medium of instruction was emphasized. In the sphere of primary education the Resolution opined, “primary education is the instruction of the masses, through the vernacular in such subjects as will best stimulate their intelligence and fit them for their position in life”. The Government of India fully accepted the proposition that the active expansion of primary education is one of the most important duties of the state. The resolution further pointed out that primary education had been paid insufficient attention and inadequate share of the public funds and in view of the rising tide of population the expansion was insufficient. The most significant aspect of the resolution was that the provincial Governments received large grants of money from the centers. The latter confirmed the policy of ‘Utility’ and ‘efficiency’ for the future educational development and emphasis on the improvement of existing schools as far as possible. The Educational policy devised by Lord Curzon has given a correct analysis of the brighter and darker aspects of the contemporary Indian education; but unfortunately though the diagnosis was correct, the remedy suggested was neither appropriate nor opportune. Lord Curzon was right in many things he said; but it was the way in which he wanted to reform that raised grave suspicions in the minds of the educated Indians. Defects: The Commission highlights the defects of Indian education in the following manner. 1.    As the only aim for acquiring higher education is to get an employment, the scope of education has become narrower. The persons who are not selected for Government jobs are unable to get in to other jobs as well. 2.    Undue importance is attached to the examination system. Therefore, the students only aim at passing the examination. 3.    The courses are absolutely bookish. Very little attention is paid towards intellectual development. Instead of attaining real knowledge students try to get through the examination by cramming the material. 4.    The development of Indian languages has been stunted due to the importance given to English. 5.    Industrial and technological education is neglected. The persons who acquire this attention do so only to get Government jobs. Vocational education is not properly attended so. The main provisions of this Act are— >    Universities were given the right of teaching along with the right of conducting examination. In short, their scope was enlarged. >    Universities had the right to appoint teachers to conduct teaching and undertake research. They also had the right to manage their libraries, laboratories and to make out plans to bring about discipline among students. >    Upto the moment the number of the seats in the Senate of the Universities was not fixed and the Govt. used to make life-long nominations. According to this Act the number was fixed. The minimum number was fifty and the maximum number was hundred. Their term was determined for five years. >    The Act introduced the principle of election in the constitution of the Senate. According to this Act, 20 fellows are to be elected in the Universities of Madras, Calcutta and Bombay and 15 in other Universities. >    The Act gave statutory recognition to Syndicates and made provision for the adequate representation of university teachers in the university Senate. >    The Govt. reserved the right to make amendments and reforms and give approval to the rules framed by the Senates of the University and also it can frame regulations itself if the Senate fails to frame these regulations in time. >    Rules in regard to granting recognition were made more strict. In order to raise the standards of education, the Syndicate could call for the inspection of colleges imparting higher education. >    Prior to this Act, the territorial jurisdiction of universities was not fixed. As a result some colleges were affiliated to two universities while others were situated in the jurisdiction of one university but affiliated to another. This Act, made it clear that the Governor General will by his ordinary or extraordinary orders fix the territorial jurisdiction of the Universities and according to this provision the relations between colleges shall be established and maintained. Assessment of Curzon’s University Education Policy: It is clear from the above discussion that Lord Curzon wanted to control the functioning of the universities and thereby break the autonomy of the universities. In the recommendations of the Indian University Commission of 1902, there was no proposal for establishing new university. Moreover, there was no representation of any Indian in the two Commissions because of this for his policy did not find favour with the Indian Public. Although two Indian members— G. D. Banerjee and Syed Hasan were included in later stage yet even the then Indian public did not feel happy. They were suspicious of the intention of Curzon and felt that through policy that the Govt. wanted to suppress nationalism. Many private colleges had to close down because of the policy of shrinkage of higher education taken by Lord Curzon. The number of degree colleges reduced from 192 in 1902 to 170, within a span of 10 years. This had received widespread criticism. But we cannot deny the fact that Curzon gave importance on improving the standard and quality of higher education. The credit for initiating a university improvement campaign was moving slowly but steadily towards its well defined objectives. OTHER EDUCATIONAL REFORMS OF LORD CURZON Lord Curzon carried out several other educational reforms also and you must be familiar with these reforms also. >    Agricultural Education: Lord Curzon was the first person to give importance on organizing agricultural education. He introduced Lord Curzon carried out several other educational reforms also and you must be familiar with these reforms also. (i)    Agriculture as a subject of study at school stage, (ii)    Established the Department of Agriculture, (iii)    Created Central Research Institute at Puna and (iv)    Laid down the principle that every important province in India must have its own Agricultural college which should be properly staffed and equipped. >    Establishment of Art School: Schools of Art were reformed which had failed in their primary object of promoting Indian art. Curzon directed that the schools should be continued with certain modifications in their subjects, methods and organization. >    Moral Education: Although the Missionaries tried to incorporate religious influence in education Lord Curzon rejected the idea and expressed in his Resolution on Educational Policy (1904) that “In Govt. institutions the institution is, and must continue to be, exclusively secular”. >    Creation of the Department of Archaeology: Curzon found that the ancient monuments of India were not properly being cared for and, therefore, created a special department for the purpose. He also passed the Ancient Monument Preservation Act. of 1904. >    Foreign Scholarships: Scholarships in large number for sending Indian students abroad for technological studies were sanctioned. The necessity of technical education in India had been felt by Lord Curzon for developing Indian industries. Curzon’s contribution towards Indian Education: Now let us examine critically Curzon’s contribution towards Indian Education. Lord Curzon was severely criticized in his days. He failed to create faith and confidence in the minds of educated Indians. They thought that his reform had some deep political motives. For the socio-political condition of the country in those days it was not possible to evaluate Curzon’s activities in an objective and impartial manner. But now it is admitted that Lord Curzon did yeoman service to the cause of Indian education. During his days every aspect of education received his keen attention and it was Lord Curzon who started the movement for educational reconstruction in India. He laid the foundation of the reforms of Indian universities and tried to raise the standard of Indian higher education. He recognized the responsibility of education by the central Govt. Standards of secondary education was also raised through rigid and regular inspection and stricter condition of recognition. Due to his patronage expansion of primary education was striking. Technical and vocational education received impetus in his hands. Reforms were also introduced in agriculture education, department of Agriculture was established and arrangement was made for agricultural research. His attempt to preserve the ancient monuments of India and creation of a department of Archaeology was praiseworthy. SELF CHECK EXERCISE-3 Q.1 What was the primary objective of the Indian Universities Act, 1904? A.    To establish new primary schools in India B.    To reform and regulate the administration and governance of Indian universities C.    To promote vocational education exclusively D.    To introduce a new curriculum in Indian schools Q.2 Which key figure was responsible for the enactment of the Indian Universities Act, 1904? A. Lord Minto B.    Lord Curzon C.    Sir Charles Wood D.    Sir William Hunter Q.3 One of the significant changes introduced by the Indian Universities Act, 1904, was: A.    Increasing the number of universities in India B.    Establishing a new system of educational boards for high schools C.    Increasing government control over university administration and governance D.    Removing all restrictions on the use of vernacular languages in universities Q.4 How did the Indian Universities Act, 1904, affect the autonomy of Indian universities? A.    It enhanced the autonomy of universities B.    It had no impact on university autonomy C.    It reduced the autonomy of universities by increasing government control D.    It created autonomous regional universities Q.5 Which aspect of university governance did the Indian Universities Act, 1904, primarily address? A.    Curriculum development B.    Faculty recruitment C.    Administration and regulatory oversight D.    Financial management Q.6 What was a notable criticism of the Indian Universities Act, 1904? A.    It led to the creation of too many new universities B.    It focused too much on increasing educational funding C.    It was seen as an attempt to increase colonial control over higher education D.    It ignored the need for more scientific research in universities Q.7 Under the Indian Universities Act, 1904, what new powers were given to the universities? A.    Powers to independently set their own fees and funding B.    Powers to control the appointment of vice-chancellors C.    Powers to make significant changes to their curricula without approval D.    Powers to self-govern without any oversight Q.8 What was the impact of the Indian Universities Act, 1904, on the relationship between the universities and the British government? A.    It reduced the influence of the British government B.    It increased the influence and control of the British government over the universities C. It completely severed ties between the universities and the British government D. It led to a decrease in government funding for universities Q.9 How did the Indian Universities Act, 1904, affect university funding? A.    It introduced new sources of funding for universities B.    It did not make any changes to university funding C.    It increased government funding and control over financial resources D.    It reduced government funding for higher education Q.10 What was the role of university senates and syndicates according to the Indian Universities Act, 1904? A.    They were given more power to govern universities independently B.    They were required to follow strict government guidelines and oversight C.    They were abolished and replaced by new administrative bodies D.    They were given the autonomy to set their own academic standards 6.6  SUMMARY In this unit we have discussed the educational policy of Lord Curzon, who came to India as Viceroy in 1899. He initiated his educational reform by holding a conference at Shimla in 1901. This was the first conference on an all India basis and a total of 150 resolutions were passed covering all the stages of education. First we have focused our attention on Curzon’s primary educational policy and observed that Curzon rightly identified the causes for the poor condition of primary education. He took some significant steps like liberal grant in aid, abolition of the system of payment by result, teacher training, improvement of teacher’s salary and curriculum etc. As a result, the number of recognized primary schools and enrolment increased significantly. Regarding secondary education, to check the growth of inefficient private schools Lord Curzon took certain strict measures. But at the same time he tried to improve the quality of secondary education also. Lord Curzon set up a University Education Commission in 1902 to enquire into the condition of the universities and improving their constitution and working. On the basis of the recommendations of the commission the Indian Universities Act of 1904 was passed. In the last section of this unit we have discussed other reforms carried out by Lord Curzon and assessed his contribution towards Indian education. 6.7    GLOSSARY University Senates and Syndicates- Governing bodies within universities responsible for overseeing academic and administrative functions. 6.8    ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES Exercise-1 Answer1: B. To reform and regulate higher education institutions and their administration Answer2: B. They were perceived as increasing colonial control over the education system Answer3: B. They increased government oversight and control over university administration Answer4: C. They were required to operate under increased government guidelines and oversight Answer5: C. Improvement of the quality and governance of universities Answer6: B. Lack of government control and regulatory standards Answer7: B. Funding was increased but accompanied by tighter government control Answer8: C. Enhanced government oversight and centralized control over universities Exercise-2 Answer1: B. To review and recommend reforms for the Indian university system Answer2: B. Lord Curzon Answer3: B. Increasing government control over university administration Answer4: B. The recommendations were too focused on increasing colonial control and did not address the needs of Indian society adequately Answer5: C. By implementing stricter regulations and increased government oversight Answer6: C. Governance and administrative structures Answer7: C. It reduced the autonomy of Indian universities by increasing government control Answer8: C. Improvement of university governance and standards Answer9: D. The desire to centralize British control over India Answer10: C. They were critical of the increased colonial control and lack of focus on Indian needs Exercise-3 Answer1: B. To reform and regulate the administration and governance of Indian universities Answer2: B. Lord Curzon Answer3: C. Increasing government control over university administration and governance Answer4: C. It reduced the autonomy of universities by increasing government control Answer5: C. Administration and regulatory oversight Answer6: C. It was seen as an attempt to increase colonial control over higher education Answer7: B. Powers to control the appointment of vice-chancellors Answer8: B. It increased the influence and control of the British government over the universities Answer9: C. It increased government funding and control over financial resources Answer10: B. They were required to follow strict government guidelines and oversight 6.9  REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS •     Chaube, S. P: History and Problems of Indian Education, Vinod Peestak Mandir, Agra. •    Naik P. and Nurullah, S.: A Student’s History of Education in India, MaCMillan India Ltd., 1996. •     Aggarwal, J. C.: Landmarks in the History of Modern Indian Education, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 2005. •      Nurullah, S. and Naik, I. P.: History of Education in India during the British Period, MaCmillan India, 1951.Ll •     Purkait, B. R.: Milestones of Indian Education, New Central Book Agency, 2005, Kolkata. •    Rawat, P. L.: History of Indian Education, Ram Prasad & Sons, Agra, 1991. 6.10    TERMINAL QUESTIONS Q.1 What attempts were made by Lord Curzon to improve Indian education? Was he successful? Q.2 Critically examine Lord Curzon’s policy on secondary education. Mention its after effects. Q.3 What were the provisions of the University Act of 1904? How far in your opinion has the act succeeded in achieving its objective? Q.4 “Lord Curzon has touched every branch of education and reformed them.” — Discuss. Unit-7 GROWTH OF NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS AND NATIONAL EDUCATION MOVEMENT Structure: 7.1    Introduction 7.2   Learning Objectives 7.3   Growth of National Consciousness Self Check Exercise-1 7.4   National Education movement Self Check Exercise-2 7.5  Summary 7.6   Glossary 7.7   Answers to Self Check Exercises 7.8   References/Suggested Readings 7.9   Terminal Questions 7.1   INTRODUCTION The growth of national consciousness and the national education movement in India were interlinked phenomena that significantly shaped the country's path to independence. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a burgeoning sense of national identity emerged among Indians, fueled by the socio-political impact of British colonial rule, economic exploitation, and the influence of Western education. This period saw the rise of nationalist organizations like the Indian National Congress and movements such as the Swadeshi Movement, which promoted self-reliance and resistance to colonial control. Concurrently, the national education movement sought to reform and expand the educational system to better align with nationalist ideals. It aimed to foster national pride, integrate Indian culture and history into the curriculum, and enhance educational opportunities across society. Pioneering figures such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, and Mahatma Gandhi played pivotal roles in advocating for educational reforms that promoted self-reliance and practical life skills. These efforts led to the establishment of nationalist schools, curriculum reforms, and a focus on indigenous languages, which collectively contributed to a stronger sense of unity and identity among Indians. The movement not only advanced educational accessibility but also laid the foundation for India's post-independence educational policies, leaving a lasting legacy on the country's educational landscape and nationalist fervor. 