--- title: "Vol 1 0" book: "Final Trends in Indian Education" category: "General" publisher: "Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd." type: "Educational Material" --- According to Latest Syllabus Read For Sure Success In University Examination RATAN TEXT BOOK TRENDS IN INDIAN EDUCATION Vol-1 M.A.Education (Sem-II) Dr. Rajendra Vyas Published by Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd. 2nd Floor, Centre Plaza, Parinay Kunj, Lajpat Kunj Marg, Agra-282002 Copyright Authors & Publishers Revised Edition ISBN :978-93-0970-891-6 Price 155.00 only Printed at : KIDS INTERNATIONAL PVT. LTD. C-60, 61, 62, 63, EPIP, Shastripuram, Agra - 282007 Ph. : +91 9719004921 Unit-1 VEDIC EDUCATION AND BRAHMANIC EDUCATION Structure: 1.1    Introduction 1.2   Learning Objectives 1.3   Vedic Education Self -Check Exercise-1 1.4   Brahmanic Education Self -Check Exercise-2 1.5   Summary 1.6   Glossary 1.7   Answers to self Check Exercises 1.8   References/ Suggested Readings 1.9   Terminal Questions 1.1   INTRODUCTION The most important contribution of ancient India not only for India but also for the world is in the field of education. It may also be remembered that education is not an abstract term. It is manifested in the cultural economic, individual, philosophical, scientific, social and spiritual advancement. In other words, education is the means for developing the mind for the betterment of the individual and society. Seen from this perspective, the following views of great scholars and thinkers deserve mention. “We owe a lot to the Indians who taught us how to count without which no worthwhile scientific discovery could have made.”      Albert Einstein “India is the cradle of the human race. Most valuable and the most instructive materials in the history of man are treasured up in India only.”       Mark Twain, an American Writer 1.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES After going through the Unit, the learners will be able to: Describe the education during Vedic period and Brahmanic period. Explain the objectives of Vedic education and Brahmanic Education. List down the different feature of education during these periods. 1.3    VEDIC EDUCATION: Aims, Ideals and Objectives of Vedic Education 1.    Ultimate objective as moksha or self-realisation:- Ancient Indians believed that education should prepare and individual in such a way as to prepare him to attain the objective of liberation, i.e. to be one with the almighty and to be free from the cycle of births & deaths. 1.    Infusion of Piety & Religiousness:- In ancient India religion played a prominent part. Education aimed at the infusion of piety and religiousness in the minds of the pupils. 2.    Education for worldliness:- Vocational aim :- Happiness in other world was given more stress than the happiness in this world. This world according to them, was unreal & full of fetters. The highest wisdom was a release from these betters. 3.    Character formation:- Education must from character. Mere intellect was not of worth if the person was devoid of not much morality. Morality or the right behavior was the higher “Dharma”. Education was regarded as a means of inculcating values such as strict obedience to elders, truthfulness, honesty and temperance. 4.    Development of all round personality:- Ancient Indians believed that personality should be developed through education. Personality was developed through the following methods:- (a)    Self-restraint (b)    Self-confidence (c)    Self-respect (d)    Discrimination and judgment 5.    Stress on Social duties:- A student was not to lead self-centered life. He was to perform his duties as a son, as a husband, as a father & many other capacities conscientiously and efficiently in the society. His wealth was not for his own sake as for his family, he must be hospitable and charitable. All professions laid stress on civil responsibilities. 6.    Promotion of Social Efficiency and Welfare:- The promotion of social efficiency & welfare was an equally important aim of education. Education was not imported simply for the sake of culture or for the purpose of developing mental powers but for the purpose of training every member of society in the profession which he expected to follow. Society had accepted the theory of division of work which was later on governed by the principle of heredity. Each family trained its children in its own profession. The purpose was to make each individual society efficient. 7.    Preservation and promotion of culture:- the preservation and promotion of national culture and heritage was also stressed. “The services of the whole community were conscripted for the purpose of the preservation of the Vedic literature. Every person had to learn at least a portion of his sacred literacy heritage.” A section of Brahman as had to devote the whole of their life to the cause of learning to commit the Vedas to memory in order to ensure preservation. MAIN FEATURES OF THE VEDIC EDUCATION Free education in Ancient India:- In ancient India teaching was considered to be holy duty which a Brahman was bound to discharge irrespective of consideration of the fee teacher were expected to devote their lives to the cause of teaching in the missionary spirit of self-sacrifice, and the society laid down the principal that both the public and state should help the learned teachers & educational institutions very liberally. Society realized that “Vidyadana” or the gift in the cause of education was to be the best of gifts, possessing a higher religious merit than even the gift of land. On the occasion of religious feats, students and teachers were invited and donations were given liberally. 1.    No state control on education:- Rulers of the country had very little directly to do with education. It was a private affairs of the people managed entirely by Brahmans. 2.    High status of Teachers:- Teachers were a highly honoured class-honoured by even by kings. Kings rose from thrones to receive great teachers such as Narada, Vashishtha and Vishwamitra. 3.    Teachers as Parents: - Teachers behaved as parent to their pupils and pupils behaved as members of the teachers’ family. The attitude of the pupil was to be one of complete submission. 4.    Residential Schools:- Teachers and pupils lived together and so identified themselves with one another. 5.    Immediate aim:- Vocational: The immediate aim of education, however, was to prepare the different casts of people for their actual needs of life. 6.    Curriculum:- The subjects of instruction varied according to the vocational needs of the different castes from the Vedas and Vedangas in case of Brahmanas, to the art of warfare in the case of Kshatriyas, and to agriculture and trade, arts & crafts in the case of Vaishyas. 7.    Methods of Instruction:- The methods of instruction generally consisted of recitation by the teachers and repetition by pupil, followed by explanation by the teacher , questioning by the pupil, and discussion between the teacher and the pupil. 8.    Individual teaching:- Pupils were tough individually not en masse by the class method 9.    Method of study:- The method of study consisted in listening to the teacher, reflection on what has been listened to and its constant revision and discussion. 10.    Role of Travel in Education:- Travel was regarded as necessary to give a finish tough to education. 11.    Sanskrit as the Medium of Instruction:- The medium of instruction was Sanskrit. 12.    Self-control & Self–Discipline:- It was considered to be the best discipline. However Corporal punishment was not altogether ruled out. 13.    Wide spread education of women:- In the earlier Vedic, and Upanishad times, girls were free to go through the “Upanayana’ ceremony , live a life of celibacy, studied Vedas, vedangas and other subjects along with their brother pupils. 14.    Ultimate aim of education-self-Realization:- The ultimate aim of education in ancient India was not knowledge as preparation of life in this world or for life beyond but for complete realization of self-for liberatin of the soul from fetters of life, both present and future. That knowledge was real, which led to emancipation-led from unreality to reality, from darkeness to light, from death to immortality. Education of Women The Vedas give a very honourable & respectable status to women. They were eligible for higher education for the study of the Vedas and the performance of administrative and other important jobs mostly performed by men even today. Boys should go to the schools meant for boys and girls should go to the schools where there are women teachers. The women should have opportunity to attain knowledge of the Vedas from all the four concerns. Role of Mother in Education A mother should impart education to her children so as to broaden their horizon. At this stage good manners are to be taught so that the children behave properly with the elders and in assemblies. Teachers as Spiritual as Well as Intellectual Guide Teacher occupied a pivotal position in the Vedic System of education. The teacher was a parent surrogate (Parent Substitute), a facilitator of learning, exemplar and inspirer, confident, detector friend and philosopher moral educator, reformer, evaluator, character and personality builder, importer if knowledge & wisdom and above all a guru, religious & spiritual guide. The relationship between the teachers and pupil was regarded as filial in character. Teacher was the spiritual father of his pupils. In addition to imparting intellectual knowledge to them, he was also morally responsible. He was always to keep a guard over the conduct of his pupils. He must let them know what to cultivate and what to avoid. He must instruct them as how to sleep and as to what food they may take and what they may reject. He should advise them as to the people whose company they should keep and as to which of the villages and localities they should frequent. During the Vedic period learning was transmitted orally from one generation to another. Great importance was attached to the proper accent and pronunciation in the Vedic recitation & these could be correctly learnt only from the lips of a properly qualified teacher. The spiritual solution depended almost entirely upon the proper guidance of a competent teacher. Process of Instruction There were three steps in instruction: 1.    Sravana 2. Manana    3. Nididhyasana. Sravana is listening to words texts as they uttered by the teacher. Manana is the process of deliberation or reflection of the topic taught. Nididhyasana represents the highest stage. ADMISSION AND EVALUATION SYSTEM There seems to be no direct reference available to spell out the methodology followed by the Acharya to judge the adequacy of knowledge of his pupils. Yaskas and Sayana, famous commentators on the Vedas, have inferred from the Rig Veda hymn that the students were given three grades as under: 1.    Maha Prazanan grade:- Students of very high ability. 2.    Madhyama Prazanan grade:- Students of high ability. 3.    Alpa Prazanan grade:- Students of low ability. AUTONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS Teachers in the Vedic period were autonomous in their work and they followed various methods of admission and assessment. A teacher was the sole pedagogic authority to decide whether the student was fit for admission & also to decide whether he had completed his studies. STUDENTSHIP There is a long hymn in the ‘Atharva Veda’ describing the ceremony pertaining to studentship. The initiation ceremony was called Upanayana which lasted three days. It laid down the foundation of a planned life. The pupil owed his first birth-physical to his parents & the second birth spiritual to his teacher. The rite of Upanayana was meant to purify body and mind and to make one fit for receiving education. After ‘Upanayana’ the pupil entered into a state of ‘Brahmacharya’ indicating that it was a mode of life, and a system of education. The ‘Brahmachari’ as the aspirant for education was now called lived according to prescribed regulations, i.e., physical discipline as well as spiritual discipline. CURRICULUM According to recent researches, following disciplines were included in the curriculum in the graded forms in accordance with the stages of education. 1.    Anthropology 2.    Astronomy 3.    Economics 4.    Epistemology 5.     Eschatology 6.     Ethnology 7.    Geology 8.    Human eugenics 9.    Mathematics 10.   Military Science The system of education was well-organized. It was suited to the needs of the society education was considered as the greatest gift in ancient India. It was aimed at the development of personality of an individual to his maximum extent. Education helped in the realization of spiritual & moral values, besides preparing for worldly pursuits. It was freely available to all those who wanted the relations between teachers and the pupils were based on love and affection. They were very cordial & intimate. SELF - CHECK EXERCISE-1 Q.1 What is the primary focus of the Vedic system of education? A.    Academic excellence alone B.    Holistic development of the individual C.    Vocational training D.    Technological advancement Q.2 In the Vedic education system, what was the role of the guru? A.    A formal instructor with no personal connection B.    A distant authority who set general guidelines C.    A personal mentor and spiritual guide D.    An administrative overseer of educational institutions Q.3 Which of the following texts were primarily studied in the Vedic education system? A.    The Bible and the Quran B.    The Vedas and Upanishads C.    The Iliad and the Odyssey D.    The Analects of Confucius Q.4 What was the purpose of the Upanayana ceremony in Vedic education? A.    To mark the beginning of formal education B.    To celebrate the completion of education C.    To initiate a student into a particular trade D.    To transition from childhood to adulthood Q.5 How was knowledge traditionally transmitted in the Vedic education system? A.    Through printed books and lectures B.    Through oral recitation and memorization C.    Through written assignments and exams D.    Through multimedia presentations Q.6 What aspects of education were emphasized in the Vedic system aside from academic learning? A.    Only scientific knowledge B.    Physical fitness and sports C.    Moral and ethical development D.    Financial management 1. 4 BRAHMANIC EDUCATION The educational structure in the Brahmanic Age was, to a very great extent, only a refined and developed form of Vedic education. However, during this age, various forms began to emerge in the institutions of education. Various institutions, such as shakha, charana, parishad, kul and gotra, began to emerge at the various levels of education. Besides the Upnishads, Aaranyaka, Brahman and other classical texts were created in this period. Famous ashramas or monasteries came to be established in the forests. It was in this period that the sutra literature was created, along with the development of the six systems of Indian philosophical thought-Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Karma of Purva Mimansa, and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. A significant characteristic of this period is the determination of the syllabus according to the Caste and Ashrama system. However, the education of the Shudras and women suffered a decline. The best mirror of any country or society is the literature, it produces. From the Vedic to the Brahman period, literature and additional literature continued to be created. Even in the Brahman period, education continued to be looked upon as the means to knowledge. OBJECTIVES OFBRAHMANIC EDUCATION It has the same objectives that Vedic education had. However, with the passage of time and a change in the needs of society, the importance attached to them underwent a change. In this period, the following objectives were ascribed to education: 1.     Self-control 2.    Development of character 3.     Generation of sociability or social awareness 4.     Integral development of personality 5.     Propagation of purity 6.    Preservation of knowledge and culture. Education in this age continued to proceed on the foundations given to it during the Vedic period, but a certain rigidity and narrowness now marked its implementation. Education now aimed at equipping the student for the struggle for existence. After the upanayana or introduction ceremony, teachers imparted education to their students according to the latter’s interests, tendencies and nature. Celibacy was rigidly observed. Teachers paid full attention to the psychological make-up of their students while teaching. Students lived in close contact with their teacher or guru in the Gurukul. But, restrictions had now been placed upon the receiving of education by Shudras. For social reasons, they were not considered fit to receive education. After Vedic education, there was a gradual increase in ritualism. The result was that shudras and women began to lose their place in the educational sphere. But, on the other hand, education became more comprehensive in this period, as it was closely associated with every aspect of life. CHARACTERISTICS OFBRAHMANIC EDUCATION 1.    Dominance of Religion As in the Vedic period, education in the Brahman period also was dominated by religion. Students were given knowledge of religious activities. Numerous religiousand cultural activities were organised so as to acquaint students with them 2.    Worldly and Other-worldly or Spiritual and Materialistic education During this period, education paid equal attention to Spiritual as well as materialistic or worldly matters education comprehended the materialism of life. 3.    Celibacy (Brahmcharya) Like the education in the Vedic Study education in this period also laid great emphasis upon celibacy. Students were expected to obey their teachers and indulge only in moral conduct. 4.    Individualism Because of the absence of collective education, the emphasis was upon the individual. Teachers paid attention to the personal development of individual students. 5.    Physical Punishment In the Brahman age, the practice of giving physical punishment to students was not prevalent. Such famous acharyas as Manu, Gautam, and Vishnu opposed physical punishment because they considered it inhuman. 6.    Medium of Instruction In the Vedic period, education was primarily oral. Students were made to memorise aphorisms and then elaborate them. But, by the advent of the Brahman age, the art of writing had developed, and so both oral and written education came into practice, though the emphasis was upon oral education. Bhojpatra, the bark of a tree, was used for writing. Teachers gave importance to purity in pronunciation. Education was conducted through discussion, answering of questions, removal of doubts, etc. Students were given continuous practice in the art of writing and for this they were required to copy manuscripts. Practical work was emphasized in such subjects as grammar, astrology, Nyaya, medicine, etc. The students as well as the teachers themselves obtained informal education through the concourse of famed scholars. 7.    Curriculum In this age, too, primacy was given to the study of the Vedas. Among the subjects taught were grammar, arithmetic, geometry, astrology, economics, history, politics, agriculture, military science, Nyaya philosophy, etc. A special feature of this period is that, as time progressed; two kinds of syllabi came to be prepared, one for the short-term and another for the long-term. In addition, clear and correct pronunciation of consonants and vowels was stressed. Students were also given knowledge of metrics and figures of speech. It was on this basis that learned commentaries on the Vedas came to be composed. The Pingal Shastra was composed for the teaching of matrices. Surgery had also developed by this time. Thus, we can see that the ideals and methods of education in the Brahman and Vedic ages did not differ substantially from each other. The only major difference was the neglect and outlawing of the education of women and shudras in the former. Many subjects underwent development, but there was absence of synthesis between them. These shortcomings are indicative of the growth of individualism in education. Religion was the basis of the entire educational system. Each activity was performed through religious rituals. Sanskrit was the language of common converse, but special attention was given to it in education. SELF - CHECK EXERCISE-2 Q.1 What was the primary focus of Brahmanic education? A.    Modern science and technology B.    Sacred texts and rituals C.    Military training D.    Commerce and trade Q.2 What was the method of transmitting knowledge in Brahmanic education? A. Written texts and textbooks B.    Oral recitation and memorization C.    Multimedia presentations D.    Public lectures Q.3 What role did the guru play in the Brahmanic education system? A. Administrative overseer B.    Personal mentor and instructor C.    Financial sponsor D.    