7.2  LEARNING OUTCOMES After completing this unit, the learners will be able to; •     Know about Growth of National Consciousness •     Understand the role of National Education movement 7.3    GROWTH OF NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS The ‘swadeshi movement’ was born immediately after the partition of Bengal. Although it was economic in origin and application, its spirit affected every walk of life. A demand for ‘swadeshi education’ soon began to put forward. The fundamental idea of the National Council was organized in March 1906. It was registered in June, 1906 under Act 31 of 1860. The movement of the National Education was not confined to Bengal alone. It spread to other parts of India also. The tempo created by the partition died out, particularly after the reunion of Bengal. The second upheaval occurred in 1920-22. The marital law atrocities in the Punjab and the inadequacy of the Montford Reforms (1919) fanned the flame of national feelings in the country. Just at this juncture, Mahatma Gandhi appeared on the scene and he launched the Noncooperation Movement. The resolution passed at the Nagpur Congress in 1920 advised the “gradual withdrawal of children from schools and colleges owned, aided or controlled by Government, and in place of such schools and colleges, the establishment of national schools and colleges in the various provinces.” In the course of less than four months, the National Muslim university of Aligarh, the Gujarat Vidyapith, Bihar Vidyapith, Quami Vidyapith, Lahore and a large number of national schools with thousands of students on the rolls were started in all parts of the country as a result of the great impetus given to national education. The British ruled India to promote their own interests. In doing so they often subordinate Indian welfare to British gain. The Indians realized gradually that their interests were being sacrificed to those of British interests. This clash of interests was the root cause of the rise of the nationalist movement. Eventually the peasants, the artisans and the workers discovered that they had no political rights and virtually nothing was being done for their intellectual and cultural development. The educated Indians discovered that economic exploitation by Britain was only increasing India’s poverty. The outbreak of the First World War (19141919) however, delayed the development planned in the resolution as the Government had to concentrate its attention and energy over the war. After the war was over, the Government appointed the Calcutta University Commission in 1917 mainly to look into the affairs of Calcutta University, yet in its report it deals with different aspects of education. The Calcutta University commission was mainly constructed with the express motto “to enquire into the condition and prospects of the University of Calcutta and to consider the question of a constructive policy in relation to the question it presents”. Thus the commission was required to examine the condition and workings of the Calcutta University and suggest measures for its reforms. In fact during the nineteenth century, the different phases of Indian life were permeated with the spirit of a renaissance and a great awakening. The people of India got conscious of humiliation they had to face at the hands of a handful of traders hailing from a land 6,000 miles away from India. Hence they were induced to strive for redemption of India from the state of all round degradation. The spirit of revival not only affected society, religion and literature, but also Indian life. The earlier renaissance of the 17th century could not evolve our national movement embracing the whole of India. The Indian National Congress was established in 1885. It created a feeling of nationalism and patriotism. Youths educated in colleges were greatly influenced by the revolutionary ideas of Rousseau, Byron, Burk, Bacon, Milton, Locke, Wordsworth and others. The educated Indians were imbued with the ideals of sacrifice, national mortality and independence. They were perturbed over the foreign rule in the country and they began to dream for national freedom. This situation led to the generation of nationalism in education. The Indians intensely realized the necessity of education. They thought that education would be a good tool of obtaining freedom. Therefore, the task of expansion of education was accelerated by private enterprises under the control of Indians. It was at this time that several great personalities were born who took the vow of national service with the ultimate objective of winning national freedom. High schools began to be developed in to colleges and a number of new colleges were also established. Great persons like R.P. Paranjape, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Triplankar, Ayanger took the work of education in their hands. Sir Surendra Nath Banerji controlled the management of Ripon College at Calcutta. The name of Maharshi Dayanand Sarswati will remain immortal in the field of education in India. He stood for ancient ideals of education and established a number of D.A.V. colleges in the northern part of the country. He tried to remove the evils of Hindu society and religion through his educational ideals. The Arya Samaj took up his work and tried to propagate his ideals of life throughout the whole country. The National Council of Education (Jalia Shiksha Parishad) established in 1906. The object of the council is to impart education- literary as well as scientific and technical- on national lines and exclusively under national control, not in opposition to, but standing apart from the existing systems of primary, secondary and university education. Several factors contributed to the emergence of Indian nationalism which can be analyzed as follows: 1.    Political and Administrative Unity: One of the significant results of the British conquest of India was the establishment of a centralized state. It brought about a political and administrative unification of the country. The pre- British India was divided into numerous feudal states frequently struggling among themselves to extend their boundaries. The British authority established a centralized state structure in India with a uniform reign of law. They enacted and codified laws which were applicable to every citizen of the state. These laws were enforced by a hierarchically graded system of tribunals. The public services brought about the administrative unification of the country. The establishment of uniform currency system, common administration, common laws and judicial structure contributed to India’s unification which ultimately helped the rise of national consciousness. 2.    English Language and Western Education: Introduction of western education was another important factor which paved the way for the growth of nationalism. Three main agencies were responsible for the spread of modem education in India. They were the foreign Christian missionaries, the British Government and the progressive Indians. With the intension of spreading Christianity among the Indians, the Christian missionaries did extensive work in the spread of modern education. They were among the pioneers of modern education in India. The British Government was the principal agent of disseminating modern liberal and technical education in India. It established a network of schools and colleges in India which turned out a number of educated Indians well versed in modern knowledge. The introduction of modern education in India was primarily motivated by the political, administrative and economic needs of Britain in India. The British government assigned various key posts of the administrative machinery to the English and filled the subordinate posts with educated Indians. 3.    Development of Transport and Means of Communication: Modern means of transport helps in the consolidation of people into modern nations. In India too, the establishment of railways, construction of roads, canals and organisation of postal, telegraph and wireless services all over India contributed in forging the people into a nation. Of course, all these facilities were developed in the interest of the British industries and for political, administrative and military reasons. However, these modern means of communications helped the growth of political and cultural life on a national scale. It promoted the organisation and functioning of a number of political organisations like Indian National Congress, All India Kishan Sabha, Youth League, All India Trade Union Congress etc.. Railways made it possible for the people of different towns, villages, districts and provinces to meet, to exchange views and to decide upon programmes for the nationalist movements. Without the modern means of transport, no national conferences could have been held. 4.    Emergence of Modern Press: As a powerful social institution, the press facilitates the exchange of thought on a mass scale within a short time. The introduction of the printing press in India was an event of revolutionary significance. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the founder of nationalist press in India. His ‘Sambad Kaumudi’ in Bengali published in 1821 and ‘Mirat-UL-Akbar’ in Persian published in 1822, were the first publications with a distinct nationalist and democratic progressive orientation. The British government maintained its civil service and military force at the cost of India. Attempt was made to destroy the indigenous Indian industries to expand the public demand for British industrial goods. While heavy import duties were put on Indian goods to restrict their entry into British market, there was free trade policy for the transactions of the raw materials or British goods in India. Leaders like Dadabhai Naroji, Mahadev Gobinda Ranade, G.K. Gokhale etc. analyzed the economic impact of colonial rule in India. Economic exploitation to such a high extent had great repercussion on the growth of Indian nationalism and the people agitated against the foreign government. 5.    Revival of Glorious Indian Heritage: When Indians were developing a sense of inferiority complex being exploited under the colonial rule, the glorious heritage of India was revived by some western scholars like Max Muller, William Jones, Charles Wilkins etc. They translated some Sanskrit texts into English and attempted to prove the supremacy of ancient Indian culture, its heritage and philosophy. Some Indian scholars like R.G. Bhandarkar, H.P. Shastri etc. also helped in reviving the past glory of India. All these helped in regenerating a sense of self confidence and patriotism among the people. 6.    Impact of International Events: Several movements and events in foreign countries also helped in awakening national consciousness. The Declaration of Independence by U.S.A. in 1776, the French Revolution of 1789, the unification of Italy and Germany in 1870, defeat of Russia by Japan in 1904 etc. inspired the Indians. They became confident that it would be possible to fight against the mighty British authority for their right of self-determination. World events thus, motivated Indians and promoted the rise of nationalism. 7.    Development of Means of Communication: The development of swift means of communication by road and rail, post and telegraph in the sixties gave impetus to our national movement. The people living in the distant corners of the country were brought closer to each other. “Lines of communication knit up the vast country and turned geographical unity into a tangible reality”. The leaders of the times could easily move from one place to another and carry on propaganda on a national scale. It was easy for the patriots imbued with nationalism to arouse a sense of oneness and nationality among the teeming millions separated by huge distance. Thus material association of the leaders and the people enabled them to forge a united front against the foreign bureaucrats. Sukhbir has rightly said “The intermixture of people of various provinces, castes and creeds not only undermined the old local and provincial narrow outlooks hut also paved the way for national consciousness and cooperation to grow on the national level. ” 8.    Vital Role of Social Reformers: The role played by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, the founder of Bramho Samaj in Social Reformers 1828, is no less significant. He launched a crusade against social evils like sati, untouchability, caste system and advocated religious toleration. He stood for the emancipation of women, and worked ceaselessly for the eradication of social inequalities. In fact, he was responsible for the rejuvenation of the Indian society and the subsequent emergence of the India unity and inculcation of nationalism. He is truly termed as the prophet of nationalism. Evidently these social and religious reformers in one way or the other made a substantial contribution to the growth of Indian nationalism and rise of socio-religious movements representing a blend of nationalism and reformation which exercised a profound influence on the minds of fast emerging Indian nation leaders. 9.    Repressive policies and Racial Arrogance of the British: The racial arrogance and the rude behaviour of the Britishers towards the Indians had played a significant role in making them conscious of their condition. The British Government did not allow the educated Indians to avail any opportunity to serve in higher administrative posts. The age limit for Indian Civil Service examination was reduced from twenty one to nineteen years and the examination was held in Britain. This change actually intended to debar the Indians from entering the civil services. Enactment of a number of laws further created widespread discontent among the Indians. The Vernacular Press Act curbed the liberty of the Indian press. The Arms Act prohibited the Indians from keeping arms without license. Abolition of import tax on foreign cotton cloth harmed the Indian textile industry. During the Viceroyalty of Lord Ripon, the Indian judges were allowed to have the right to try Europeans along with the Indians as per the provision of the Ilbert Bill. But the Britishers opposed the Bill tooth and nail and ultimately they succeeded in getting the Bill amended suitable to their interest. 10.    Emergence of Conscious Middle Class: Bipan Chandra is of the pinion that the foundations of the Indian national movement were laid by the emerging group of the modern intelligentsia. Initially, these groups adopted a very positive approach towards the colonial rule. They early realized that since India had come under the rule of the most advanced country in the world, she would be highly benefited with such connection. India would be turned into a major industrial power with its immense natural and human resources. The very period of the development of industrial capitalism in Britain witnessed the underdevelopment in India. 11-literature- Nationalist literature in the form of novel, essays and patriotic poetry also played an important role in arousing national consciousness. Eg.- The novel Ananda math by Bankim Chandra Chattergi was a great source of great inspiration to all the nationalist leaders. The national song (Vande Materam) was a great awakening for the society. Other prominent nationalist writers of the period were Ravindra Nath Tagore in Bangali, Vishnu Shastri Chiplukar in Marathi, Shubramanya Bharti in Tamil and Bhartendu Harishchandra in Hindi. 12.    Poverty of India – All the farmers, artisans, craftsmen and later the factory workers were reduced to poverty on account of the economic policies of the British government in India. Dada Bhai Naoroji proved how British rule had resulted in the “drain of wealth” from India to Britain and according to him this was the real cause of poverty of India. It was the result of free trade policy followed by British government that failed to prove the interest of Indian artisans and craftsmen. Growth of National Consciousness 1.    Emergence of National Consciousness (late 19th to early 20th century): •     Definition: The increasing awareness among Indians of their shared identity, history, and political aspirations, leading to a collective desire for self-rule and independence from British colonial rule. •      Context: During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, various socio-political and cultural factors contributed to the rise of national consciousness. The impact of British colonial rule, the spread of Western education, and the influence of global nationalist movements played significant roles. 2.    Key Influences: •     Socio-Political Reforms: Reformist movements like the Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, and others worked towards social upliftment and challenged the colonial and traditional socio-religious structures. •     Economic Exploitation: The economic policies of the British led to widespread poverty and economic deprivation, which fueled discontent and a desire for change. •     Educational Impact: The introduction of Western education exposed Indians to ideas of democracy, liberty, and nationalism, influencing their political consciousness. 3.    Formation of Nationalist Organizations: •     Indian National Congress (INC): Established in 1885, it became the primary platform for political discourse and agitation for Indian self-rule. •     Swadeshi Movement: Promoted self-reliance and boycott of British goods, which also emphasized the importance of Indian-produced goods and services. •     Other Movements: Groups like the All India Muslim League and various regional parties also played roles in shaping national consciousness. SELF- CHECK EXERCISE-1 Q1. During which period did the growth of national consciousness in India become most prominent? A.    Early 18th century B.    Late 19th and early 20th century C.    Mid-20th century D.    Late 17th century Q2. Which organization was founded in 1885 and played a significant role in the growth of national consciousness in India? A.    All India Muslim League B.    Hindu Mahasabha C.    Indian National Congress D.    Brahmo Samaj Q3. The Swadeshi Movement, which was instrumental in fostering national consciousness, primarily focused on: A.    Promoting Western education B.    Boycotting British goods and promoting Indian-made products C.    Establishing new universities D.    Supporting British economic policies Q4. Which socio-religious reformer is known for advocating modern education and social reform, thereby contributing to the growth of national consciousness? A. Swami Vivekananda B.    Raja Ram Mohan Roy C. Ramakrishna Paramahamsa D. Dayananda Saraswati Q5. The spread of Western education in India had what impact on national consciousness? A.    It decreased interest in Indian cultural heritage B.    It led to the rise of a new educated class that became increasingly aware of political and social issues C.    It completely replaced traditional education systems D.    It had no significant impact on national consciousness Q6. Which movement aimed at increasing self-reliance and reducing dependence on British goods and services was a key part of the growth of national consciousness? A.    Non-Cooperation Movement B.    Swadeshi Movement C. Khilafat Movement D. Civil Disobedience Movement Q7. Who was a major advocate of integrating Indian culture and values into education, thereby promoting national consciousness? A. Mahatma Gandhi B.    Jawaharlal Nehru C. Subhas Chandra Bose D.    Lala Lajpat Rai Q8. Which event or factor did NOT contribute to the growth of national consciousness in India? A.    British economic exploitation B.    The rise of nationalist newspapers and literature C.    The promotion of indigenous languages in education D.    The expansion of the British military presence in India Q9. The introduction of which policy by the British colonial government led to increased nationalist sentiments in India? A. The Arms Act B.    The Vernacular Press Act C.    The Indian Education Act D.    The Rowlatt Act Q10. Which key figure is associated with advocating the idea of "self-reliance" (Swadeshi) and played a role in the growth of national consciousness? A.    Bal Gangadhar Tilak B.    Rabindranath Tagore C.    Sir Syed Ahmed Khan D.    Gopal Krishna Gokhale 7.4  NATIONAL EDUCATION MOVEMENT During the first quarter of the twentieth century an attempt was made to infuse education with a national spirit. This was considered necessary for weakening the foundation of British Empire and for winning freedom. The national movement also accelerated the development of this spirit. A demand for nationalism of education arose. Mrs. Annie Besant vehemently criticized the existing educational set-up and regarded it as a sure path to national degradation and lack of national morality and honour. Mahatma Gandhi criticized the educational system and considered it unsuitable to Indian needs. He pointed out the following three major defects of the prevailing education system: 1.     The Indian education is fully based on foreign culture and civilization. It was an insult to Indians to give them education devoid of their culture. 2.     The existing education system is narrow, one-sided and unphysiological. It educates neither the heart nor the hand. 3.     To have a foreign language as the medium of instruction is an insult to the entire nation and a deliberate attempt to weaken the Indian people. Real education cannot be given through the medium of foreign language. Mother-tongue alone can be a medium of real and practical education. National Education: At this time the leaders of the country felt very much agitated about the real nature of national education. Gradually, its shape came up on the surface. 1.    Education under Indian control: Education should be fully controlled by Indians. It should be entrusted to Indians from the British hands. This demand was made in order to base education on Indian culture and to keep it above communal considerations. 2.    The spirit of love for nation; Education should generate a love of the nation in the students in order that they might appreciate the greatness of the Indian culture and traditions. For this the curriculum should include the study of Indian history, literature, geography, arts and science. 3.    Banishing the feeling of inferiority: Students should adopt Indian ideals and culture and not consider the same inferior to the foreign ones. As Indian    ideals and culture were much superior to the Western ones, the people should accept them in preference to any other. Indian knowledge and sciences should be developed as the same were to benefit them. 4.    Education in Western knowledge and science: People in India should learn the good things from all countries. They should learn various things through the medium of mother- tongue. One should not feel shy of learning things from others, as this was the only way to make the country developed and progressive. 5.    English language to be regarded as a general subject: English is an ordinary subject of study. Its study should not be overemphasized in preference to that of Indian languages. The students should not consider English as superior to Indian languages. The mother-tongue should be given the supreme position. English language could be learnt for the sake of acquiring knowledge but not for procuring any service. 6.    