Community leader Q.4 Which of the following texts was NOT typically studied in Brahmanic education? A. The Vedas B.    The Upanishads C.    The Bhagavad Gita D. The Quran Q.5 What was the significance of the Upanayana ceremony in Brahmanic education? A.    To mark the completion of education B.    To initiate a student into formal education C.    To celebrate a student's graduation D.    To transition to a new occupation Q.6 Which language was fundamental to Brahmanic education? A. Pali B.    Tamil C. Sanskrit D. Prakrit 1.7    SUMMARY The Vedic and Brahmanic education systems in ancient India were deeply intertwined and focused on the holistic development of individuals through the study of sacred texts and ethical principles. The Vedic education system, grounded in the Vedas and Upanishads, aimed for the comprehensive growth of the student, integrating academic knowledge with moral and spiritual development. It emphasized a close guru-shishya (teacher-student) relationship, oral transmission of knowledge, and a curriculum that included philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, and the arts. Brahmanic education, a subset of Vedic education associated with the Brahminical priestly class, concentrated specifically on the preservation and transmission of religious knowledge, rituals, and ethical conduct. It also relied on oral tradition, with learning taking place in gurukulas under the guidance of a guru. Both systems highlighted the importance of memorization, moral integrity, and the role of education in maintaining religious and cultural continuity. While Vedic education was more inclusive, Brahmanic education was closely tied to the Brahmin class, focusing on sacred texts and rituals essential for upholding the spiritual and social order of Vedic society. 1.8    GLOSSARY Upanayana- A sacred thread ceremony marking the initiation of a young student into formal education and the study of sacred texts. Guru- A teacher or mentor who provides personalized instruction and guidance in both academic and spiritual matters. Shishya- A student or disciple who learns under the guidance of a guru. Aranyakas- Texts that serve as intermediaries between the Vedas and the Upanishads, dealing with forest-dwelling ascetics and rituals. Gurukula- Traditional educational institutions or centers where students receive instruction from a guru, often located in the guru's home or a dedicated space. 1.9    ANSWERS TO SELF - CHECK EXERCISES Exercise-1 Answer1: B. Holistic development of the individual Answer2: C. A personal mentor and spiritual guide Answer3: B. The Vedas and Upanishads Answer4: A. To mark the beginning of formal education Answer5: B. Through oral recitation and memorization Answer6: C. Moral and ethical development Exercise-2 Answer1: B. Sacred texts and rituals Answer2: B. Oral recitation and memorization Answer3: B. Personal mentor and instructor Answer4: D. The Quran Answer5: B. To initiate a student into formal education Answer6: C. Sanskrit 1.10    REFERENCES/ SUGGESTED READINGS •     Chaube, S. P: History and Problems of Indian Education, Vinod Peestak Mandir, Agra. •    Naik P. and Nurullah, S.: A Student’s History of Education in India, MaCMillan India Ltd., 1996. •     Aggarwal, J. C.: Landmarks in the History of Modern Indian Education, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 2005. •      Nurullah, S. and Naik, I. P.: History of Education in India during the British Period, MaCmillan India, 1951.Ll •     Purkait, B. R.: Milestones of Indian Education, New Central Book Agency, 2005, Kolkata. •    Rawat, P. L.: History of Indian Education, Ram Prasad & Sons, Agra, 1991. | 1.11 Q.1 Q.2 Q.3 Q.4 | TERMINAL QUESTIONS Describe the education during Vedic period. Explain the objectives of Vedic education. Describe the education during Brahmanic period. Explain the objectives of Brahmanic education. | |---|---| Unit-2 BUDDHIST EDUCATION AND MUSLIM EDUCATION Structure: 2.1    Introduction 2.2   Learning Objectives 2.3   Buddhist Education Self -Check Exercise-1 2.4   Muslim Education Self -Check Exercise-2 2.5  Summary 2.6   Glossary 2.7   Answers to self Check Exercises 2.8   References/ Suggested Readings 2.9   Terminal Questions 2.1    INTRODUCTION During the Buddhist and Muslim periods in India, education underwent significant transformations influenced by the philosophical and cultural values of these respective eras. The Buddhist period, beginning around the 6th century BCE with the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha), saw the rise of monastic universities such as Nalanda and Takshashila. These institutions emphasized a curriculum that included not only Buddhist doctrines and philosophy but also a broad range of subjects such as logic, medicine, and astronomy, reflecting a commitment to intellectual inquiry and debate. The education system was closely linked to monasteries, which served as centers of learning and spiritual practice, fostering a tradition of critical thinking and scholarly exploration. The advent of the Muslim period, starting in the 7th century CE with the establishment of Islamic rule in India, introduced a new educational paradigm influenced by Islamic principles. This era saw the development of madrasas, institutions that combined religious instruction with academic subjects. The curriculum in madrasas focused on Islamic theology, law, and ethics, but also included subjects such as mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy, reflecting the rich intellectual tradition of the Islamic world. The spread of Persian and Arabic as languages of administration and scholarship further enriched the educational landscape. Both periods highlighted the dynamic nature of education in India, showcasing the blending of religious and secular knowledge and the evolving nature of scholarly pursuit across different cultural and historical contexts. 2.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES After going through the Unit, the learners will be able to: Describe the education during Buddhist and Muslim period. Explain the objectives of Buddhist and Muslim Education . List down the different feature of education during these periods. 1.5    BUDDHIST EDUCATION Buddhist period in Indian education roughly starts from 600 B.C and last for about 1200 years till 600A.D. during Vedic period education was mostly individualistic effort whereas during Buddhist period institutional organization is one of the chief characteristics of education. Buddhist education was based on the teaching of Gautam Buddha. These teachings were so important that they remained a source of inspiration for individual as well as social development in India. The influence of Buddhist teachings can not be undermined even during later period. Aims of Education The chief aims of Buddhist education have been the following:- (1)    Development of education:- The chief aim of Buddhist education was all round development of child’s personality. This included his physical, mental, moral and intellectual development. (2)    Formation of character:- During this period, in the organization of education, special emphasis was laid on the formation of character of the students. Student life was hard and rigorous. They observed celibacy. (3)    Religious education:- In the Buddhist era, religion was given top priority and education was imparted through it. The chief aim of education was propagation of religion and inculcation of religious feelings and education served as a mean to achieve salvation or nirvana. (4)    Preparation for life:- In this system of education, there was a provision for imparting wordily and practical knowledge along with religious education so that when the students entered normal life they may be able to earn their livelihood. Features of Buddhist Education 1.    Four noble truths Buddha was primarily an ethical teacher and reformer, not a metaphysician. The message of his enlightenment points to man the way of life that leads beyond suffering. The four noble truths are:- (1)  There is suffering. (2) There is cause of suffering (Dukhasamaudaya). (3)    There is cessation of suffering (Dukhanirodha). (4)    There is a way leading to the cessation of suffering (Dukhanirodh- marg). 2.    Pabbaja ceremony Pabbaja was an accepted ceremony of the Buddhist monasteries. Pabbaja means going out . According to this ceremony the students after being admitted to a monastery had to renounce all his worldly and family relationship. An individual belonging to any caste could be admitted to a monastery and after being admitted he did not belong to any caste. For pabbaja ceremony the individual had to get his head fully shaved and put on yellow clothes. In this shape he was presented before the presiding Bhikshu. On presentation this individual would pray for admission to the monastery. On his prayer the head Bikshu would administer three basic advices: (1)    I take refuse with Budha. (2)    I take refuge with religion. (3)    I take refuge with the order. The aspirant for admission used to pronounce these advices very distinctly. Then his admission was permitted. On being admitted the individual was called a Sharman. 3.    Upasampada ceremony After pabbaja the Buddhist monk had to undergo the Upasampada ceremony. This ceremony was different from pabbaja ceremony. It was after receiving education for twelve years, that it is at the age of twenty years,Upasampada ceremony was performed. The Sharman has to present himself in front before all other monks of the monastery. One could be admitted for this ceremony only when the majority of the monks voted in favour of the same. After this ceremony the Sharman was regarded as full- fledge member of the monastery. On this occasion all his worldly and family relationships ended. 4.    Responsibility of teacher Both the teacher and the student were responsible to the monastery or the Budhist order. But regarding education, clothes , food and residence of the student monk, the teacher was wholly responsible. The teacher was also responsible for any treatment of the student whenever he fell ill. The teacher used to bestow all the affection to his student and used to educate his through lecture and question answer method. 5.    Daily routine of students (Diuchariya) The student was expected to serve his teacher with all devotion. On rising in the morning the student will arrange everything for the daily routine of the teacher. He will cook his food and clean his clothes and utensils. Whatever he acquired through begging alms, he would place before teacher. The student had to prepare himself to receive education at any time whenever the teacher required him. 6.    