Meeting inadequacy of vocational education: Education useful, to life is an essential aspect of national education. In the absence of vocational education, national education will be meaningless. The individual can not happy only when he receives vocational education. Education given to the students at that time was devoid of any vocational bias. It was bookish and theoretical. Vocational educational was encouraged. It was organized firstly, for those youths who were expelled from educational institutions for taking part in national movements. For this purpose Gurudas Banerjee founded the society for the promotion of national education in Bengal. The second proposal was made in the Calcutta congress of 1906 for such a type of education which could fulfill national needs however; this movement could not catch up because of the partition of Bengal. Still the idea of education for fulfilling national needs continued to live. National Education Movement 1.    Overview: •    Definition: A movement aimed at reforming and expanding education in India to promote nationalist values, improve quality, and align it with the needs of an independent nation. •    Context: The national education movement was driven by the desire to create an education system that fostered national pride and self-reliance, rather than one that primarily served colonial interests. 2.    Key Objectives: •  Promotion of Nationalism: Education was seen as a means to instill national pride and consciousness among Indians. •  Revival of Indian Culture: The movement sought to integrate Indian cultural and historical perspectives into the curriculum to counter the dominance of Western education. •    Expansion of Educational Opportunities: Efforts were made to increase access to education for all sections of society, including women and marginalized groups. 3.    Notable Figures and Contributions: •    Raja Ram Mohan Roy: Advocated for modern education and social reforms, laying the groundwork for future educational movements. •    Swami Vivekananda: Emphasized the importance of education in national awakening and self-reliance. •    Mahatma Gandhi: Advocated for "Nai Talim" (New Education) which emphasized vocational training, self-reliance, and integration of education with practical life skills. 4.    Educational Institutions and Reforms: •    National Schools: Establishment of schools that followed nationalist ideals and provided education in Indian languages. •  Reforms in Curriculum: Incorporation of Indian history, culture, and values into the curriculum to foster a sense of national identity. •  Promotion of Indigenous Languages: Efforts to replace English with regional languages in education to make it more accessible and relevant to the local population. 5.    Impact and Legacy: •    Increased Awareness: The movement played a crucial role in spreading nationalist ideas and creating a sense of unity among Indians. •  Educational Reform: Laid the foundation for the future educational policies and institutions in post-independence India. •  Cultural Revival: Contributed to a revival of interest in Indian culture, history, and languages, which influenced the post-independence educational framework. Mrs. Annie Besant on national education: National education must live in an atmosphere of proud and glorious patriotism, and this atmosphere must be kept sweet, fresh, and bracing by the study of Indian literature, Indian history, Indian triumphs in science, in art, in politics, in war, in colonization, in manufacturers, in trade, in commerce. National education must meet the national temperament at every point, and develop the national character. India is not to become a lesser-nor a greater-England, but to involve in to a mightier India. British ideals are good for Britain, but it is India’s ideals that are good for India. We do not want echoes or monotones; we want a choral melody of nations, mirroring the varied qualities of nature and of God. Away from all apologies for India, with all deprecatory explanations of India’s ways and customs, and traditions. India is herself, and no more exquisite nationality than India’s among all the broken reflections of his own perfect beauty. National education must be controlled by Indians, shaped by Indians, carried on by Indians. It must hold up Indian ideals of devotion, wisdom and morality, and must be permeated by the Indian religious spirit rather than fed on the latter of the creeds. The spirit is spacious, tolerant, all- embracing, and recognizes that man goes to God along many roads and that all the prophets came from him. SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-2 Q1. What was the primary goal of the National Education Movement in India? A.    To expand vocational training exclusively B.    To promote Western-style education across India C.    To reform and expand education in a way that fostered national pride and selfreliance D. To centralize all educational institutions under British control Q2. Which educational reformer is best known for advocating "Nai Talim" or "New Education," which integrated vocational training with education? A. Swami Vivekananda B. Rabindranath Tagore C. Mahatma Gandhi D.    Raja Ram Mohan Roy Q3. Which movement was instrumental in promoting education that included Indian languages and culture as part of the curriculum? A. The Swadeshi Movement B.    The Khilafat Movement C. The National Education Movement D. The Civil Disobedience Movement Q4. What was one of the key features of the National Education Movement? A.    Establishment of schools that adhered to Western educational methods exclusively B.    Incorporation of Indian history, culture, and values into the curriculum C.    Promotion of English as the sole medium of instruction D.    Focusing solely on the expansion of primary education Q5. Who was a prominent supporter of the National Education Movement and founded the Tagore's Visva-Bharati University? A. Subhas Chandra Bose B.    Jawaharlal Nehru C.    Rabindranath Tagore D.    Lala Lajpat Rai Q6. The National Education Movement in India aimed to address which of the following issues in the existing education system? A.    Overemphasis on British history and culture B.    Lack of opportunities for women in education C.    Absence of vocational training D.    Insufficient focus on higher education Q7. Which of the following was NOT a major objective of the National Education Movement? A.    Promotion of self-reliance and indigenous education B.    Reforming the curriculum to include Indian cultural values C.    Increasing government control over educational institutions D.    Expanding educational opportunities across different sections of society Q8. Which institution was established as part of the National Education Movement to promote education in alignment with nationalist ideals? A. The Indian Institute of Science B.    Aligarh Muslim University C.    Visva-Bharati University D.    Delhi University Q9. Which socio-religious leader was influential in the development of educational reforms that supported the National Education Movement? A.    Dayananda Saraswati B.    Swami Vivekananda C. B.R. Ambedkar D. Gopal Krishna Gokhale Q10. What was the role of vernacular languages in the National Education Movement? A.    They were discouraged in favor of English B.    They were promoted as mediums of instruction to make education more accessible and relevant C.    They were replaced with Sanskrit D.    They were only used in primary education, with English used for higher education 7.5    SUMMARY The National Education Movement in India, which gained momentum in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, was a critical component of the broader nationalist struggle for independence. This movement sought to reform and expand the educational system in a manner that fostered national pride and self-reliance. Driven by the desire to counter the colonial influence of British education, the movement aimed to integrate Indian history, culture, and values into the curriculum. Key figures such as Mahatma Gandhi, with his advocacy for "Nai Talim" (New Education), and Rabindranath Tagore, who founded Visva-Bharati University, played pivotal roles in promoting this vision. The movement emphasized the use of vernacular languages in education and the inclusion of vocational training, aiming to make education more relevant and accessible to the Indian populace. By focusing on self-reliance and the revival of indigenous educational practices, the National Education Movement contributed significantly to the growth of national consciousness and the development of an educational framework aligned with India's cultural and political aspirations. 7.6    GLOSSARY National Education Movement- A movement aimed at reforming and expanding the educational system in India to promote national pride, self-reliance, and the integration of Indian culture and values into the curriculum. Swadeshi Movement- A movement aimed at promoting Indian-made goods and boycotting British products as a form of economic self-reliance. 7.7    ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES Exercise-1 Answer1: B. Late 19th and early 20th century Answer2: C. Indian National Congress Answer3: B. Boycotting British goods and promoting Indian-made products Answer4: B. Raja Ram Mohan Roy Answer5: B. It led to the rise of a new educated class that became increasingly aware of political and social issues Answer6: B. Swadeshi Movement Answer7: A. Mahatma Gandhi Answer8: D. The expansion of the British military presence in India Answer9: D. The Rowlatt Act Answer10: A. Bal Gangadhar Tilak Exercise-2 Answer1: C. To reform and expand education in a way that fostered national pride and self-reliance Answer2: C. Mahatma Gandhi Answer3: C. The National Education Movement Answer4: B. Incorporation of Indian history, culture, and values into the curriculum Answer5: C. Rabindranath Tagore Answer6: A. Overemphasis on British history and culture Answer7: C. Increasing government control over educational institutions Answer8: C. Visva-Bharati University Answer9: B. Swami Vivekananda Answer10: B. They were promoted as mediums of instruction to make education more accessible and relevant 7.8    REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS •     Chaube, S. P: History and Problems of Indian Education, Vinod Peestak Mandir, Agra. •    Naik P. and Nurullah, S.: A Student’s History of Education in India, MaCMillan India Ltd., 1996. •     Aggarwal, J. C.: Landmarks in the History of Modern Indian Education, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 2005. •      Nurullah, S. and Naik, I. P.: History of Education in India during the British Period, MaCmillan India, 1951.Ll •     Purkait, B. R.: Milestones of Indian Education, New Central Book Agency, 2005, Kolkata. •    Rawat, P. L.: History of Indian Education, Ram Prasad & Sons, Agra, 1991. 7.9    TERMINAL QUESTIONS Q.1 Discuss the objectives and impact of the National Education Movement in India. Q.2 Analyze the role of key figures in the growth of national consciousness in India. Unit-8 CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY COMMISSION / SADLER COMMISSION (1917-19) Structure: 8.1    Introduction 8.2   Learning Objectives 8.3   Need for the setting of the commission/Appointment of the commission Self Check Exercise-1 8.4   Recommendations of the commission Self Check Exercise-2 8.5    Evaluation of the recommendations of the commission Self Check Exercise 8.6  Summary 8.7   Glossary 8.8   Answers to Self-Check Exercise 8.9   References/ suggested Readings 8.10  Terminal Questions 8.1   INTRODUCTION Gokhale’s Bill on primary education and the Government of India Resolution 1913 on education recommended that a university should be established in each province, teaching activities of the universities should be encouraged and colleges located in towns should be developed into teaching universities in due course of time. The outbreak of the First World War (1914-1919) however, delayed the development planned in the resolution as the Government had to concentrate its attention and energy over the war. After the war was over, the Government appointed the Calcutta University Commission in 1917 mainly to look into the affairs of Calcutta University, yet in its report it deals with different aspects of education. In this unit we will discuss the necessity for appointing the commission, its recommendations on different spheres of education along with an assessment of the recommendations of the commission. 8.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this unit, the learners will be able to; •     Understand the need for the setting of the commission/Appointment of the commission •     Analyse the Recommendations of the commission •     Evaluate the recommendations of the commission 8.3    NEED FOR THE SETTING UP OF THE COMMISSION First, we shall discuss the necessity for setting up the Calcutta University Commission of 1917. We know that after establishing three universities, namely University of Calcutta, University of Bombay and University of Madras in 1857, it was Lord Curzon who first tried to introduce some administrative reform of the university education by instituting a University Education Commission in 1902. Academic reform, however, remained totally unattended. In the report of the Commission there was no proposal for establishing new universities. Curzon’s policy of shrinkage and control of higher education received widespread criticism among the nationalist Indians. After the establishment Allahabad University in 1887 no new universities were opened for the next thirty years, but the number of the Colleges increased. At the time of the Government of India Resolution in 1913 there were only five universities in India and the number of colleges was beyond the control of the various universities within their territorial limits. As a result different administrative problems piled up in that period. Sir Asutosh Mukherji was the Vice Chancellor of Calcutta University. He started imparting post-graduate education in the university in 1916 as recommended by the University Education Commission of 1902. This has attracted the attention of the Government. By this time the London University was reorganized and reformed as per recommendations of the Royal Commission under the chairmanship of Lord Halden. Therefore it became a necessity to reform the Indian Universities also. All these circumstances led to the formation of the second university commission. i.e., Calcutta University Commission, 1917. Key Needs for Setting Up the Sadler Commission: 1.    Addressing Educational Inequality: By the early 20th century, there was growing concern about disparities in educational opportunities. The commission was set up to investigate and address these inequalities and to propose reforms that would ensure more equitable access to education. 2.    Evaluating the Effectiveness of the Education System: The existing education system was seen as inadequate in terms of its ability to provide quality education to all segments of society. The Sadler Commission was tasked with evaluating the effectiveness of the current system and suggesting improvements. 3.    Modernizing Education: The commission aimed to update and modernize the educational framework to better meet the needs of a rapidly changing society and economy. This included considering new pedagogical approaches and curriculum reforms. 4.    Responding to Social Changes: The early 20th century was a period of significant social change, including shifts in demographics and economic conditions. The commission was set up to ensure that the education system could adapt to these changes and support the development of a modern, informed citizenry. 5.    Improving Educational Standards: There was a need to raise educational standards and ensure that all children, regardless of their background, received a quality education. The commission sought to establish benchmarks and standards for education. 6.    Addressing Concerns of Stakeholders: There was considerable debate among educators, policymakers, and the public about how to improve education. The commission provided a formal mechanism for gathering input and addressing these concerns in a structured way. The Sadler Commission played a significant role in shaping educational policy in the UK and contributed to major reforms that aimed to create a more inclusive and effective education system. Appointment of the Commission: Let us see how the commission was appointed. The Government actually felt the necessity of investigating into the affairs of university education in 1914. Accordingly, a proposal was taken to reform the Indian Universities under the leadership of Lord Halden. But the proposal was not carried into affect due to the outbreak of the First World War Towards the fag end of the war, the Government of India took up the matter again. In 1917 the Government appointed the Calcutta University Commission to study and report on the problem of university education. The commission is also known as the Sadler Commission after the name of its chairman Dr. Michael E. Sadler, the Vice Chancellor of the university of Leeds. The other members of the Commission were Dr. Gregory, Prof. Ramsay Muir, Sir Hartog, Dr. Horniel, Dr. Zia Uddin Ahmed and Sir Asutosh Mukerji. Sir Asutosh Mukerji was the most influential member of the commission. It is said that most of the recommendations of the commission were far reaching consequences upon the development of university education in India as a whole. The commission made recommendations in regard to university secondary, women and professional education. It also recommended the establishment of an Inter University Board for coordinating the activities of different Indian Universities. SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-1 Q.1 What year was the Sadler Commission established? A)    1905 B)    1917 C)    1925 D)    1930 Q.2 Who chaired the Sadler Commission? A)    Sir Michael Sadler B)    Sir John Sadler C)    Sir Thomas Sadler D)    Sir William Sadler Q.3 What was the primary purpose of the Sadler Commission? A)    To improve military training B)    To reform the educational system C)    To develop new agricultural techniques D)    To address economic disparities Q.4 Which of the following was NOT a key concern of the Sadler Commission? A)    Educational inequality B)    Modernization of the curriculum C)    Expansion of the British Empire D)    Evaluation of the effectiveness of the education system Q.5 Which group did the Sadler Commission primarily focus on in terms of ensuring access to quality education? A)    Adults B)    Military personnel C)    Children D)    Business leaders Q.6 In what context was the Sadler Commission established? A)    During a period of economic boom B)    In response to World War I C)    During a time of technological stagnation D)    In the midst of a financial crisis Q.7 The Sadler Commission's recommendations were intended to address which of the following aspects of education? A)    Teacher salaries only B)    Curriculum design and pedagogical methods C)    Only higher education institutions D)    Religious education exclusively Q.8 Which sector benefited from the Sadler Commission’s reforms? A)    The industrial sector B)    The healthcare sector C)    The education sector D)    The transportation sector Q.9 The Sadler Commission was part of broader reforms in which country? A)    United States B)    Canada C)    Australia D)    United Kingdom Q.10 One of the outcomes of the Sadler Commission was an emphasis on: A)    Military training for students B)    Expanding school infrastructure C)    Reducing the number of schools D)    Increasing vocational training for all students 8. 4 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE COMMISSION Secondary Education: The commission has made discussion in detail about secondary education. Secondary and higher education are interlinked and secondary education is the basis of higher education. In the opinion of the Commission it is not possible to bring about revolutionary changes in the field of higher education without making changes in secondary education. Therefore, some fundamental changes were suggested in the secondary education for the sake of improving the university education. The commission recommended that the dividing line between the university and the secondary courses should be drawn at the Intermediate examination rather than at the Matriculation and the Government should create a new type of institution called Intermediate Colleges”. Now we shall discuss the existing defects of the secondary education system and then proceed to suggestions for reforms. Defects of Secondary Education: The commission has drawn attention to the following defects of secondary education: 1. The secondary schools are suffering from lack of educational tools and equipment. 2.    Secondary education has become narrow because of being over influenced by matriculation examination. 3.    The fundamental defect of secondary education is dearth of suitable teachers. 4.    Most of the teachers are untrained. 5.    The teachers are paid very poorly and it is difficult to procure efficient teachers with poor salary. 6.    The secondary schools are not inspected periodically and they are not given useful suggestions for their improvement. 7.    Most of the secondary schools are suffering from financial difficulties. 8.    The secondary schools are under the double control of university and the Government, and there is difference between university and the Government regarding their own area of control and administration. Suggestions for Reform: The commission realized that it is necessary to reorganize secondary education in order to give a desirable direction to university education. Therefore after pointing out the defects, the commission offered the following suggestions for reform- 1.    The first essential thing for the improvement of secondary education is the supply of necessary funds. The commission recommended sanctioning of 40 lacs of rupees annually for the purpose. 2.    The medium of instruction in the secondary schools should be the mother tongue. 3.    The curriculum of secondary schools should be diversified. 4.    A Board of Secondary and Intermediate education should be established in each province. 5.    The Board should be constituted with representative of the Government, the university, the secondary schools and the intermediate colleges. 6.    It should be entrusted with the administration and control of secondary education and intermediate education. 7.    Majority of the members should be non-official. It should represent both the Hindus and the Muslims. 8.    The Board of Secondary and Intermediate education will be an autonomous body and will be free from official interferences. Recommendations on intermediate stage: We must keep in our mind that the Commission recommendation of opening an intermediate stage is a completely new concept in the field of Indian education. This stage would be separated from both secondary and university education. The recommendations of the commission regarding this stage are- 1.    The intermediate stage would be between the stage of matriculation and the university education. 2.    Admission to the university should take place after the intermediate stage and not after the matriculation stage, as was done at that time. 3.    Intermediate colleges may either be run as independent institutions or may be attached to selected schools. 4.    The curriculum of the intermediate colleges should constitute Arts, Science, Engineering, Industrial education etc. 5.    The function of the Board of Secondary and Intermediate education was to define curriculum, conduct two examinations at the secondary stage and grant recognition to high schools and intermediate colleges. 6.    Classes at the intermediate stage should be small so that the teachers and students may come in close contact with each other. 7.    The medium of instruction in intermediate colleges should be the mother tongue except in case of English and Mathematics. Recommendations on University Education: We have already discussed about the recommendations of secondary and intermediate education. Now we will discuss the recommendation of the commission regarding university education. The main objective of the Sadler Commission was to reform university education in India and accordingly it gave importance to improving the quality of university education. The commission’s recommendations can be divided into two parts— academic and administrative. First we shall discuss the academic and then proceed to recommendations regarding administrative reform. (a)    Academic Reform: •     The duration of degree course should be three years after intermediate stage. •     Honours courses as distinct from pass course, should be opened in the universities. •      Provisions should be made for imparting instructions in Arts, Science, Engineering, Agriculture, Commerce and Medicine. •      The medium of instruction at the university level should be English. •      For the sake of better student teacher relationship seminar and tutorial classes may be held. •     Department of Education should be started and education should be taught as a discipline in MA, BA and Intermediate Course. •     A Director of Physical Training should be appointed for paying greater attention to the health and physical welfare of students. •     A Board of Students’ Welfare should also be appointed in each university to look after their wellbeing. •     The Commission recommended that oriental studies should be cultivated in the university. Muslims should be provided special educational facilities in order that their backwardness may be removed. (b)    Administrative Reforms: •     The commission recommended that the Government control over the universities should be less and flexible. •     University teachers should be appointed by Selection Committees constituted especially for the purpose. •     In place of Senate and Syndicate, there should be University Court and Executive Council for the management of the university. Professors of Colleges should be represented in large numbers in the administration •      Of the universities. •     For the conduct of examinations, appointment of teachers and curriculum construction, a powerful Academic Council with faculties of different subjects and Board of Studies should be formed. •     A full-time and paid Vice-Chancellor should be appointed. •     Closer Co-operation should be maintained between the colleges and the universities. An Inter University Board should be set up for connection and coordination among the different Indian Universities. Recommendations on Calcutta University: We know that this commission was appointed to enquire into the condition and workings of Calcutta University. Let’s discuss the recommendations of the commission regarding Calcutta University. In the opinion of the Commission the Calcutta University had assumed a huge dimension in the form of its various affiliated educational institutions. So it remarked that it was impossible for the university to perform its task successfully. The commission, therefore, recommended that— 1.    A unitary residential teaching university should be established at Dacca. 2.    The commission laid emphasis on the teaching functions of universities. It recommended that the Calcutta University should be made a real teaching university. 3.    The various colleges within the urban area should be organized into one university which should take up teaching work. 4.    The colleges of the mofussil areas should be developed in such a way that there may be gradual rise of new university centre’s by concentrating all possible resources for higher education on them. Other Educational Recommendations: It has been mentioned earlier that although the Sadler Commission was appointed to look into the affairs of Calcutta University, yet it dealt with some other aspects of university education also. The views of the commission with regard to some of the important issues are as follows: For a proper and all round development of the adolescent boys and girls, parents and teachers have a great role to play. Some suggestions have been discussed below -Recommendations for Training of Teachers: •      The commission rightly realized necessity of teachers’ training without which it is not possible to improve the standard of secondary education. The commission recommended the following suggestions— •     The number of trained teachers should be increased without any delay. •     Education should be taught as an independent subject in both intermediate and in BA Classes. Department of education should be created in Calcutta and Dacca universities for teaching education as an independent subject. Recommendations for Education of Women: •     For encouraging women education the commission gave the following suggestions : •     The Government should start Purdah schools for those girls whose parents have a desire to educate their daughter’s up to the age of 15 or 16. •     Co-education should be encouraged in those places where there were no separate institutions for the girls. •     A special Board of Women’s Education should be established in the Calcutta University and a special curriculum should be provided according to the educational needs of women. Women should be given training in medicine and teachers’ training. Recommendations for Technical and Vocational Education: The commission felt that education should not only prepare the pupils for Government jobs only, it should also encourage them to take up different technical and vocational education. In regard to technical and vocational education, the commission made the following recommendations— •     Applied Science and other allied subjects should be included in the university courses and proper arrangement should be made for their teaching. •     Vocational education should be started at the Intermediate stage. This measure would facilitate the beginning of vocational education at the university stage. Professional and vocational courses should be introduced in the universities. Modern Indian Languages: The Calcutta University commission laid special emphasis on the development of modern Indian languages and on the study of vernacular at different stages of education. In the opinion of the commission systematic effort must be made to promote the serious study of the vernaculars in secondary schools, intermediate colleges and in the university. SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-2 Q.1 What was one of the key recommendations regarding the curriculum by the Sadler Commission? A)    Focus exclusively on literacy and numeracy B)    Broaden the curriculum to include subjects such as history and science C)    Eliminate vocational training D)    Emphasize religious education only Q.2 The Sadler Commission recommended improvements in which area to enhance teacher effectiveness? A)    Teacher salaries only B)    Teacher training and professional development C)    School infrastructure D)    Student assessment methods Q.3 Which of the following was NOT a focus of the Sadler Commission’s recommendations? A)    Increasing school facilities and resources B)    Extending the duration of compulsory education C)    Reducing the role of local education authorities D)    Incorporating vocational training into the curriculum Q.4 The Sadler Commission emphasized the need to address which aspect of education to ensure more equitable access? A)    School uniform policies B)    Educational inequality and disparities C)    The curriculum for higher education D)    Student extracurricular activities Q.5 What was one of the recommendations related to the management and administration of schools? A)    Strengthen the role of local education authorities B)    Reduce government funding for schools C)    Centralize all school management decisions D)    Eliminate local educational boards Q.6 In terms of child welfare, what did the Sadler Commission suggest? A)    Reducing health services in schools B)    Ignoring student well-being in favor of academic performance C)    Improving health and welfare services for children D)    Focusing solely on academic achievement Q.7 What did the Sadler Commission propose regarding parental involvement in education? A)    Decrease parental involvement B)    Increase parental involvement and communication with schools C)    Limit parental input to school policy D)    Exclude parents from educational processes Q.8 The Sadler Commission recommended incorporating which type of training into the educational curriculum? A)    Military training B)    Vocational training C)    Agricultural training D)    Artistic training Q.9 Which of the following was a recommendation for improving the education system's infrastructure? A)    Reducing the number of classrooms B)    Expanding school facilities to accommodate more children C)    Closing underperforming schools D)    Decreasing educational budgets Q.10 The Sadler Commission's report highlighted the need for which type of ongoing activity to improve education? A)    Political campaigns for education reform B)    Continuous educational research and evaluation C)    Increased standard testing only D)    Limiting access to educational resources 8.6 AN EVALUATION OF THE RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE COMMISSION By now you have been familiar with all the recommendations of the Commission. Now we shall make an evaluation of all these recommendations. The recommendations of the Calcutta university commission have great importance in the field of Indian education. Although it was mainly appointed to look into the problems of Calcutta University, it made recommendations on almost all the main issues of secondary and higher education which were of great value to the higher education in India. They were in fact significant and applicable to the education of the entire country and a new life was infused into the educational system of the country. The report of the commission had far reaching significance in respect of the establishment of a separate board of secondary education, medium of education, vocational education, three year degree course, separation of intermediate education from university education, institution of honors courses, formation of Executive and Academic Council, Faculties and Board of Studies in universities, appointment of a Director in physical education, full time Vice-Chancellor and development of women education and teacher education. According to the recommendation of the commission the various universities in the country began to reorganize themselves. Thus, the commission gave a new life to the universities. Calcutta University was benefited immensely. Its working capacity was increased and it no longer remained only an examining body but was also engaged in teaching and doing research. The commission tried to make education useful for life by giving recommendations on women education, vocational education and teacher training. It fulfilled a great need of the country by declaring the mother tongue as the medium of instruction. The commission has been criticized on the ground that it proposed many new things much before time and they were not suitable in view of the circumstances prevailing at that time. It is said that the commission tried to pattern Calcutta University in the line of Oxford and Cambridge Universities and this attempt was not appropriate as the condition of India is different from England. Creating a separate Board of High school and Intermediate education was also considered much ahead of the time. But inspite of these shortcomings we must admit that the recommendations of the commission was able to give a new direction to all branches of education in India. Result of Recommendations of the Commission: Let’s discuss the effect of the recommendations of the Calcutta university commission on Indian education. The recommendations of the Sadler Commission greatly influenced the subsequent educational development in the next three decades. These developments may be identified as : Firstly, increase in the number of universities. Due to the suggestions of this commission a number of new universities were opened in the country. Of these, the universities at Patna, Osmania, Aligarh, Dacca, Lucknow, Delhi, Agra, Nagpur, Hyderabad and Annamalai may be mentioned. The number increased up to 30 within 1930. Secondly, teaching work done by the universities. Not only increase in numbers, teaching work also started in different universities. It is worth mentioning that the functions of the first three universities established in India, namely, Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were confined to affiliation, examination and conferring degrees. Teaching was the function of degree colleges and there was no provision for post-graduate education. But after the recommendation of the commission the number of teaching universities and residential universities increased. Most of the newly established universities were teaching universities. Thirdly, development of academic standard. Academic activities increased in the universities and colleges with the introduction Honors courses. The studies of different Indian languages started and facilities for higher studies and research were also created. The post of professor was created is the universities and the process of inviting learned faculties from abroad to broaden the academic outlook was also started. The department of Education was opened in Calcutta and Dacca universities. Fourthly, development of internal administration of the universities. Internal administration of the universities improved due to the formation of university court and Executive Council in lieu of previous Senate and Syndicate. Beside these, the creation of the Academic Council to deal with academic matters, such, as, curriculum construction, examination, research etc. greatly helped in improving the academic standard of the universities. As suggested by the commission an Inter University Board was also set up in 1925 for connection and coordination among the different Indian universities. Fifthly, provision for students’ welfare. For the first time attention of the universities were directed towards students’ welfare. A Board of students’ Welfare was formed in each university by following the suggestion of the commission. After observing all these it will not be wrong to conclude that the recommendations of the commission have been much more important than those of any previous commission on education. SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-3 Q.1 What was one of the primary objectives of the Sadler Commission? A)    To reform military training B)    To address educational inequalities and improve the education system C)    To develop new economic policies D)    To enhance agricultural techniques Q.2 Which of the following was a significant recommendation made by the Sadler Commission? A)    Limiting the duration of compulsory education B)    Increasing teacher training and professional development C)    Reducing the number of subjects taught in schools D)    Removing vocational training from the curriculum Q.3 The Sadler Commission emphasized the need for a broader curriculum. What subjects were recommended to be included? A)    Only mathematics and language arts B)    History, geography, science, and the arts C)    Only vocational training D)    Physical education and sports only Q.4 Which aspect of educational management did the Sadler Commission suggest strengthening? A)    Centralized government control B)    Local education authorities C)    Private educational institutions D)    International educational partnerships Q.5 The Sadler Commission recommended an extension of compulsory education. What was the purpose of this recommendation? A)    To reduce the school year duration B)    To ensure more comprehensive and continuous education for children C)    To focus only on advanced academic subjects D)    To eliminate vocational training in favor of academic subjects Q.6 In terms of child welfare, what did the Sadler Commission advocate for? A)    Reducing health services in schools B)    Ignoring student well-being C)    Improving health and welfare services for children D)    Focusing solely on academic achievement 8.6    SUMMARY Our discussion has focused on the need for setting up the Commission at the beginning of this unit. We have discussed the appointment of the commission in 1917 and its terms of references which were to enquire into the condition and working of Calcutta University and suggest measures for its reform. The commission submitted its report in 1919 and it was a comprehensive survey of the educational problems of secondary, collegiate and university education in India. Our discussion focuses on the recommendations regarding secondary education, where the commission points out the defects of the prevailing system and suggestions for reform. These were: sanction required fund to remove the financial difficulties, diversification of the curriculum, necessity of suitable teaching, need for inspection and creation of a Board of Secondary and Intermediate education. The function of the Board was to construct curriculum, conduct two examinations and grant recognition to high schools and intermediate colleges. Intermediate stage of education will be an independent stage free from both secondary and university education. The recommendations regarding universities can be divided into two parts— academic and administrative. Regarding academic reform, the commission suggested that the duration of degree courses should be of three years, honors courses should be opened and provisions should be made for instruction in Arts, Science, Commerce, Engineering, Agriculture and Medicine. Department of Education should be established in the universities and Director of Physical training should be appointed. Administrative reform includes appointment of a selection committee for selecting teachers, creation of university court and executive council for the management of the university and Academic Council for curriculum and conduct of examination. Emphasis was laid on teaching functions of the university while making recommendation concerning Calcutta university. 