Curriculum The curriculum was chiefly spiritual in nature. It was because the chief aim of education was to attain salvation. So the study of the religious books was most important. This type of curriculum was meant only for the monks. Besides these spinning, weaving, printing of the clothes, tailoring, sketching, accountancy, medicines, surgery and coinage were the other subjects of Budhist education. 7.    Expulsion of pupils The teacher of a budhist monastery were empowered to expel any student on charge of misconduct or any type of serious disobedience. However, the student was expelled only when it was definitely ascertained that he lacked faith and respect for the teacher and the other things related to the sanctity of the monastery. After the death of the teacher or when the teacher changed his religion or left the monastery for elsewhere, the students also deserted the monastery. The education of the concerned students ended then and there. 8.    Method of teaching Budhist education aimed at purity of character. Like Vedic education it was training for moral character rather than psychological development of the students. One has to attain the stage of Bodhisattva. Mental and moral development was emphasized. Following were the methods:- Verbal education: Through the art of writing had been well developed up to Budhist period yet, due to shortage and no availability of writing materials, verbal education was prevalent as it was in Vedic age. The teacher used to give lessons to the novices who learnt them by heart. The teacher used to put questions on the learning the lesson by heart. Discussion: In order to win discussion or Shastrartha and impress the general public, it was necessary to improve the power of discussion. This was also needed to satisfy the critics and opposing groups and establish ones own cult. Thus, rules were framed for discussion. Prominence of logic: The importance of discussion encouraged the logic in the Budhist period. The controversial matters could not be decided without logical argument. Logic was also useful in the development of the mental power and knowledge. Tours: The main of the Budhist monks was to propagate Buddhism .Hence some Acharyas like Sariputta, Mahayaggalva, Aniruddha, Rahula, etc gave the importance to tours for educating people. Conference: Conferences were arranged on every full moon and 1st day of month in the Budhist sanghs. The monks of different sanghs assembled and put forward their doubts freely. The attendance of every monk was compulsory in such conference. Meditation in solitude: Some Budhist monks were more interested in isolated spiritual meditation in lonely forests and caves. Only those monks were considered fit for lonely meditation who had fully renounced the worldly attraction and had spent enough time in the sanghs and had gained the efficiency for solitary medications. Assembly of learned people On the beginning and close of every month learned people used to assemble together. This type of assembly together was a very important part of Budhist education. The purpose of this assembly was to maintain the moral standards of all the monks, because the total education was based on morality. It was compulsory for all the monks to be present in this assemble so much so that even ill monks used to try to attend it anyhow. If due to illness it was not possible for monk to come, then assembly was held near his residence. This assembly was quite democratic and it has immense moral impact on all concerned. 10.    Mass Education The monasteries or Buddha Vihars were the chief centres of learning and only the Budhist monks could be admitted to them for education. Thus there was no planned arrangement for mass education as such during the period. It form this position it would be wrong to construce that the Budhist monks were unkindful of the education of the people in general. So at the time of begging alms the monks used to remove the religious doubts of the people through their interesting conversation or short and alp lectures. Thus the people in general received moral and religious education from the monks. 11.    Women education Women education during the Budhist period was at its lowest ebb, as the women folk were despised in the sense that lord Buddha had regarded them as the source of all evils. So he had advised during his regarded them as the source of all evils. So he had advised during his life time not to admit women in monasteries. But after some time due to the insistence of his dear pupil Anand, Buddha had permitted about 500 women along with his stepmother for admission in vihars with many restriction and reservation. 12. Vocation Education Vocation education was not ignored during the Buddhist system of education. The monks of Vihar were taught spinning, weaving and sewing in order that they meet their clothing requirement. They were taught architecture as well. Education in architecture enabled them to build up new Vihars or repair the old ones. Similarly the householders following Buddhism but living outside Vihar were given training in different type of and also earn their livelihood. 13.    Role of Teacher in Buddhist system Buddhist philosophy admits the possible of attaining peace here and now, though, it start with a pessimistic note. Teacher, therefore, need not have any cry of despair. Bhikshus were the teacher. Buddhist vihar as or monasteries have their methods of Imitation and training for the apprentices. The preceptor must give his disciple, all possible intellectual and spiritual help and guidance. There was mutual esteem between the teacher and the pupil. There relations were like father and son. The teacher was regarded as spiritual father or intellectual father of the student. During Buddhist period the place of teacher in the scheme of education was very important. There were the categories of teachers – Acharyas and Upadhayas. According to Sutras Literature Acharya may admit according to his unfettered discretion, a number of pupils, who would have to live with him at this house, for a minimum period of twelve years. He would not accept any fees from the pupils under this instruction. The progress shown by pupil was the only factor that determined the continence of his apprenticeship. 14.    Student in Buddhist system of education The Buddhist system like the Brahmanical, enjoins upon the pupil the duty of serving this preceptor as a part of education. The pupils is to rise early in morning from the bed and give his teacher teeth-cleanser and water to rinse his mouth with; then, preparing a seat for him, serve him rice- milk in rinse his mouth with; then, preparing as seat for him, serve him rice milk in rinsed jug, and after his drinking it, wash the vessel and sweep the place. Afterwards he is to equip him for his begging round by giving him fresh undergarments, girdle, his two upper garments, and his alms- bowl rinsed and filled with water and then is to dress and equip himself similarly if he wants to accompany his teacher but must not walk too far from or near wants to accompany his teacher but must not walk too far from or near wants to accompany his teacher but must not walk too far from or near him. He is not to interrupt his teacher in speaking, even if he makes a mistake. There were also rules for the expulsion of a pupil by his teacher. In five cases a Saddhiviharika ought to be turned away; when he does not feel great affection for his Upajjhaya, nor great inclination towards him, nor much shame, nor great reverence, nor great devotion. The education experiment like basic education, Vishwa Bharti ,Aurobindo Ashram, Gurukul Kangri and Banasthali Vidyapeeth, etc., are the glaring examples of our ancient system of education in the country. In the words of S.K.Mukerjee, “They were started with the object of reviving the ancient institution of Brahamacharya, of revitalizing ancient Indian philosophy and literature and of producing good citizens and preachers of Vedic religion.” While delivering his address in the Dada Bhai Naurozi lectures series L.S. Mudaliar, a renowned Indian educationist had said “Let our young Indian realize the heritage that is there. May the young generation imbibe the true spirit of India and follow it in all their endeavours.” SELF - CHECK EXERCISE-1 Q.1 What was a prominent feature of education during the Buddhist period? A.    Emphasis on military training B.    Focus on monastic and philosophical studies C.    Instruction in industrial skills D.    Development of modern scientific methods Q.2 Which of the following was NOT typically included in the curriculum of Buddhist monastic universities? A.    Buddhist doctrine and philosophy B.    Logic and debate C.    Islamic theology D.    Medicine and astronomy Q.3 Which ancient Buddhist university was known for its extensive curriculum and scholarly activities? A. Madrasah B. Nalanda C. Al-Azhar D. Takshashila Q.4 The rise of which philosopher and religious teacher marked the beginning of the Buddhist educational era in India? A. Confucius B. Siddhartha Gautama C. Muhammad D. Plato Q.5 What role did monasteries play in Buddhist education? A.    They were primarily military training centers B.    They served as centers for religious and intellectual learning C.    They focused on agricultural training D.    