8.7    GLOSSARY Pedagogy: The method and practice of teaching. Public Elementary Schools: Schools providing basic education to children, typically from early childhood through primary grades. 8.8    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISE Exercise-1 Answer1: B) 1917 Answer2: A) Sir Michael Sadler Answer3: B) To reform the educational system Answer4: C) Expansion of the British Empire Answer5: C) Children Answer6: B) In response to World War I Answer7: B) Curriculum design and pedagogical methods Answer8: C) The education sector Answer9: D) United Kingdom Answer10: B) Expanding school infrastructure Exercise-2 Answer1: B) Broaden the curriculum to include subjects such as history and science Answer2: B) Teacher training and professional development Answer3: C) Reducing the role of local education authorities Answer4: B) Educational inequality and disparities Answer5: A) Strengthen the role of local education authorities Answer6: C) Improving health and welfare services for children Answer7: B) Increase parental involvement and communication with schools Answer8: B) Vocational training Answer9: B) Expanding school facilities to accommodate more children Answer10: B) Continuous educational research and evaluation Exercise-3 Answer1: B) To address educational inequalities and improve the education system Answer2: B) Increasing teacher training and professional development Answer3: B) History, geography, science, and the arts Answer4: B) Local education authorities Answer5: B) To ensure more comprehensive and continuous education for children Answer6: C) Improving health and welfare services for children 8.9    REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS •     Chaube, S. P: History and Problems of Indian Education, Vinod Peestak Mandir, Agra. •    Naik P. and Nurullah, S.: A Student’s History of Education in India, MaCMillan India Ltd., 1996. •     Aggarwal, J. C.: Landmarks in the History of Modern Indian Education, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 2005. •      Nurullah, S. and Naik, I. P.: History of Education in India during the British Period, MaCmillan India, 1951.Ll •     Purkait, B. R.: Milestones of Indian Education, New Central Book Agency, 2005, Kolkata. •    Rawat, P. L.: History of Indian Education, Ram Prasad & Sons, Agra, 1991. 8.10    TERMINAL QUESTIONS Q1. What are the recommendations of the Sadler Commission of 1917 regarding Indian universities? To what extent did the commission affect the development of higher education India? Q2. Give the recommendation of Sadler Commission. Discuss in this connection how these recommendations affected in the development of higher education in India. Q3.    Examine the recommendations of the Sadler Commission. What has been the impact of the recommendations of Sadler Commission on the nature of higher education in India? Q.4    Critically examine the recommendations of Calcutta University Commission and discuss its impact in the development of higher education in India. Unit-9 WARDHA SCHEME OF BASIC EDUCATION 1937: NEED, CHARACTERISTICS AND ITS CRITICAL EVALUATION Structure: 9.1    Introduction 9.2   Learning Objectives 9.3   Main Features of Basic Education Self Check Exercise-1 9.4   Recommendations of the Scheme Self Check Exercise-2 9.5   Critical Evaluation of the scheme Self Check Exercise-3 9.6  Summary 9.7   Glossary 9.8   Answers to Self-Check Exercises 9.9   References/ suggested Readings 9.10  Terminal Questions 9.1    INTRODUCTION The Wardha Scheme of Education, formulated in 1937, was a significant educational reform initiative proposed by the Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi and his colleagues. This scheme emerged from the need to address the limitations and inefficiencies of the existing education system in India, which was heavily influenced by British colonial policies and often failed to cater to the needs of rural and underprivileged communities. Gandhi's vision, articulated during the Wardha Conference, emphasized a curriculum that was deeply rooted in Indian culture, values, and practical skills. The scheme advocated for a system of education that integrated vocational training with academic learning, aiming to make education more relevant and useful to the lives of students. It sought to promote self-reliance, character building, and a sense of social responsibility among learners. The Wardha Scheme emphasized the importance of mother-tongue education, rural development, and the inclusion of crafts and manual work in the curriculum, reflecting Gandhi's broader vision of an educational system that would contribute to the holistic development of individuals and the upliftment of society. 9.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this unit, the learners will be able to; Describe the basic features of Wardha Scheme Understand the concept of Buniyadi shiksha 9.3    MAIN FEATURES OF BASIC EDUCATION Government of India Act, 1935, introduced a constitutional reforms and a new system of Governance, popularly known as Provincial Autonomy, came into operation in 1937, in British India. As a result of this political change of historic magnitude a wave of enthusiasm spread in the country. In seven provinces out of eleven Congress Ministry came to power. Therefore, it was hoped that the new provincial Governments would be able to plan educational reconstruction with a bolder and freer hand and execute it with vigour, firmness and speed. In 1937, M. Gandhi infused a new life by giving expression to his ideas about the problem of education in India and wanted that education should be given through “a profit yielding vocation”, so that it could become self-supporting. “Basic education links the children, whether of cities or the villages, to all that is best and lasting in us.” “The principal idea is to impart the whole education of the body, mind and soul through the handicraft that is taught to the children.” –Mahatma Gandhi “An education which does not teach us to discriminate between good and bad, to assimilate the one and eschew the other, is a misnomer.” –Mahatma Gandhi “The aim of university education should be to turn out true servants of the people who will live and die for the country's freedom.” –Mahatma Gandhi “The schools and colleges are really a factory for turning out clerks for Government.” –Mahatma Gandhi The Government of India Act, 1935 came into force in 1937. According to the Act, Congress Ministries were formed in seven provinces in India. Prior to this Congress had been strongly pleading for free, compulsory and universal education. After having the power the Congress had to implement it in action. Gandhiji was the leading figure of the Indian political scene and he came forward to meet the situation. Gandhiji was fully conversant with the deplorable condition of education in the land. For improving this condition he advocated a scheme of primary education based on Indian traditional culture through the medium of mother tongue. But this required a huge sum of money which meant fresh taxation. The situation was further complicated as Mahatma Gandhi promised to introduce total prohibition which again meant the loss of a huge amount of revenue. Congress was committed to both ‘prohibition and compulsion’. To end this dilemma Gandhiji put forward the proposal that the plan of mass education need not be held up for want of funds. Free and compulsory primary education could be given to every child if the process of schooling could be made self supporting by imparting education through a useful and productive craft. Gandhiji expressed his views on education through a series of articles in ‘Harijan’ in June 31, 1937, which later on developed into the Wardha Scheme of Basic Education. The views of Gandhiji created controversies in the academic circles. Therefore it was desirable to get the scheme examined by experts and educationists. Finally, Gandhiji placed his Basic Education System to the nation in the Wardha Conference in 1937. A national education conference was held at Wardha on 22–23 October 1937. Afterwards two model schools were opened at Wardha and nearby Segaon. Post-basic education and pre-basic education schools were developed after Gandhi's death. That there should be free and compulsory education given to all children for a period of seven years. •    That the process of education should be centered round some form of manual, productive work in the shape of a craft. •    The education should self - supporting to some extent. •    That the education should enable the child to discharge his duties and responsibilities of a good citizen. •    That the education should help the child in understanding and solving the problems of life. •    That the future citizens of this country should be imbued with the ideal if non -violence. •    That the education should be based on the principle, "Learn while you earn and earn while you learn". •    That the craft in basic education is to be chosen keeping in view the local needs and in harmony with the local environment. •    That the minimum universal education, which he considered indispensable for the successful working of democracy. Main Features of Basic Education: 1.    That the process of education should centre round some form of manual, productive work and all teaching is to be, as far as possible integrally related to it. 2.    That the social and physical environment of the pupils may also be used for purpose of correlation. 3.     That the evaluation of students is to be only internal and on the on the basis of day - to - day work of pupils. No external examinations need to be held. 4.    That the text books should be avoided as far as possible. 5.     That cleanliness, health, citizenship, work and worship, play and recreation should be given people emphasis. 6.    That the process of education should centre round some form of manual, productive work and all teaching is to be, as far as possible integrally related to it. 7.    That the social and physical environment of the pupils may also be used for purpose of correlation. 8.     That the evaluation of students is to be only internal and on the on the basis of day - to - day work of pupils. No external examinations need to be held. 9.    That the text books should be avoided as far as possible. 10.    That cleanliness, health, citizenship, work and worship, play and recreation should be given people emphasis. The Basic Education system under the Wardha Scheme was designed to address the practical needs of students and communities, reflecting Gandhi's vision of an education that is deeply connected to everyday life and social responsibility. SELF CHECK EXERCISE-1 Q.1 What was a key feature of the Basic Education system according to the Wardha Scheme? A)    Exclusive focus on academic subjects B)    Integration of vocational training with academic learning C)    Emphasis on higher education only D)    Elimination of manual work from the curriculum Q.2 Which of the following best describes the emphasis on craft and manual work in the Basic Education system? A)    Focused solely on theoretical knowledge B)    Included practical skills such as weaving and carpentry C)    Limited to urban industries D)    Excluded physical activities Q.3 The Basic Education system recommended teaching students primarily in: A)    English B)    A foreign language C)    Their mother tongue D)    Latin Q.4 What aspect of student development did the Basic Education system particularly emphasize? A)    Advanced research skills B)    Character building and moral education C)    Competitive examinations D)    Specialized higher education Q.5 How did the Basic Education system address the needs of rural communities? A)    By implementing urban-focused curricula B)    By tailoring education to the specific conditions and needs of rural areas C)    By ignoring rural needs in favor of urban development D)    By restricting education to major cities Q.6 The concept of self-reliance in the Basic Education system was aimed at: A)    Making students dependent on external resources B)    Encouraging students to develop skills for independence and self-sufficiency C)    Limiting practical skills development D)    Focusing solely on theoretical knowledge Q.7 What type of curriculum did the Basic Education system promote? A)    A rigid and uniform curriculum for all regions B)    A flexible and adaptable curriculum based on local needs C)    A curriculum solely focused on global education standards D)    A one-size-fits-all approach Q.8 Community involvement in the Basic Education system was intended to: A)    Reduce local input in educational decisions B)    Foster a sense of ownership and alignment with community values C)    Centralize all educational administration D)    Limit interaction between schools and local communities Q.9 Which administrative approach did the Basic Education system advocate for? A)    Centralized administration B)    Decentralized administration C)    Federal administration D)    Corporate administration Q.10 The Basic Education system's focus on holistic development aimed to: A)    Prioritize academic performance over personal growth B)    Ensure the overall growth of students, including physical, intellectual, emotional, and social aspects C)    Restrict development to academic achievements only D)    Focus solely on physical education 9.4 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE SCHEME The Wardha Scheme of Education, introduced by Mahatma Gandhi in 1937, sought to revolutionize the Indian education system by emphasizing practical and vocational training alongside academic learning. Central to the scheme was the concept of "Nai Talim" or Basic Education, which aimed to integrate work and study, ensuring that education was not only theoretical but also relevant and applicable to everyday life. The scheme advocated for using the mother tongue as the medium of instruction to enhance comprehension and comfort in learning. It proposed a curriculum that included practical skills and vocational training, promoting self-reliance and preparing students for the workforce. Furthermore, it stressed the importance of making education accessible to all, regardless of socio-economic status, and involved the local community in the educational process to ensure that schooling was tailored to local needs. By integrating moral values, promoting holistic development, and decentralizing education management, the Wardha Scheme sought to create a more inclusive and effective education system that addressed both individual and societal needs. It aimed to reform and revamp education to make it more relevant to the needs of the Indian society at that time. Here are some of the key recommendations and principles of the Wardha Scheme: 1.    Basic Education (Nai Talim): Emphasis on "Nai Talim" or Basic Education, which integrates vocational training with academic learning. The idea was to make education more practical and relevant to daily life by combining work and study. 2.    Mother Tongue as the Medium of Instruction: Education should be imparted in the child’s mother tongue to ensure better understanding and comfort. This principle aimed to foster more effective learning and communication. 3.    Curriculum Focused on Practical Skills: The curriculum should be designed to include practical skills and vocational training alongside academic subjects. This would help students become self-reliant and prepared for the workforce. 4.    Education for All: Emphasis on making education accessible to all, regardless of socio-economic status. The scheme aimed to eliminate disparities in education and promote equality. 5.    Activity-Based Learning: Education should be activity-based rather than purely theoretical. This approach helps in developing practical skills and a better understanding of the subject matter. 6.    Community Involvement: Schools should actively involve the local community in the educational process. This ensures that education is relevant to the local context and needs. 7.    Integration of Values: The education system should integrate moral and ethical values, promoting character development alongside academic and vocational skills. 8.    Decentralized Education System: The scheme advocated for a decentralized education system where local communities have a say in managing and running schools, making the system more responsive to local needs. 9.    Emphasis on Craftsmanship: Skills related to local crafts and industries should be taught to students, ensuring that they acquire useful and marketable skills. 10.    Holistic Development: Focus on the overall development of students, including physical, mental, and emotional growth, rather than just academic achievement. The Wardha Scheme was visionary in its approach, aiming to create an education system that was practical, inclusive, and closely tied to the needs of society. While the scheme has undergone various modifications over the decades, its core principles continue to influence educational reforms in India and beyond. Other Recommendation: 1.    Light refreshment. Research has established a very close relationship between malnutrition and backwardness at school considering the almost universal undernourishment of the village children; we recommend that every effort should be made to remedy the defect by providing light nourishment to all children during school hours. We are confident that the state will be able to secure enough co-operations from the public to meet the expenses involved in the undertaking. 2.    Teacher salary. With regard to the teacher’ salaries, we endorse Gandhiji’s suggestion that “it should, if possible, be Rs.25 and never less than Rs.20.” But we also contemplate that for teaching the higher classes of the school, it may be necessary to employ some teachers with higher academic qualifications, and for them a somewhat higher pay may have to provide. 3.    Competent teacher. We recommend that during the first two or three years of this experiment, specially qualified and competent teachers should be secured – even if their pay is somewhat higher –so that in selected schools they may work out the necessary details and technique of the syllabus and the new methods of teaching. When this pioneering stage has been successfully crossed, it will be possible for average teachers who fairly satisfactorily. 4.    Number of student. We are of opinion that the average number of students in any class should not exceed thirty. If the number is large, it will not be possible for the teacher to discharge his heavy and responsible duties efficiently. 5.    Selection of teachers. In the selection of teachers, preference should be given to those who belong to the locality in which the school is situated. 6. Facilities. In order to encourage women to take to this profession, special efforts should be made to provide facilities for training them as teachers. 7. Careful selection. The problem of selecting suitable candidates for training should be carefully and competently examined, and a reliable technique of selection evolved. We are convinced that unless this difficult problem is tackled the scheme will have little chance of success. Teaching required special social and moral aptitude and qualities, and it is not right to assume that everyone who volunteers to enter the profession is suitable for it. We must therefore, conduct our selection with great care and forethought and preferably take only those who belong to what the psychologists call ‘the social type’. 8.    Residential Training Institution. We suggest that these training institutions should be resident 9.    Expert. In these institutions expert artisans of craftsmen may be employed to give craft training. Local artisans may also be utilized, if necessary to help the teachers of basic schools in their craft teaching and in putting the finishing touches for marketing purposes to the material produced by the students. 10.    