They acted as commercial hubs Q.6 Which ancient Buddhist university was known for its contributions to logic and debate? A. Nalanda B. Aligarh C. Harvard D. Oxford 1.6 MUSLIM EDUCATION The period under review covers the system of education in India from about the 10th century A.D. to the middle of the 18th century, i.e. before the British rule. This period covers the system of education in India from about the 10nth century AD & the middle the 18th century ie., before the British rule. The period of 10th century A.D was the period of constant Muslim invasions. They established dynasties in India and some permanently settled here. But most of the rulers except Akbar the great, the Mugal emperor were not much aware of the development of education and so no interest was taken. They were engaged in constant wars to enlarge their kingdoms and strengthen their power. The scope of education was limited to religion dominated studies, strictly orthodox in nature. Thus no notable advanced or leap was happened in the field of education during this period. Education system during this period can be divided into two – Muslim system of Education and Hindu system of Education. However, before the advent of the Muslims in India, there was a developed system of education, but Education in medieval India was shaped with the founding of the institutions of learning. Muslim rulers promoted urban education by bestowing libraries and literary societies. They founded primary schools (maktabs) in which students learned reading, writing, and basic Islamic prayers, and secondary schools (madrasas) to teach advanced language skills In India. Several Madrasahs were set up by Sultans, nobles, and their influential ladies. CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSLIM EDUCATION:- Aims of education: (a)    Developing love for Muslim culture and religion. (b)    Enabling the individual for Islamic life. (c)    Preparing the students for the next world. (d)    Equipping the students for a vocation. (e)    Preparing individuals for running administration. (1)    Patronage of the rulers: The rulers helped in the spread of education. They built educational institutions and universities. They endowed them with the funds. Big landlord also provided financial help for the spread of education. The rulers patronized the men of learning. (2)    No state control: The rules neither claim any authority over the educational institutions nor interfered with their management. (3)    Religion dominated education: In the words of S.N. MUKERJI, “The whole educational system was saturated with the religious ideals which influenced the aim, the contents of study, and even the daily life of the pupils.” The pupils acquired knowledge as a religious obligation. (4)    Countryside as the centre of education: By and large, educational institutions flourished in the countryside. (5)    Provision of various discipline: Through education was primarily religion-oriented, it included the study of many intellectual activities like mathematics, astronomy, grammer, polity and politics. Art and literature were also encouraged. (6)    Norms of conduct: Adequate stress was laid on well- defined norms of behaviour, pattern of thought, building up personality and character of the pupils. (7)    Teacher-pupil relationship: In the Muslim period also the teacher was respected as during the Brahmanic or Budhist period. There was intimate relationship between the teacher and the pupil, although the practice of living with the teacher was not as common with the Muslim as it was in the case of Brahmanic and Budhist period. (8)    Learned teachers: Teachers took to teaching for love of learning. They were held in high esteem. Prof. S.N. Mukerji has observed, “Learning was prized for its own sake and as a mark of the highest human development and teaching was never handicapped by examination requirements (10)    Individualized instructions: Since the number of students with the teacher was limited, he paid individual attention to each students . (11)    Monitorial system: Although a teacher did not have many pupils to teach yet, still the teacher would take the help of senior and advanced students to teach the younger or the junior. (12)    Discipline: Punishments were quit severe. Truants and delinquents were caned on their palms and slapped on their faces. A strange mode of punishment was to make the children hold their ears by taking their hands from under their thighs while sitting on their tiptoes. (13)    Types of institutions: Primary education was imparted in ‘Maktabs’ and secondary and high education in ‘Madrasahs’. (14)    Vocational education: Provision was also made for vocational, technical and professional education. Emperor Akbar took considerable interest in education as is evident from the passage of from the ‘Ain-in-Akbar’. The passage makes interesting reading and provides valuable information on the system of instruction, i.e., curriculum, methods of teaching etc. MAIN FEATURES OF PRIMARY AND ELEMENTARY MUSLIM EDUCATION (1)    Institution of primary education: Primary education was imparted through the ‘Maktab’ which were attached with mosque or were independent of the mosque ‘Khanquahs’ of the saints also at some places served as centres of education. Several learned men also taught students at their residences. (2)    Financing of the Maktabs: Most of the Maktabs were either patronized by rulers or had endowment. They dependent on the charity of the philanthropists. (3)    Management of the ‘Maktabs’: The ‘Maktabs’ were run under the guidance of the learned ‘Maulavis’. They were supposed to be very pious. (4)    Curriculum: Curriculum varied from place to place but the teaching of Alphabets and the recitation of Quran was almost compulsory. The students learnt some portions of Quran by heart as this was considered essential to perform religious functions. (5)    Language: Arabic and Persian languages were mostly compulsory. For getting high government posts, one had to learn these languages. (6)    Fees: There were several village schools where the students were required to pay their instructions, not in cash but in kind. (7)    Orphanages: The state set up some Orphanages where the children received education free of charge. Vast endowments were made for these orphanages. (8)    Age of admission: At the age of four years, four months and four days, ‘Maktab’ ceremony or ‘Bismillah’ was performed to indicate the beginning of the child. This was considered as an auspicious moment for initiation or starting education. Good wishes were offered to the child. ‘Surah-i-Iqra’ a chapter from the holy Quran was recited on this occasion. (9)    Education of sons of Nobles and Rulers: The Muslims nobles as well as rulers engaged tutors to teach their children at home. (10)    ‘Wide- spread Maktabs’: Almost every village had at least, one ‘Maktab’. There were several ‘Maktabs’ in town and cities. (11)    Curriculum and Mode of Instruction: (i)    During those days there were no printed books for the beginners. Wooden books (taktis) were used. (ii)    The Quran : After alphabets, words were taught to students (iii)    Stress on Calligraphy: beautiful and fine handwriting was an important element of instruction. (iv)    Teaching of Grammar: Grammar was taught as it was considered very valuable in teaching the languages. (v)    Religious Instruction: Instruction imparted in the ‘Maktabs’ was religious through and through. (vi)    Books other than Quran: After the Quran, the ‘Gulistan’ and the ‘Bostan’ poems of poet Firdausi were taken up. (vi)    ‘Paharas’: Students also learned ‘Pahars’ (multiple of numbers). Students memorized these while uttering collective in a loud voice. (12)    Buildings: In general, the students sat on the ground in the rows under the shade of a tree and the teacher used mat or dear-skin to sit at. He also attended to the students while standing. THE MADRASAHS OR MADRASAS The ‘Madrasahs’ imparted secondary and higher education. Often these Madrasahs were attached to mosques. The term ‘Madrasahs’ is derived from Arabic word ‘dars’ (a lecture) and means a place where lecture is given. There was difference in principles between the Madrasa and other mosques. When a particular room was set apart in a mosque for the teaching purposes it was called a Madrasah. Sometimes it was quite close to a large mosque. It functioned as college of higher education where eminent scholars taught different subjects by using the lecture method supplemented by discussions. Management was usually private supported by state grants and endowments. The content of the curriculum was both religious and secular and covered a period from 10 to 12 years. Religious education comprised deep study of the Quran, Islamic law and Sufism. Literature, logic, history, geography, astronomy , astrology, arithmetic, agriculture and medicine were the secular subjects taught in madrasa. Some madrasa had hostels attached to them which provided free boarding and lodging. The history of Muslim education has been the history of a system of government and social system extending over 700 years. As a result of numerous of political and social factors, Muslim education could not touch the heart of public life, and ultimately, not even governmental protection could prolong its life. Later on when the Muslim rulers established permanent empire in India, they introduced a new system of education. Consequently the ancient system of education was greatly changed. In fact, the education during the Muslim period was much inferior than that of the Hindu period. No Muslim ruler except Akbar did commendable works in the field of education. SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-2 Q.1 What was a major feature of education during the Muslim period in India? A.    Emphasis solely on military training B.    Integration of Islamic teachings with various academic subjects C.    Focus exclusively on vocational skills D.    Exclusive use of local vernacular languages for instruction Q.2 What were the primary institutions of learning during the Muslim period in India? A. Gurukulas B. Madrasas C. Monastic universities D. Colonial schools Q.3 Which of the following subjects was NOT typically part of the curriculum in Muslim madrasas? A.    Islamic theology B.    Persian literature C.    Classical Greek philosophy D.    Arabic grammar Q.4 What language was predominantly used for scholarly activities and administration during the Muslim period in India? A. Sanskrit B. Persian C. Tamil D. Bengali 5.    Which of the following was an important center of Islamic learning and culture during the Muslim period in India? A. Nalanda B. Aligarh C. Takshashila D. Madurai 2.5    SUMMARY During the Buddhist and Muslim periods in India, education experienced significant evolution influenced by their respective philosophies and cultural values. The Buddhist period (circa 6th century BCE - 12th century CE) was marked by the establishment of prominent monastic universities such as Nalanda and Takshashila. These institutions emphasized a curriculum that combined Buddhist doctrines with a broad array of subjects including logic, medicine, and astronomy. Education was deeply intertwined with spiritual practice, with a focus on oral transmission, debate, and intellectual inquiry. Monasteries served as centers for learning, fostering an environment of scholarly exploration and critical thinking. The Muslim period (circa 7th century CE - 18th century CE) introduced a new educational framework through the establishment of madrasas. These institutions integrated Islamic teachings with a diverse academic curriculum that included subjects such as Islamic theology, Arabic grammar, mathematics, and astronomy. Persian became the primary language of scholarship and administration, reflecting the broader intellectual traditions of the Islamic world. The education system during this period facilitated a blend of Islamic knowledge with Indian culture, contributing significantly to the region’s social and cultural development. Both periods underscore the dynamic nature of education in India, highlighting how different philosophical and cultural influences shaped the intellectual and spiritual pursuits of their times. 