Refresher Courses. Refresher courses on a large scale should be gradually organized at training colleges and schools, in order to maintain and improve the efficiency of teachers. Such course should be of various types –cultural, professional and industrial. SELF CHECK EXERCISE-2 Q.1 Who formulated the Wardha Scheme of Education? A)    Jawaharlal Nehru B)    Mahatma Gandhi C)    S. Radhakrishnan D)    B.R. Ambedkar Q.2 What is the primary focus of the "Nai Talim" approach in the Wardha Scheme? A)    Purely academic learning B)    Vocational training integrated with academic education C)    Emphasis on English language skills D)    Focus on higher education only Q.3 According to the Wardha Scheme, which language should be used as the medium of instruction? A)    English B)    Hindi C)    Mother tongue D)    Sanskrit Q.4 What did the Wardha Scheme recommend regarding community involvement in education? A)    Schools should be managed solely by government officials. B)    Local communities should be actively involved in managing and running schools. C)    Education should be centralized with no community input. D)    Only government schools should be involved in community activities. Q.5 Which of the following is NOT a principle of the Wardha Scheme of Education? A)    Emphasis on vocational skills and practical learning B)    Making education accessible to all C)    Focusing solely on theoretical academic knowledge D)    Integration of moral and ethical values Q.6 What type of curriculum did the Wardha Scheme advocate for? A)    A strictly academic curriculum with no vocational elements B)    A curriculum that includes both academic subjects and practical vocational skills C)    A curriculum focused only on religious education D)    A curriculum based on foreign education systems Q.7 What was the goal of integrating vocational training into the education system under the Wardha Scheme? A)    To ensure students are prepared for higher education only B)    To help students acquire practical skills and become self-reliant C)    To focus only on theoretical knowledge D)    To reduce the emphasis on moral education Q.8 How did the Wardha Scheme propose to address educational disparities? A)    By limiting education to the elite class B)    By providing education only in urban areas C)    By making education accessible to all socio-economic groups D)    By focusing on international education systems 9.5 CRITICAL EVALUATION OF THE SCHEME The Wardha Scheme of Education, introduced by Mahatma Gandhi in 1937, was a groundbreaking initiative aimed at reforming the Indian education system by integrating vocational training with academic learning. Its strengths included promoting practical skills and craftsmanship, using the mother tongue as the medium of instruction to enhance comprehension, and emphasizing holistic development that covered moral, physical, and emotional growth. Additionally, the scheme's focus on community involvement sought to make education more relevant and inclusive. However, its implementation faced significant challenges. Many schools struggled with balancing vocational training and academic subjects due to resource constraints and insufficient infrastructure. Resistance from traditionalists and the inconsistent quality of education between urban and rural areas further hindered its effectiveness. Despite these challenges, the Wardha Scheme represented a visionary attempt to address educational inequalities and relevance, laying important groundwork for future reforms. The Wardha Scheme of Education, proposed by Mahatma Gandhi in 1937, represented a significant shift in educational philosophy and practice. While it was revolutionary in many ways, its implementation and impact have been subject to both praise and criticism. Here’s a critical evaluation of the scheme: Strengths: 1.    Meaningful Education: It provided us meaningful education as it rooted in our cultural heritage. Through his basic Education Gandhiji revived the ancient valueorientation, giving a new impetus to action and experimentation which he derived from science as well as his own experiences. Gandhiji educated people for the sustainable of all around development. 2.    Self supporting. Gandhiji’s concept of education involves the making of education self-supporting, so that the student may be trained to become an earning unit after the completion of his studies. Like the concept of ‘bread-labour,’ Gandhiji also seems to have assimilated this concept of education from John Ruskin, who wrote, “Education does not mean teaching people what they do not know. It means teaching them to behave as they do not behave. It means training them into the perfect exercise and kindly continual of their bodies and the souls.” Gandhiji also defined education as, “drawing out of the best in the establishment of an egalitarian society, and remove the class dimension of Indian educational pattern.” Dr. Prem Kripal holds, “between the class education and the mass education we have favoured the children of the well-to do families. Between those who can afford full time education and the working population, India has exercised the choice in favour of the privileged ones.” It is in this context that there is a need of fundamental change in the total education system in India and as Prof. Anil Mishra suggest , it must be replaced , by taking Gandhian notion of education so that the goal of Swaraj can be fulfilled, not in theory , but in practice. 3.    Sound Education. Basic Education outlined by the Wardha scheme of Education seems to be sound. Even if, it is not ‘self –supporting ‘it may be accepted as a matter of sound educational policy and as an urgent measure of national reconstruction.”Apart from its financial implications, we are of opinion that a measurable check will be useful in ensuring thoroughness and efficiency in teaching and in the work of the students. Without some such check, there is great danger of work becoming slack and losing all educative value. This is only too obvious from experience of education, from experience of educationists who from time to time have introduced ‘manual training ‘or other ‘practical activities ‘in their schools. 4.    Integration of Vocational Training: One of the scheme’s most notable strengths was its integration of vocational training with academic education. By incorporating practical skills and craftsmanship into the curriculum, it aimed to make education more relevant to students' lives and future employment, fostering self-reliance and practical skills. 5.    Emphasis on Mother Tongue: The recommendation to use the mother tongue as the medium of instruction was progressive. It was intended to facilitate better understanding and communication, enhancing learning outcomes and making education more accessible to a broader population. 6.    Holistic Development: The scheme emphasized the holistic development of students, including moral, physical, and emotional growth, in addition to academic achievements. This approach aimed to produce well-rounded individuals with a strong ethical foundation. 7.    Community Involvement: By advocating for community involvement in managing and running schools, the scheme sought to ensure that education was tailored to local needs and contexts, thereby making it more relevant and inclusive. 8.    Accessibility and Equality: The Wardha Scheme aimed to make education accessible to all, regardless of socio-economic status, promoting equality and reducing disparities in educational opportunities. Weaknesses: 1.    Implementation Challenges: Despite its visionary aspects, the implementation of the Wardha Scheme faced numerous challenges. The integration of vocational training into the curriculum was often uneven, and many schools struggled to balance academic and practical components effectively. 2.    Resource Limitations: The success of the scheme relied heavily on adequate resources, including trained teachers and infrastructure for vocational training. In practice, many schools lacked the necessary resources and support to fully implement the scheme’s recommendations. 3.    Resistance to Change: The scheme faced resistance from various quarters, including those who preferred traditional academic approaches or were skeptical about the feasibility of vocational training in a primarily academic system. This resistance often hindered the scheme’s adoption and effectiveness. 4.    Inconsistent Quality: The quality of education under the Wardha Scheme varied significantly between urban and rural areas. While urban areas might have had better infrastructure and resources, rural areas often struggled with inadequate facilities and training, leading to inconsistent educational experiences. 5.    Focus on Rural Context: The scheme was heavily influenced by the rural context of 1930s India and may not have fully addressed the needs of urban or modernizing contexts. As a result, its applicability and effectiveness in diverse educational settings were limited. 6.    Curriculum Overload: Combining vocational training with academic subjects sometimes led to an overloaded curriculum, which could dilute the effectiveness of both components. Students and teachers often found it challenging to manage this balance effectively. SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-3 Q.1 What was one of the primary goals of the Wardha Scheme of Education? A)    To focus solely on academic subjects B)    To integrate vocational training with academic education C)    To increase the use of English as the medium of instruction D)    To limit education to urban areas only Q.2 Which of the following was a major challenge in implementing the Wardha Scheme? A)    Overabundance of resources B)    Excessive community support C)    Resource limitations and insufficient infrastructure D)    Universal acceptance of the scheme Q.3 How did the Wardha Scheme propose to use the mother tongue in education? A)    As a supplementary language alongside English B)    As the sole medium of instruction C)    Only in religious education classes D)    For administrative purposes only Q.4 What was one of the strengths of the Wardha Scheme related to community involvement? A)    Education was managed solely by government officials. B)    The scheme promoted active involvement of local communities in managing schools. C)    It centralized control of education in urban centers. D)    It reduced the role of local communities in education. Q.5 Which aspect of the Wardha Scheme faced resistance from traditionalists? A)    Integration of moral education B)    Emphasis on vocational training C)    Use of foreign languages in education D)    Decentralization of educational management Q.6 What was a significant issue with the quality of education under the Wardha Scheme? A)    Uniform quality across all schools B)    Overemphasis on theoretical knowledge C)    Inconsistent quality between urban and rural areas D)    Excessive focus on extracurricular activities Q.7 Which of the following was a limitation faced by the Wardha Scheme regarding the curriculum? A)    Lack of academic subjects B)    Overloaded curriculum with both vocational and academic subjects C)    Too much focus on vocational training only D)    Curriculum solely based on international education standards Q.8 What aspect of the Wardha Scheme was influenced by the rural context of 1930s India? A)    The focus on higher education B)    The emphasis on urban-centric education reforms C)    The integration of practical vocational training D)    The promotion of English as a universal medium of instruction 9.6    SUMMARY The Wardha Scheme of Education was a pioneering effort to reform education by making it more practical, inclusive, and community-oriented. Its strengths in promoting vocational training, mother tongue instruction, and holistic development were significant and forward-thinking. However, practical challenges in implementation, resource limitations, and resistance to change impacted its success. While the scheme laid the groundwork for future educational reforms, its execution revealed the complexities involved in transforming educational systems. 9.7    GLOSSARY Basic Education (Nai Talim): A concept introduced by Mahatma Gandhi emphasizing the integration of vocational training with academic learning to make education practical and relevant to daily life. Vocational Training: Instruction that prepares students for specific trades or crafts, focusing on practical skills and work readiness, as opposed to purely academic subjects. Mother Tongue: The native language spoken by an individual or community. In the context of the Wardha Scheme, it refers to using the mother tongue as the primary medium of instruction to enhance understanding and comfort in learning. 9.8    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISES Exercise-1 Answer1: B) Integration of vocational training with academic learning Answer2: B) Included practical skills such as weaving and carpentry Answer3: C) Their mother tongue Answer4: B) Character building and moral education Answer5: B) By tailoring education to the specific conditions and needs of rural areas Answer6: B) Encouraging students to develop skills for independence and selfsufficiency Answer7: B) A flexible and adaptable curriculum based on local needs Answer8: B) Foster a sense of ownership and alignment with community values Answer9: B) Decentralized administration Answer10: B) Ensure the overall growth of students, including physical, intellectual, emotional, and social aspects Exercise-2 Answer1: B) Mahatma Gandhi Answer2: B) Vocational training integrated with academic education Answer3: C) Mother tongue Answer4: B) Local communities should be actively involved in managing and running schools. Answer5: C) Focusing solely on theoretical academic knowledge Answer6: B) A curriculum that includes both academic subjects and practical vocational skills Answer7: B) To help students acquire practical skills and become self-reliant Answer8: C) By making education accessible to all socio-economic groups Exercise-3 Answer1: B) To integrate vocational training with academic education Answer2: C) Resource limitations and insufficient infrastructure Answer3: B) As the sole medium of instruction Answer4: B) The scheme promoted active involvement of local communities in managing schools. Answer5: B) Emphasis on vocational training Answer6: C) Inconsistent quality between urban and rural areas Answer7: B) Overloaded curriculum with both vocational and academic subjects Answer8: C) The integration of practical vocational training 9.9    REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS •     Chaube, S. P: History and Problems of Indian Education, Vinod Peestak Mandir, Agra. •    Naik P. and Nurullah, S.: A Student’s History of Education in India, MaCMillan India Ltd., 1996. •     Aggarwal, J. C.: Landmarks in the History of Modern Indian Education, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 2005. •      Nurullah, S. and Naik, I. P.: History of Education in India during the British Period, MaCmillan India, 1951.Ll •     Purkait, B. R.: Milestones of Indian Education, New Central Book Agency, 2005, Kolkata. •    Rawat, P. L.: History of Indian Education, Ram Prasad & Sons, Agra, 1991. 9.10    TERMINAL QUESTIONS 1.     Write an essay on Wardha Scheme of basic education. 2.     Discuss the need and characteristics of basic education. 3.     Discuss the merits of basic education. Unit-10 SARGENT REPORT ON EDUCATION, 1944 Structure: 10.1    Introduction 10.2    Learning Objectives 10.3    Main Features of Sargent Report Self Check Exercise-1 10.4    Recommendations of the Committee Self Check Exercise-2 10.5    Critical Evaluation of the Report Self Check Exercise-3 10.6    Summary 10.7    Glossary 10.8  Answers to Self-Check Exercises 10.9  References/ suggested Readings 10.10    Terminal Questions 10.1    INTRODUCTION In 1944, the Central Advisory Board of Education which is an all- India advisory body set up by the Government of India submitted a comprehensive Report on PostWar Educational Development containing certain important recommendations. The report, more popularly known as the Sargent Report after Sir John Sargent who was Educational Adviser to the Government of India, visualized a system of universal, compulsory and free education for all boys and girls between the ages of 6 and 14, the Senior Basic or the Middle School being the final stage in the school career of majority of the future citizens. It was also recommended by this Committee that at the Middle School stage, provision should be made for a, variety of courses extending over a period of five years after the age of 11. These courses while preserving an essentially cultural character should be designed to prepare the pupils for entry into industrial and commercial occupations as well as into the Universities. It was recommended that the High School course should cover 6 years, the normal age of admission being 11 years and that the High Schools should be of two main types (a) academic, and (b) technical. The objective of both should be to provide a good all-round education combined with some preparation in the latter stages for the careers which pupils will pursue on leaving schools. 10.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you will be able to: Explain the reason for appointing the Sargent Committee in 19442. Illustrate the structure of Education Proposed in the Report Describe the Suggestions made by the Committee in different aspects of education. 10.3    SARGENT REPORT ON EDUCATION 1944 We already know about the Gandhiji’s Wardha Scheme of Basic Education, 1937. Before that, the reports of the various committees and commissions suggested significant educational reforms in regard to national development. Government of India resolutions, 1913 was followed by Sadler Commission’s Report of 1917, and the Hartog Committee Report in 1929 and then by the Wardha Scheme, 1937. Keeping in view the reforms suggested by all these reports, the British Government had begun to understand the seriousness of the situation in the area of education. Ultimately in the middle forties the Government of India realized that it could no longer be indifferent to the problem of education of the Indian people and there was the need of bringing about radical reform in all aspects of Indian education. As the British became hopeful of its victory in the Second World War, it directed its attention to do something for the Indian people in the field of education. So it advised Sir John Sargent, the Educational Advisor to the Government of India, to prepare a comprehensive scheme of education for educational reform in India. In this unit we will discuss the major points of recommendations regarding pre-primary, primary, secondary, university and other aspects of education in our country as proposed in the Sargent Report, 1944. We will also evaluate the recommendations of this report Formation of the committee: It has been mentioned above that Sir John Sargent, the Educational Adviser to the Government of India was asked to prepare a comprehensive report on education. For the purpose, the government formed a Committee of Enquiry with 22 members. The report of the committee was submitted to the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) in 1944. The Board accepted it in ‘toto’ and recommended its enforcement. The scheme was known as ‘Sargent Scheme of Education’ as it was prepared by John Sargent. It is also known as ‘Report by the Central Advisory Board of Education’ and also as the plan for post-war educational reconstruction in India. This scheme has a historical importance as it was the first attempt to develop a National System for Education in India. The report of the Committee consisted of 12 different chapters covering from pre-primary to university education. It was a fully fledged educational plan for the future educational reconstruction in India. The report had diagnosed every problem critically and had given definite and clear-cut solutions. It deals with almost all types of education for all classes of people in India. This was the first report that present a comprehensive picture of education in our country at that period of time. The report is undoubtedly a valuable educational document. Hence, it deserves a careful study. It must be mentioned here that this plan is not entirely a new plan. It is rather the summery of different resolutions, minutes and proceedings of the CABE since 1936. The Sargent Report, formally known as the "Report of the Secondary Education Commission" (1944), was a significant document in the history of Indian education. It was chaired by Sir John Sargent, a British educationist, and aimed to address various aspects of secondary education in India. Here are the main features of the Sargent Report: 1.    Curriculum Reform: The report recommended a comprehensive revision of the secondary school curriculum to make it more relevant and practical. It emphasized the need for a balanced approach that included not only academic subjects but also practical and vocational training. 2.    Education for All: The Sargent Report highlighted the importance of providing secondary education to a broader segment of the population. It advocated for expanding educational opportunities and improving access, especially in rural and underprivileged areas. 3.    Pedagogical Approaches: It called for modernizing teaching methods and techniques. The report suggested adopting a more student-centered approach, encouraging active learning, and utilizing innovative teaching aids and methods. 4.    Teacher Training and Development: The report stressed the need for improving the quality of teacher training and professional development. It recommended the establishment of training colleges and programs to ensure that teachers were well-equipped to handle the evolving educational demands. 5.    Vocational Education: Recognizing the importance of practical skills, the report advocated for the inclusion of vocational subjects and training within the secondary education framework. It aimed to bridge the gap between academic learning and practical skills needed for employment. 6.    Educational Administration: The Sargent Report proposed changes in educational administration to make it more effective and efficient. It suggested decentralizing control and enhancing the role of local educational authorities in decisionmaking processes. 