2.6    GLOSSARY Buddhism- A spiritual and philosophical tradition founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) around the 6th century BCE, focusing on the path to enlightenment and liberation from suffering. Madrasas- Educational  institutions in the Islamic world that combine religious instruction with academic subjects such as mathematics, astronomy, and literature. 2.7    ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES Exercise-1 Answer1: B. Focus on monastic and philosophical studies Answer2: C. Islamic theology Answer3: B. Nalanda Answer4: B. Siddhartha Gautama Answer5: B. They served as centers for religious and intellectual learning Answer6: A. Nalanda Exercise-2 Answer1: B. Integration of Islamic teachings with various academic subjects Answer2: B. Madrasas Answer3: C. Classical Greek philosophy Answer4: B. Persian Answer5: B. Aligarh 2.8    REFERENCES/SUGGESTED READINGS •     Chaube, S. P: History and Problems of Indian Education, Vinod Peestak Mandir, Agra. •    Naik P. and Nurullah, S.: A Student’s History of Education in India, MaCMillan India Ltd., 1996. •     Aggarwal, J. C.: Landmarks in the History of Modern Indian Education, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 2005. •      Nurullah, S. and Naik, I. P.: History of Education in India during the British Period, MaCmillan India, 1951.Ll •     Purkait, B. R.: Milestones of Indian Education, New Central Book Agency, 2005, Kolkata. •    Rawat, P. L.: History of Indian Education, Ram Prasad & Sons, Agra, 1991. 2.9    TERMINAL QUESTIONS Q.1 Describe the education during Buddhist period Q.2 Explain the objectives of Buddhist education. Q.3 Compare the Education system during Vedic and Buddhist period. Q.4 Describe the education during Muslim period. Unit-3 MACAULAY’S MINUTE 1835: RECOMMENDATIONS AND CRITICISM Structure: 3.1    Introduction 3.2   Learning objectives 3.3   Recommendations of Macaulay’S Minute Self-Check Exercise-1 3.4   Criticism of Macaulay’S Minute Self- Check Exercise-2 3.5  Summary 3.6   Glossary 3.7   Answers to Self-Check Exercises 3.8   References/ Suggested Readings 3.9   Terminal Questions 3.1   INTRODUCTION Lord Macaulay landed in India on June 10, 1834, as the law member of the Governor General’s Executive Council. He was also appointed as the President of General Committee of Public Instruction. So he was entrusted to settle down the dispute between Orientalists and Anglicizes. His appointment opened a new charter in the history of Indian education. In the capacity of the Law Member, he had been asked to give his legal opinion on any other possible mode of utilizing one lakh of rupees earmarked for education than on Oriental education alone. He was also further asked to interpret the implication of the section 43 of the Charter act of 1813. So, when the papers dealing with the dispute were placed before him in the Council, he wrote his famous Minute regarding the new educational policy. It may not be improper to mention that Lord Macaulay had not been asked to give his opinion or educational policy for the entire country. However, he wrote his famous Minute regarding the new educational policy and submitted the Minute in February, 1835 which is a document of great historical importance. Macaulay was the first to ridicule and criticize the eastern system of education and culture. He was a staunch supporter of English language and literature and was very proud of it. From the very beginning he had the inclination to the viewpoints of the Anglicizes. Thus Macaulay gave a different interpretation to the phrases ‘revival of literature’ to mean English literature and learned native of India, could also be used for a person well versed in the philosophy of Locke or the poetry of Milton, and that the object of promoting a knowledge of sciences could only be accomplished by adopting English as the medium of instruction. Pertaining to the continuance of the institutions of oriental learning, he held the view that those should be closed as they did not serve any useful purpose. Regarding medium of instruction the claim of mother tongue was brushed aside on the grounds that the communal spoken dialects contain neither literature nor scientific information and are “so poor and rude that until they are enriched from some other source, it will not be easy to translate any work into them.” Macaulay did not know either Sanskrit or Arabic. In utter ignorance and out sheer vanity he had the audacity to assert that “a single shelf of good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia”. So Sanskrit and Arabic had no claim as the medium of instruction. In favour of English, Macaulay argued that English “stands pre-eminent even among the languages of the West”. So the languages of the East could stand no comparison with it, “Who ever knows that language has ready access to all the vast intellectual wealth which all the wisest nations of the earth have created and hoarded in the course of the ninety generations”. “In India, English is the language spoken by the ruling class. It is spoken by the higher class of natives at the seats of Governments”. So English should be taught in the best interests of Indian. On these grounds, Macaulay strongly recommended that the object of educational policy in India should be the spread of Western learning through the medium of the English language. He also suggested that the existing institutions of Oriental learning should be used for the promotion of English education and also remarked, “Indians will be taught what is good for their health and not palatable to their dishes.” The motive behind the argument of Macaulay regarding the adoption of educational policy was to create “a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals and in intellect.” of speak figuratively he aimed at a cultural conquest of the people of India. He wanted to provide the company English knowing Indians for holding petty jobs in the office of the company. By this he intended to reduce the expenses of the Company on administration. Commercially his policy helped the Company to stand in good stead. Because being influenced by the occidental influence in taste, opinion and temperament, the Indians would demand for the goods manufactured in England. Besides, the approval of the “Downward Filtration Theory” further divided the much divided people of India and a new class of people was added to the classes which already existed, may be regarded as the political objective of Macaulay. 3.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, the learners will be able to: List down the recommendations of Macaulay’s Minute. Critically explain the Macaulay’s Minute 1835. 3.3    RECOMMENDATIONS OF MACAULAY’S MINUTE Macaulay's Minutes refers to the detailed report and recommendations made by Thomas Babington Macaulay, a British historian and politician, in 1835, which had a profound impact on the educational system in colonial India. This document, formally known as the "Minutes on Indian Education," was pivotal in shaping the future of education in British India. MACAULAY’S MINUTE •     Meaning of the word “Literature”:- in the Order of 1813 the word literature meant English literature and not Sanskrit or Arabic or Persian literature. •     Indian Scholars:- as used in the Order of 1813 /Indian scholars meant a scholar who is learned in the Locke’s philosophy, Milton’s Poetry i.e. English Literature. Hence, Indians should gain thorough knowledge of English literature and western philosophy. •     Repudiation Orientalist’s Ideas :- Opposing the Orientlists, Lord Macaulay wanted to continue the oriental educational institutions. He concluded that to assist the oriental system of education means to put a deadlock in the way of future progress. •      Medium of instructions:- Criticizing the native literature and languages, Macaulay advocated English to be made the medium of instruction in India. He said, “A single shelf of good European was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia.” •     Support to English:- Macaulay advance the some facts for proving English to be the most useful language for Indians i.e. it is the language of the rules and highly placed Indians use it. Indian might be made learned in English literature and it is the duty of government to make efforts for it. •     Proposal for preparing code to in English:- Macaulay was not in favour of the study of Hindu and Islamic law through Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian. He proposed to get all the law books of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian translated in to English and prepare the code of law. •     Religious concept:- Macaulay was strictly secular minded. He did not like to interfere with the religions of India in any way. •     Ways of grant utilization:- Macaulay made a declaration stating the ways of expenditure of the money granted for education in India. He proposed to stop the grants of oriental institutions and save the unnecessary expenditure. He wanted to utilize the money properly in opening English schools and developing western system of education in India. Key Aspects of Macaulay's Minutes: Purpose and Context: Macaulay was tasked with reviewing the state of education in India and recommending changes to the British East India Company’s educational policies. The report aimed to address the challenges of administering education in a diverse and complex society and to establish a more effective system aligned with British colonial objectives. Focus on English Language: Macaulay advocated for the promotion of English as the medium of instruction in Indian schools and colleges. He argued that English would serve as a key tool for accessing Western knowledge and modern sciences, which he believed were superior to traditional Indian learning. He recommended that English should be taught as a language of government and education, to the exclusion of indigenous languages. Critique of Traditional Indian Education: Macaulay criticized the traditional Indian education system, which he viewed