7.    Infrastructure and Facilities: It recommended improvements in educational infrastructure, including the development of better school buildings, laboratories, and libraries. The report highlighted the need for adequate resources and facilities to support effective learning. 8.    Examination System: The report suggested reforms in the examination system to reduce rote learning and stress on examinations. It advocated for continuous assessment methods and a more holistic approach to evaluating student performance. 9.    Integration of Indian Culture and Values: The Sargent Report emphasized incorporating Indian culture, history, and values into the curriculum to foster a sense of national identity and pride among students. 10.    Student Welfare: It underscored the importance of addressing student welfare, including mental and physical health. The report suggested measures to support students' overall well-being, including better guidance and counseling services. The Sargent Report played a crucial role in shaping secondary education policy in India, advocating for a more inclusive, practical, and modern educational system that aimed to meet the needs of a diverse and evolving society. SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-1 Q.1 Who was the chairperson of the Sargent Report? A)    Sir John Sargent B)    Mahatma Gandhi C)    Jawaharlal Nehru D)    Dr. Radhakrishnan Q.2 What did the Sargent Report recommend regarding the curriculum? A)    Focus solely on academic subjects B)    Comprehensive revision to include practical and vocational training C)    Eliminate vocational subjects entirely D)    Emphasize rote learning and examinations Q.3 Which aspect of teacher training did the Sargent Report emphasize? A)    Reducing teacher training programs B)    Improving the quality and establishment of training colleges C)    Eliminating professional development requirements D)    Focusing only on administrative skills Q.4 How did the Sargent Report propose to address educational access? A)    By limiting secondary education to urban areas B)    By expanding educational opportunities to rural and underprivileged areas C)    By focusing only on higher education D)    By eliminating secondary education altogether Q.5 What was one of the main recommendations regarding the examination system in the Sargent Report? A)    Increase emphasis on rote learning B)    Focus solely on final examinations C)    Implement continuous assessment methods and a holistic evaluation approach D)    Eliminate continuous assessments and focus only on periodic exams Q.6 What did the Sargent Report suggest about educational administration? A)    Centralize control in the national government B)    Decentralize control and enhance local educational authorities' roles C)    Limit the role of local authorities D)    Abolish local educational authorities Q.7 Which area of student support was highlighted in the Sargent Report? A)    Only academic performance B)    Student welfare, including mental and physical health C)    Focus solely on extracurricular activities D)    Elimination of guidance and counseling services Q.8 How did the Sargent Report propose to incorporate Indian culture into education? A) By focusing exclusively on Western education systems B)    By integrating Indian culture, history, and values into the curriculum C)    By removing all cultural references from the curriculum D)    By emphasizing only foreign languages and cultures Q.9 What was a key feature of the Sargent Report’s recommendations on infrastructure? A)    Reducing investment in school facilities B)    Improving school buildings, laboratories, and libraries C)    Focusing solely on administrative offices D)    Eliminating the need for modern educational facilities Q.10 Which teaching approach did the Sargent Report advocate? A)    Traditional lecture-based methods B)    Modern, student-centered learning with innovative teaching aids C)    Focus on rote memorization and passive learning D)    Exclusive use of text-based learning 10.4 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE COMMITTEE The Sargent Report, or the "Report of the Secondary Education Commission" (1944), proposed several pivotal reforms to improve secondary education in India. It recommended a balanced curriculum that integrated academic subjects with vocational training to make education more practical and relevant to students' future careers. The report emphasized expanding secondary education to ensure greater accessibility, especially in rural areas, and suggested modernizing teaching methods by adopting student-centered approaches and innovative teaching aids. It also highlighted the need for improved teacher training through the establishment of more training colleges and ongoing professional development. Additionally, the report called for better educational infrastructure, including modern school facilities and resources. It proposed reforms to the examination system, advocating for continuous assessment rather than relying solely on final exams, and stressed the importance of incorporating Indian culture and values into the curriculum to foster national identity. Lastly, the report addressed student welfare by recommending guidance and counseling services to support students' overall well-being. These recommendations aimed to create a more inclusive, practical, and effective educational system. RECOMMENDATIONS REGARDING THE PREPRIMARY EDUCATION: For the first time in India, official attention was given towards the pre-primary stage of education. The major suggestions are recommended as: 1.    Provision should be made for pre-primary education in the form of nursery schools for the success of National Scheme of Education. 2.    Children from 3—6 years of age should be admitted in these schools. On the basis of a normal age-range of three to six years provisions has been made for 10,00,000places in nursery schools and classes. 3.    The basic aim of these schools should be to impart social experience and education of general behaviour rather than giving formal education. 4.    The nursery schools may be attached to junior basic schools in the rural areas. 5.    In the urban areas where there are sufficient numbers of children, nursery schools should have separate existence. 6.    Pre-primary education should be free. While it may not be feasible to make attendance compulsory, no efforts should be spread to persuade parents to send their children to school voluntarily, particularly in areas where housing conditions are unsatisfactory and mothers are accustomed to gout of work. 7.    It was estimated that the pre-primary education will require annually Rs. 3, 18, 40,000/- for ten lakh people. RECOMMENDATIONS REGARDING BASIC EDUCATION: 1.    Provision should be made for free and compulsory primary or basic education for all children between the ages of 6 and 14. 2.    The course of basic education should be divided into parts: Junior Basic and Senior Basic, the former to be given to all children between the ages 6-11 and the latter to be given to those who could not proceed to high school. 3.    Basic Education should not be expected to pay for itself through the sale of articles produced by the pupils. 4.    The basic craft to be taught should be suitable to local conditions. 5.    Mother-tongue should be the medium of instruction of Senior and Junior Basic Schools. 6.    The education imparted should be general and emphasis should not be laid on the teaching of 3 R’s only. 7.    English should not be taught in Junior Basic Schools. It can be taught in Senior Basic Schools only when the 8.    Education Department of the Province gives its decision in its favour. 9.    The standards of training, recruiting and conditions of service of teachers should be raised. 10.    In place of external examinations there should be internal examinations and successful candidates should be awarded certificates. 11.    Attendance officers should be appointed to introduce compulsion. 12.    The Senior Basic Schools should provide for corporate living. Physical training, organizing of games is essential to supplement the instruction given in the class room. The Sargent Report endorsed the recommendations of the two committee’s appointed by the central advisory on basic education. (a)Recommendations of the first Committee: 1.    The scheme of basic education should first be introduced in rural areas. 2.    The age range for compulsion should be six to fourteen years, but children can be admitted to the basic school at the age of five. 3.    Diversion of students from the basic school to other kinds of schools should allowed after the 5th class or about the age of eleven plus. 4.    The medium of instruction should be mother tongue of the pupils. 5.    A Common language for India is desirable. This should be Hindustani with both Urdu and Hindi scripts. Options should be given to children to choose the script, and provision should be made for teaching them in the script .Every teacher should know both scripts. 6.    Certain elements of cultural subjects, which cannot be correlated with the basic craft, must be taught independently. 7.    The training of teachers should be recognized and their status rose. 8.    No teacher should receive Rs. 20 per mensem. 9.    Efforts should be made to recruit more women teachers and to persuade girls of good education to take up the teaching. 10.    Basic schools should be started only when suitable trained teachers are available. 11.    The curriculum will need revision in the light of experience. 12.    English should not be introduced as an optional subject in the basic schools. 13.    The state should provide facilities as at present for every community to give religious teaching, when so desired but not at the cost of the state. 14.    No external examinations need be held. At the end of the basic school course a leaving certificate based on the internal examination should be given. 15.    Pupils wishing to join other schools at the end of the 5th class (age eleven plus) should also be granted a leaving certificate. 16.    Promotions from class to class will be determined by the schools, though the results of the internal examinations should be subject to the supervisor’s inspection. (b) Recommendations of the second committee: 1. Whilethe provision of ‘pre –basic’ education in nursery and infants school and classes in highly desirable, it is not practical at this stage , in view of the lack both of money and of trained women teachers ,to advocate its instruction on a compulsory basis. Provincial Governments should aim in the first place (a) at providing model infants and nursery schools in suitable centre’s, (b) at increasing the supply of properly trained infant teachers, who should be women,(c) at encouraging the enrolment in ‘basic’ schools of children below the minimum age for compulsory attendance, and at stimulating the provision by voluntary agencies of efficient ‘pre-basic schools’. 2.    ‘Basic’ education should comprise a course of eight years from the age of six to fourteen years and that this course while preserving its essential unity should consist of two stages –the first stage, the ‘junior’ stage, covering a period of five years and the second stage, the ‘senior’, three years. 3.    The transfer of children from the ‘basic’ school to other forms of post-primary education should be allowed after the 5th grade, i.e., at the conclusion of the ‘junior basic’ stage. 4.    The various types of post –primary school (other than the ‘senior basic’ school) to which suitable children may be transferred at the end of the junior ‘basic stage’ should provide a variety of courses extending over a period of at least five years after the age of eleven. These courses, while preserving an essentially cultural character, should be designed to prepare pupils for entry to industrial and commercial occupations as well as to universities. 5.    Special arrangements should be made in these schools for assimilating pupils who decide to continue their education after completing the full course in the basic school i.e., after reaching the 8th class. 6.    Suitable courses should be framed for girls attending ‘senior basic’ schools which should include such subjects as cookery, laundry work, need work, home craft, the care of children and first aid, the remainder of the instruction To be correlated with this course of domestic science in accordance with the general principles of the ‘basic education’ scheme. 7.    A standing committee of the Central Advisory Board of Education should be appointed to watch new educational experiments carried on in the provinces as well as the progress of educational development generally, with special reference to ‘basic’ education and to make recommendations to the board of necessary action. There should be a representative of the Hindustani Tamil Sangh on this committee. 8. Subject to such conditions are as set out in the report of the Central Government should contribute not less than half the amount of the approved net recurring expenditure on ‘basic’ education in each province, the balance to be found by the Provincial Government and the local bodies entrusted by it with the administration of compulsory education. For capital expenditure on building, equipments etc., alone system should be adopted. 9.    A central agency should be established in each province for the disposal of marketable produced in schools. RECOMMENDATIONS REGARDING SECONDARY EDUCATION: The main recommendations regarding Secondary education are given below: 1.    Secondary education should be for 6 years for selected students between age 11 and 17. 2.    Admission to secondary schools should be made on selective basis and only promising students, about 20% of the children, attending Junior Basic schools should be admitted to High Schools. 3.    High schools shall be of two types-Academic High Schools and Technical High Schools. 4.    Every child entering a High School remains there till the age of 14 compulsorily. Even after this period steps should be taken to see that children are not withdrawn from the school before the completion of the course. 5.    Subjects in the Academic High School as well as in the Technical should be common; for example, mother-tongue, English, Modern Indian Languages, Indian and World History, Indian and World Geography, Science, Mathematics, Agriculture, Economics, Music, Art and Physical Training. The Technical High Schools should include Science, Wood work, Metal work, Elementary Engineering, Drawing, Book keeping, Type writing, Short Hand, Accountancy, Commercial, Practice, and Domestic Science 6.    High School leavers should receive an education that will fit them for direct entry into occupations and professions. 7.    High school education should not be preliminary to university education and should be complete in it. RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE COMMITTEE REGARDING UNIVERSITY EDUCATION: We are already familiar with the suggestions given by the committee regarding preprimary, primary and high school education; let us discuss what suggestion it has offered for university education. The Sargent Committee pointed out the defects of university education in the following way- 1.    University education has failed to relate their activities to the practical needs of the community as a whole. There is no systematic attempt to adjust the output to the capacity of the employment market to absorb it. 2.    A great deal of importance is attached to examinations. 3.    In the absence of suitable selection machinery, a large number of incapable students get entry into the universities. 4.    Probably nowhere among the universities of the world are there so large a proportion of failures in examinations as in Indian universities. 5.    Indian universities do not fully satisfy the requirements of a national system of education. The Committee has offered the following suggestions for the improvement of university education- 1.    The duration of degree course should be of 3 years. 2.    The present intermediate course should be abolished. The first year of the course should be transferred to high school and the second year to the universities. 3.    The standard of university education must be raised. The condition of admission must be revised so that capable students can take the advantage of the university course. 4.    Competent teachers should be appointed in the university and steps should be taken to improve the conditions of service including remuneration. 5.    The tutorial system should be widely extended for closer personal contacts between teachers and students. 6.    Adequate financial assistance must be provided for poor students. 7.    Emphasis should be given on establishing a high standard in post-graduate studies and in pure applied research. 8.    For coordination in the activities of the different universities an All India organization like University Grants Committee of England should be set up. A.    Technical and Vocational Education: Sargent Committee laid a good deal of stress on technical and vocational education. It suggested for the full time and part time instructions in order to fulfil the requirement of all the different categories of the skilled hands. The report divides the workers into four categories— 1.    Higher Category of Workers: According to the Sargent Report there was a need for higher category of workers for the industrial and vocational fields. They will have their preliminary training in a Technical high school and then will pass from Technological Department of some university or from full time Technological Institute and will serve as Chief Executive, Research Workers etc. 2.    Lower Category of Workers: This category includes foreman, charge-hand and other ordinary executive and administrative officers. They should be given training in the Technical high school for Diploma or Certificate Course. 1.    Skilled Craftsman: Skilled craftsman are very much needed for successful execution of industrial and occupational schemes. Students should have passed Technical high school course or Senior basic or Junior Technical or Industrial school course. 2.    Semi skilled or unskilled workers: Students, who have studied in Senior basic middle schools with some basic craft, shall be admitted to this category of workers. These persons should get facilities both for continuing their general education and for improving their skill. 3.    Other Suggestions: The report has touched some other branches of education also. These are as follows: B.    Adult Education : The role of adult education, according to report is to make every possible member of a state an effective and efficient citizen. It is very much essential for the success of the ideal democratic way of life. The problem of adult education in India connotes adult literacy. The normal age range of adult education should be 10 plus to 40. This scheme envisaged two types of education for adults— general education and technical or vocational education. Separate classes should be organized for boys and girls between ten to sixteen years of age. In order to make adult education interesting, it is necessary to use visual aids, mechanical aids such as pictures, charts, cinema, gramophone, radio, folk dancing, music etc. C.    Training of the teachers: There should be an army of trained teachers for the rapid progress of education and the successful execution of the plans of education. For graduate teachers Sargent Committee recommended to impart training to them by training colleges. For the training of undergraduate teachers, there should be three types of training institutions— preprimary, basic and high school. Teachers for technical and industrial education may be taken to the institutions for the purpose and other industrial courses. Refresher courses should be started for all the categories of teachers. Free training should be provided in training colleges and schools. In order to attract proper type of persons to the teaching profession, the report proposes to revise the scales of pay to be given to all grades of teachers, particularly to the teachers at the primary stage who are paid very low salaries at present. D.    Health Education: The Sargent report suggested that in order to look after the health of school Children health committee should be set up in schools. Every student should be medically checked up and if any defect is found appropriate follow-up measures should be taken. Minor treatment can be provided in school clinics. Physical training should be compulsory. E.    Education of the Physically Handicapped: Provision for special education should be made for physically handicapped and mentally retarded children. Here the educands may engage themselves in such productive activities that may be of use to them in the future life. F.    