as outdated and inferior. He expressed a preference for Western educational models, emphasizing practical knowledge over classical and religious studies. He recommended a shift away from the study of classical Indian texts and languages (such as Sanskrit and Persian) towards Western literature, science, and technology. Establishment of the Educational Framework: His recommendations led to the establishment of a system that prioritized English education and aligned Indian educational institutions with Western standards. The policy facilitated the development of English-medium schools and colleges, including the creation of institutions like the University of Bombay, University of Calcutta, and University of Madras, which followed a Western curriculum. Impact on Indian Society: Macaulay’s Minutes had a lasting impact on the Indian educational landscape. It significantly altered the curriculum in Indian schools, leading to the dominance of English and Western knowledge. This shift also influenced the social and cultural fabric of Indian society, as English education became a means for social mobility and access to administrative positions in the British colonial government. Legacy and Criticism: While Macaulay’s policy contributed to the spread of English and Western education in India, it also faced criticism for marginalizing indigenous languages and knowledge systems. Critics argue that the policy led to a disconnect between educated Indians and their cultural heritage and contributed to the erosion of traditional educational practices. Macaulay’s Contribution to Indian Education: The role of Macaulay has been described variously by different persons. Some regard him as a “torch bearer in the path of progress”. Another group blames him “as the cause of all trouble”. For his “ignorant and violent condemnation of Indian languages, culture and religion”, he is disliked by some. However, a close examination will show that the role played by Macaulay in India does not deserve to be called “torch bearer in the path of progress”. It is an exaggerated account. 1.    Macaulay’s Minutes helped to wind up the oriental - occidental controversy which went on in the field of Indian education for decades. 2.    Macaulay laid the foundation stone of modern education system in India. 3.    He contributed to the spread of science western literature and value in India. 4.    The spread of English education helped Indians to become acquainted with latest development in the world and got inspiration for fighting for their political independence. However, the intentions of Macaulay were malicious and if at all the Indians benefited somewhat from English education, it was much against the wishes of the writer of the Minutes of February, 1835. But it is discernible that along with some disgraceful mockery, there was truth in some of his assumptions and arguments. SELF - CHECK EXERCISE-1 Q.1 What was the primary objective of Macaulay's Minutes on Indian Education? A.    To promote traditional Indian languages and texts B.    To review and reform the educational policies of the British East India Company C. To establish new universities in India D. To create a uniform curriculum for all schools in Britain Q.2 According to Macaulay's Minutes, which language did he advocate as the medium of instruction in Indian schools? A. Sanskrit B.    Persian C.    English D.    Hindi Q.3 How did Macaulay view the traditional Indian education system? A.    As superior and progressive B.    As outdated and inferior C.    As equal in value to Western education D.    As irrelevant to British interests Q.4 What was the main criticism that Macaulay had against Indian classical texts? A.    They were too complex and difficult B.    They were outdated and not useful for modern administration C.    They promoted violence and unrest D.    They were too expensive to teach Q.5 Which of the following institutions was established as a result of the educational policies influenced by Macaulay's Minutes? A.    University of Delhi B.    University of Bombay C.    University of Allahabad D.    Jamia Millia Islamia Q.6 What was the impact of Macaulay's Minutes on the curriculum in Indian schools? A. It led to an increased focus on Sanskrit and Persian literature B.    It introduced a curriculum centered around Western literature, science, and technology C.    It promoted traditional Indian arts and culture D.    It decreased the importance of English in education Q.7 How did Macaulay's Minutes affect the role of English in Indian education? A.    It decreased the role of English B.    It established English as the medium of instruction C.    It had no impact on the role of English D.    It promoted English only in higher education Q.8 What was one of the criticisms of Macaulay's educational policies? A.    They did not adequately address the need for vocational training B.    They led to the neglect of indigenous languages and knowledge systems C.    They promoted the use of local languages in administration D.    They were too expensive to implement Q.9 Which of the following best describes the long-term impact of Macaulay's Minutes on Indian education? A.    It led to the widespread use of traditional Indian languages in schools B.    It caused a cultural and intellectual shift towards Western education C.    It focused on expanding agricultural education D.    It had minimal influence on the Indian education system Q.10 What was one of the goals of Macaulay’s recommendations in his Minutes? A.    To preserve traditional Indian educational practices B.    To create a new educational framework aligned with British colonial objectives C.    To enhance religious instruction in schools D.    To promote rural education exclusively 2.4 CRITICISM OF MACAULAY’S MINUTE Macaulay’s Minutes of 1835, while pivotal in shaping the colonial educational system in India, faced significant criticism for various reasons. Here are some of the major criticisms: 1.    Neglect of Indigenous Languages and Knowledge Systems •     Issue: Macaulay’s Minutes prioritized English as the medium of instruction and promoted Western knowledge while undermining the value of Indian languages and classical texts. •      Impact: This led to the marginalization of traditional Indian languages, literature, and educational practices. The rich heritage of Sanskrit, Persian, and other regional languages was sidelined, which some critics argue resulted in a loss of cultural and intellectual diversity. 2.    Cultural and Intellectual Alienation •     Issue: The emphasis on Western education created a divide between the educated elite and the broader Indian society. It promoted Western values and knowledge systems at the expense of indigenous cultures and philosophies. •     Impact: This contributed to a sense of cultural alienation among educated Indians, who were increasingly distanced from their own traditions and heritage. 3.    Promotion of a Colonial Agenda •     Issue: Macaulay’s recommendations were designed to create an educated class that would serve the administrative needs of the British Empire. The focus was on producing clerks and bureaucrats rather than fostering broad-based educational development. •      Impact: Critics argue that this approach entrenched colonial control and governance structures while failing to address the broader educational needs of the Indian population. 4.    Reinforcement of Social Hierarchies •     Issue: The English-medium education system perpetuated social hierarchies by creating a class of English-educated elites who had access to better opportunities in administration and governance. •     Impact: This widened the gap between the English-educated elite and the majority of the population, reinforcing existing social and economic inequalities. 5.    Reduction in Traditional Educational Content •     Issue: The curriculum shift towards Western subjects led to the reduction or elimination of traditional Indian subjects, including classical studies, indigenous sciences, and religious education. •     Impact: This created a narrow educational focus that valued Western knowledge while neglecting traditional academic and spiritual contributions of Indian culture. 6.    Western Superiority Complex •      Issue: Macaulay’s Minutes reflected a belief in the inherent superiority of Western education and culture over Indian traditions. •      Impact: This attitude fostered a sense of cultural superiority and contributed to the degradation of Indian educational traditions and intellectual achievements. 7.    Limited Educational Access •     Issue: The focus on English education and Western subjects led to the establishment of educational institutions that were often inaccessible to the general population, particularly those from lower socio-economic backgrounds. •     Impact: This limited educational access and perpetuated educational disparities based on class and caste. 8.    Lack of Practical Relevance •     Issue: The emphasis on English and Western knowledge sometimes failed to address the practical needs of the majority of the Indian population, who continued to rely on traditional forms of knowledge and skills for their livelihoods. •     Impact: Critics argue that the new educational system did not adequately address the practical needs of agriculture, industry, or local governance, focusing instead on administrative and bureaucratic skills. In summary, while Macaulay’s Minutes significantly influenced the development of modern education in colonial India, they also faced criticism for their role in undermining indigenous educational systems, promoting cultural alienation, and reinforcing colonial and social hierarchies. Merits 1.     A clear cut picture of the national system of education in India emerged 2.    The system proved very helpful in promoting the objectives for which it was planned 3     English schools began to be established. 4.     English became the medium of instruction. 5.    Western arts and sciences became popular. 6.     Filtration theory of education emerged Demerits 1.     Indian culture and philosophy receded to the background 2.    Vernacular languages began to be neglected 3.    Mass education was neglected 4.    Western culture made rapid strives. 5.    Arabic and Sanskrit languages found very few takers 6.    Arabic, maktabs and Sanskrit pathshalas saw gradual disappearance. SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-2 Q.1 What was a major criticism of Macaulay’s Minutes regarding indigenous languages? A.    They promoted the use of regional languages B.    