Employment Bureaus : The scheme made the following recommendations in this regard in order to provide the students with requisite employment— (i)    Under the control of the education department a number of employment bureaus should be established. (ii)    Universities should have their own employment bureaus. (iii)    These bureaus should discharge the following functions— (a)    contact with educational institutions, (b)    advise the outgoing students about openings for employment, (c)    contact with employers and arrangement for trade apprentices. G.    Administration of Education: For proper implementation of the new schemes of education at all India level a strong department of education should be set at the centre. The state should also have their department of education. More cooperation and coordination needed between the centre and the states for successful implementation of a National System of Education. The report indicated that the implementation of the whole scheme would involve a total expenditure of Rs. three hundred crores every year. H.    Evaluation of the Sargent Report: We have already discussed the suggestions given by the Sargent report in all aspects of education in India. Now we will make an attempt to evaluate the report. The Sargent report had been the outcome of the experience of the British Government that in education, India was behind the other advanced countries of the world. The chief merits of this report are discussed below— •     This was the first comprehensive scheme embracing all aspects of education— pre-primary, primary, high school and university education. Technical, vocational and professional, all types of education had been given attention by way of providing useful suggestions for their improvement. •      Secondly, it recommended the provision of equal opportunities to all the students at various stages of education. •     Thirdly, due importance was given to the teaching profession. Recommendations were made for the improvement of the salary scales and the service conditions of the teachers. •     Fourthly, for the first time the attention of the Government was drawn towards the education of the handicapped. •     Fifthly, the report gave importance on providing education in such a manner as to make one self depended. It foresaw the importance of the employment problem in the country and thought that education could be instrumental in solving it. Let us examine the shortcoming and defects of the report— •      The report is criticized on the ground that it was not an original report. It was only a patch-work of the recommendations of different committees. •     The report outlined an educational development in India which would require 40 years to be implemented. This time limit did not satisfy any ardent educationist. An acceptable plan of educational development in India had been spread over a much shorter range of time, not exceeding 15 years. •    It had been pointed out that it would be wrong to call it a national scheme of education because it was only a copy of the pattern practiced in England. This pattern could not serve as a model to India because the social, political and economic conditions in the two countries are vastly different. The proposal for selective admission in schools, colleges and universities was undemocratic. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE RECOMMENDATIONS: It is necessary for us to see how the recommendations of the Sargent Committee were implemented. The Government of India accepted the recommendations of the report in principle and tried to implement some of them in the following manner— •     In 1945 an education department was established at the centre to increase administrative efficiency. •     According to the recommendations of the committee 40 crores of rupees were given to the provincial Governments for implementing certain aspects of the scheme in their areas. •     The Provincial Governments were advised to make five year plans for education. In 1946 these plans were made in some provinces. •     l It was decided that the scheme should be implemented within 16 years instead of 40 year. •     According to the recommendations of the committee University Grants Committee was constituted in 1945 which later on became University Grants Commission in 1956. •     The aim of providing compulsory and free education to children between 6—11 years of age was accepted. •     Efforts were made for adult education and also for improving the economic condition of teachers. The committee of polytechnic school and the All India Technical Education Committee were established in Delhi. SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-2 Q.1 What was one of the key recommendations regarding the curriculum in the Sargent Report? A)    Focus exclusively on academic subjects B)    Integrate both academic subjects and vocational training C)    Eliminate vocational training D)    Increase emphasis solely on rote learning Q.2 Which area did the Sargent Report emphasize for expansion? A)    Higher education institutions B)    Secondary education to include more of the population C)    Primary education only D)    International educational programs Q.3 What did the Sargent Report suggest for modernizing teaching methods? A)    Continuing traditional lecture-based teaching B)    Adopting student-centered approaches and innovative teaching aids C)    Focusing exclusively on rote memorization D)    Eliminating the use of technology in teaching Q.4 How did the Sargent Report propose to improve teacher training? A)    By reducing the number of training programs B)    By establishing more teacher training colleges and emphasizing ongoing professional development C)    By focusing solely on administrative skills D)    By eliminating professional development requirements Q.5 Which of the following was a recommendation regarding educational administration in the Sargent Report? A)    Centralize control and decision-making in the national government B)    Decentralize control and enhance the role of local educational authorities C)    Remove local authorities from educational management D)    Focus only on administrative efficiency without decentralization Q.6 What did the Sargent Report recommend regarding the examination system? A)    Increase reliance on final examinations B)    Implement continuous assessment methods and a holistic evaluation approach C)    Remove all forms of assessments D)    Focus solely on periodic tests Q.7 What was one of the key infrastructure improvements suggested by the Sargent Report? A)    Reducing investment in school facilities B)    Developing modern school buildings, laboratories, and libraries C)    Focusing only on administrative offices D)    Eliminating the need for modern educational facilities Q.8 Which cultural aspect did the Sargent Report recommend incorporating into the curriculum? A)    Exclusively Western culture B)    Indian culture, history, and values C)    Focus solely on international cultures D)    Removal of cultural references Q.9 What did the Sargent Report propose to support student welfare? A)    Eliminate guidance and counseling services B)    Establish guidance and counseling services to support mental and physical health C)    Focus solely on academic performance D)    Reduce focus on student well-being Q.10 Which recommendation addressed the gap between academic learning and practical skills in the Sargent Report? A)    Focus only on academic subjects B)    Include vocational subjects in the curriculum C)    Eliminate vocational subjects D)    Emphasize rote learning 10.5 CRITICAL EVALUATION OF THE REPORT The Sargent Report (1944), formally known as the "Report of the Secondary Education Commission," represented a significant attempt to reform secondary education in India. While it was groundbreaking in many ways, its recommendations were met with both praise and criticism. Here’s a critical evaluation of the report: Strengths: 1.    Curriculum Integration: The Sargent Report’s recommendation to integrate academic subjects with vocational training was progressive. This approach aimed to make education more relevant and practical, preparing students for diverse career paths and bridging the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical skills. 2.    Expansion of Secondary Education: The report’s emphasis on expanding secondary education to reach a broader segment of the population was crucial. It aimed to increase access to education in rural and underdeveloped areas, promoting greater educational equity. 3.    Modernizing Teaching Methods: By advocating for student-centered learning and innovative teaching aids, the report promoted a shift towards more effective and engaging educational practices. This focus was intended to enhance student learning and make education more dynamic. 4.    Improvement in Teacher Training: The call for better teacher training and professional development was a significant strength. It recognized that high-quality teaching is essential for effective learning and recommended establishing more training colleges to improve teacher qualifications. 5.    Infrastructure Development: The report’s recommendation for improved school infrastructure, including modern buildings and facilities, was important for creating conducive learning environments and supporting educational advancement. Weaknesses: 1.    Implementation Challenges: Despite its visionary recommendations, the practical implementation of the Sargent Report faced significant challenges. The ambitious proposals required substantial financial investment and administrative changes, which were often difficult to realize fully. 2.    Resource Limitations: The recommendations for expanding secondary education and improving infrastructure were hampered by limited resources. Many regions, particularly rural areas, struggled with inadequate facilities and funding, impacting the effectiveness of the proposed reforms. 3.    Resistance to Change: The Sargent Report’s push for modern teaching methods and vocational integration faced resistance from traditionalists who preferred conventional education systems. This resistance sometimes slowed the adoption of the recommended changes. 4.    Focus on Secondary Education: While the report made important contributions to secondary education, it did not fully address the needs of primary or higher education levels. This narrow focus meant that other critical areas of the educational system were left out of the reform agenda. 5.    Implementation Disparities: The effectiveness of the recommendations varied significantly across different regions. Urban areas with better resources were able to implement changes more effectively than rural areas, leading to uneven educational improvements. The Sargent Report was a landmark document that introduced several forwardthinking recommendations for reforming secondary education in India. Its strengths lie in its holistic approach to curriculum development, expansion of access, and emphasis on modern teaching practices and infrastructure. However, the practical challenges of implementation, limited resources, and resistance to change posed significant obstacles. While the report laid a solid foundation for educational reform, its impact was uneven, and many of its recommendations faced difficulties in execution. The report remains a significant historical document that highlights both the potential and limitations of educational reform efforts. SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-3 Q.1 What was one of the key strengths of the Sargent Report? A)    Its focus solely on theoretical subjects B)    Its recommendation to integrate academic subjects with vocational training C)    Its recommendation to eliminate vocational subjects D)    Its emphasis on rote learning and traditional methods Q.2 What was a significant challenge in implementing the recommendations of the Sargent Report? A)    Excessive financial resources B)    Overwhelming support from traditionalists C)    Limited financial resources and administrative support D)    Universal agreement on proposed changes Q.3 Which area did the Sargent Report emphasize for improvement to create better learning environments? A)    Educational administration only B)    School infrastructure, including modern buildings and facilities C)    Curriculum content alone D)    International educational standards Q.4 How did the Sargent Report propose to modernize teaching methods? A)    By maintaining traditional lecture-based methods B)    By adopting student-centered approaches and innovative teaching aids C)    By focusing exclusively on rote memorization D)    By removing modern technology from classrooms Q.5 What was one of the criticisms of the Sargent Report related to its recommendations? A)    It focused too much on primary education B)    It failed to address secondary education entirely C)    Its recommendations faced resistance and were difficult to implement D)    It ignored the needs of urban areas Q.6 What did the Sargent Report suggest about teacher training? A)    Reduce the number of training programs B)    Focus solely on administrative training C)    Improve teacher training and establish more training colleges D)    Eliminate professional development for teachers Q.7 In terms of educational access, what did the Sargent Report advocate for? A)    Limiting secondary education to urban areas B)    Expanding secondary education to reach a larger segment of the population, including rural areas C)    Focusing solely on higher education D)    Reducing the scope of secondary education Q.8 Which aspect of the examination system did the Sargent Report propose to reform? A)    Increase emphasis on final exams only B)    Implement continuous assessment methods and a holistic approach C)    Eliminate all forms of assessments D)    Focus exclusively on periodic tests Q.9 What did the Sargent Report recommend about incorporating Indian culture into education? A)    Focus only on Western cultures B)    Incorporate Indian culture, history, and values into the curriculum C)    Remove all cultural references D)    Emphasize foreign languages and cultures Q.10 How did the Sargent Report address student welfare? A)    By eliminating guidance and counseling services B)    By establishing guidance and counseling services to support mental and physical health C)    By focusing solely on academic performance D)    By reducing attention to student well-being 10.6    SUMMARY In the beginning of this unit we focused our attention on the formation of the Sargent Committee. The committee constituted of 22 members headed by John Sargent, Educational Advisor to the Government of India. For the first time the committee tried to develop a National System of Education for India. The report prepared by this committee is not entirely a new plan but the summary of resolutions, minutes and proceedings of the Central Advisory Board of Education. For the first time in the educational history of India the report paid attention towards preprimary education and suggested that children from 3 to 6 years should be admitted in schools. The report had adopted the scheme to basic education with some modifications and divided the basic schools into two categories— junior and senior basic. As for high schools, the Committee suggested that these schools should be of two types— academic and technical. Academic high schools will impart instruction in the Arts and pure science, while the technical high school will provide training in industrial and commercial subjects. The curriculum should be diversified as faras possible and the aim of high school education should be to make the boys selfdependent and able to stand on their own legs. Regarding university education the Report said that higher education had failed to relate their activities to the practical needs of the community and a large number of incapable students get entry into the universities due to lack of proper selection procedure. A great deal of importance had been attached to examinations and proportion of failure was very high. For improving the condition, the report suggested that the standard of university education should be raised, the condition of admission should be revised, competent teachers should be appointed and tutorial system should be extended for closer personal contact between the students and the teachers. A University Grants Committee should be established. In technical and vocational education the committee suggested for full time and part time instruction in order to fulfill the requirements of all different categories of the skilled workers, such as, chief executive, research workers, foreman, craftsman for industrial occupations etc. Beside, the report suggested different measures to improve adult education, the training of teachers, health education, education for physically and mentally handicapped and for establishing employment bureau etc. We have evaluated the recommendation of the committee and discussed the merits and demerits towards the end of the unit and also how far the recommendations were implemented 10.7    GLOSSARY Sargent Report: Officially known as the "Report of the Secondary Education Commission" (1944), it was a significant document chaired by Sir John Sargent that aimed to reform secondary education in India. Vocational Training: Education that focuses on practical skills and trades, preparing students for specific careers. The Sargent Report recommended integrating vocational training into the secondary education curriculum. Curriculum Integration: The process of combining various elements of learning, such as academic subjects and vocational training, into a cohesive educational program. The Sargent Report advocated for this approach to make education more practical and relevant. 10.8    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISES Exercise-1 Answer1: A) Sir John Sargent Answer2: B) Comprehensive revision to include practical and vocational training Answer3: B) Improving the quality and establishment of training colleges Answer4: B) By expanding educational opportunities to rural and underprivileged areas Answer5: C) Implement continuous assessment methods and a holistic evaluation approach Answer6: B) Decentralize control and enhance local educational authorities' roles Answer7: B) Student welfare, including mental and physical health Answer8: B) By integrating Indian culture, history, and values into the curriculum Answer9: B) Improving school buildings, laboratories, and libraries Answer10: B) Modern, student-centered learning with innovative teaching aids Exercise-2 Answer1: B) Integrate both academic subjects and vocational training Answer2: B) Secondary education to include more of the population Answer3: B) Adopting student-centered approaches and innovative teaching aids Answer4: B) By establishing more teacher training colleges and emphasizing ongoing professional development Answer5: B) Decentralize control and enhance the role of local educational authorities Answer6: B) Implement continuous assessment methods and a holistic evaluation approach Answer7: B) Developing modern school buildings, laboratories, and libraries Answer8: B) Indian culture, history, and values Answer9: B) Establish guidance and counseling services to support mental and physical health Answer10: B) Include vocational subjects in the curriculum Exercise-3 Answer1: B) Its recommendation to integrate academic subjects with vocational training Answer2: C) Limited financial resources and administrative support Answer3: B) School infrastructure, including modern buildings and facilities Answer4: B) By adopting student-centered approaches and innovative teaching aids Answer5: C) Its recommendations faced resistance and were difficult to implement Answer6: C) Improve teacher training and establish more training colleges Answer7: B) Expanding secondary education to reach a larger segment of the population, including rural areas Answer8: B) Implement continuous assessment methods and a holistic approach Answer9: B) Incorporate Indian culture, history, and values into the curriculum Answer10: B) By establishing guidance and counseling services to support mental and physical health 10.9    REFERENCES/ SUGGESTED READINGS •     Chaube, S. P: History and Problems of Indian Education, Vinod Peestak Mandir, Agra. •    Naik P. and Nurullah, S.: A Student’s History of Education in India, MaCMillan India Ltd., 1996. •     Aggarwal, J. C.: Landmarks in the History of Modern Indian Education, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 2005. •      Nurullah, S. and Naik, I. P.: History of Education in India during the British Period, MaCmillan India, 1951.Ll •     Purkait, B. R.: Milestones of Indian Education, New Central Book Agency, 2005, Kolkata. •    Rawat, P. L.: History of Indian Education, Ram Prasad & Sons, Agra, 1991. 10.10    TERMINAL QUESTIONS Q1. Outline the main recommendations of the Sargent Committee, 1944. Q2.    What were the recommendations of the Sargent Scheme of Education with regard to primary and secondary education? On what has ground the scheme been criticized? Q3. Discuss the views of the Sargent Committee in regard to technical and vocational education, adult education and education for physically handicapped. 160