They neglected and marginalized indigenous languages C.    They supported the preservation of classical Indian texts D.    They encouraged the study of local dialects Q.2 How did Macaulay’s Minutes contribute to cultural alienation? A.    By promoting traditional Indian philosophies B.    By emphasizing Western education at the expense of indigenous cultures C.    By creating educational programs focused on local customs D.    By integrating Indian and Western educational practices Q.3 What was one of the criticisms related to the social impact of Macaulay’s Minutes? A.    They promoted social equality and inclusiveness B.    They reinforced existing social hierarchies by creating an English-educated elite C.    They provided equal educational opportunities for all social classes D.    They abolished caste-based discrimination in education Q.4 How did Macaulay’s Minutes reflect a colonial agenda? A.    By promoting educational independence from British control B.    By focusing on producing a class of administrators to serve the British Empire C.    By encouraging the development of indigenous industries D.    By supporting local governance and self-rule Q.5 What impact did Macaulay’s Minutes have on traditional Indian educational content? A.    It expanded the curriculum to include more traditional subjects B.    It reduced or eliminated the focus on traditional Indian subjects C.    It maintained the status quo of traditional education D.    It increased funding for traditional educational institutions 6. Which of the following was a criticism related to the practical relevance of Macaulay’s educational reforms? A.    They focused too much on practical skills for daily life B.    They did not address the practical needs of the majority population C.    They promoted vocational training over academic subjects D.    They provided hands-on training for local industries Q.7 How did Macaulay’s Minutes affect educational access in colonial India? A.    They made education more accessible to the general population B.    They established institutions that were often inaccessible to the lower socioeconomic classes C.    They promoted widespread educational reforms that benefited all social classes D.    They increased the availability of education in rural areas Q.8 What was a key component of Macaulay’s Minutes that led to criticism regarding Western education? A.    The inclusion of Indian traditional knowledge in the curriculum B.    The promotion of Western knowledge as superior to Indian knowledge C.    The establishment of institutions solely for the study of Indian literature D.    The emphasis on local languages in educational institutions Q.9 Which of the following was a direct result of the criticisms of Macaulay’s educational policies? A.    Increased focus on indigenous educational practices B.    Development of a more inclusive curriculum integrating Western and Indian knowledge C.    Formation of movements to revive traditional Indian education systems D.    Expansion of English-medium schools in rural areas Q.10 What was one of the long-term impacts of Macaulay’s Minutes on Indian education? A.    It led to the establishment of educational institutions that prioritized traditional Indian values B.    It contributed to the creation of an educated elite class that was distanced from Indian cultural roots C.    It resulted in the integration of Indian and Western educational practices D.    It focused on the expansion of vocational training programs 2.5    SUMMARY Macaulay’s Minutes, delivered in 1835, were a critical document in shaping colonial education policy in India. By advocating for English as the medium of instruction and promoting Western knowledge, Macaulay's recommendations transformed the Indian educational system, leading to the establishment of English-medium institutions and a shift away from traditional Indian educational practices. This policy had profound and lasting effects on Indian society, education, and culture. 2.6    GLOSSARY Indigenous Languages- The native languages spoken by the local population, such as Sanskrit, Persian, and various regional languages in India. Cultural Alienation- The process by which individuals or groups become detached from their own cultural heritage and practices. Colonial Agenda- The set of policies and practices implemented by colonial powers to control and influence their colonies. Western Education- An educational system that emphasizes Western knowledge, methods, and values, often including subjects such as English literature, science, and technology. Indigenous Educational Practices-Traditional methods and systems of education that are rooted in local cultures and knowledge systems. 2.7    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISES Exercise-1 Answer1: B. To review and reform the educational policies of the British East India Company Answer2: C. English Answer3: B. As outdated and inferior Answer4: B. They were outdated and not useful for modern administration Answer5: B. University of Bombay Answer6: B. It introduced a curriculum centered around Western literature, science, and technology Answer7: B. It established English as the medium of instruction Answer8: B. They led to the neglect of indigenous languages and knowledge systems Answer9: B. It caused a cultural and intellectual shift towards Western education Answer10: B. To create a new educational framework aligned with British colonial objectives Exercise-2 Answer1: B. They neglected and marginalized indigenous languages Answer2: B. By emphasizing Western education at the expense of indigenous cultures Answer3: B. They reinforced existing social hierarchies by creating an English-educated elite Answer4: B. By focusing on producing a class of administrators to serve the British Empire Answer5: B. It reduced or eliminated the focus on traditional Indian subjects Answer6: B. They did not address the practical needs of the majority population Answer7: B. They established institutions that were often inaccessible to the lower socio-economic classes Answer8: B. The promotion of Western knowledge as superior to Indian knowledge Answer9: C. Formation of movements to revive traditional Indian education systems Answer10: B. It contributed to the creation of an educated elite class that was distanced from Indian cultural roots 2.8    REFERENCES/ SUGGESTED READINGS •     Chaube, S. P: History and Problems of Indian Education, Vinod Peestak Mandir, Agra. •    Naik P. and Nurullah, S.: A Student’s History of Education in India, MaCMillan India Ltd., 1996. •     Aggarwal, J. C.: Landmarks in the History of Modern Indian Education, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 2005. •      Nurullah, S. and Naik, I. P.: History of Education in India during the British Period, MaCmillan India, 1951.Ll •     Purkait, B. R.: Milestones of Indian Education, New Central Book Agency, 2005, Kolkata. •    Rawat, P. L.: History of Indian Education, Ram Prasad & Sons, Agra, 1991. 2.9  TERMINAL QUESTIONS Long Answer type Questions 1.    List down the recommendations of Macaulay’s Minute. 2.     Critically explain the Macaulay’s Minute 1835. Short Answer Questions 1.    What are the merits of Macaulay’s Minute 2.    What did Macaulay say about oriental learning? Unit-4 WOOD’S DISPATCH (1854): RECOMMENDATIONS AND EVALUATION OF DESPATCH Structure: 4.1    Introduction 4.2   Learning Objectives 4.3   Sir Charles Wood and Woods Despatch Self- Check Exercise-1 4.4   Main Recommendations or Features of Wood’S Despatch Self- Check Exercise-2 4.5    Impact of Wood’S Despatch on the Development of Indian Education Self- Check Exercise-3 4.6  Summary 4.7   Glossary 4.8   Answers to Self Check Exercise 4.9   References/ Suggested Readings 4.10  Terminal Questions 4.1   INTRODUCTION East India Company had to take orders from the British Parliament after every twenty years and in each order something was written about the education in India. In the order of 1763, Charles Grant wanted to add some articles about the education inn India. In the order obtained in 1813, a sum of one lakh was sanctioned for the development of education in India. Again in the order of 1833 the sanctioned sum of rupees one lakh was increased to rupees one million yearly. Therefore when time for the order of 1853 came, the Directors of the company decided to lay down a definite policy in regard to educational matters of India. A parliamentary committee was appointed to survey the educational progress in India. The committee studied the issue thoroughly. It heard the ideas of persons like Traivelian Pairy, Marshaman, Wilson, Halide, Cameron, and Duff etc. who had thorough knowledge of Indian education would not be ignored any longer and its development will not be in any case harmful to British empire. The suggestions of the committee were favorably considered by the board of Directors. 4.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, the learners will be able to: Describe the Main Recommendations/Features of Wood’s Despatch. Explain the Impact of Wood’s Despatch on the Development of Indian Education. 4.3    SIR CHARLES WOOD AND WOODS DESPATCH Sir Charles wood influenced Indian education to a very great extent. He was born in 1800 A.D. He received his education at Eaton and Oxford. He was elected as member of British Parliament as a candidate of liberal party in 1826. In 1831, he was again elected for parliament. Again in 1832 he was elected and thereafter remained member of British parliament for 32 years onward. He started his administrative carrier in 1832 when he was appointed as joint secretary of Treasury. He holds his post up to 1834 and in 1835 he became secretary of Admiralty. He resigned from this post in 1839. He participated actively in parliamentary debate during these days. He was appointed as member of Privy Council in 1846. Charles Wood was not a very good administrator. He was casually opposed to new taxation and heavy expenditures. That is why he could not be popular. In December, 1852, he was appointed as President of Board of control for India. He was awarded the title of “KNIGHT” on 19th June, 1856. In June 1859, he became secretary of state for India. He contributed towards the reorganization of Indian Army in 1860. He had to face financial crisis for India because he had to take heavy decisions for India for the expansion of Indian Railways. In 1865, he was elected as a Member of Parliament from Ripon. He resigned from the post of Secretary for India on 16th February, 1866. Again, he was appointed as a member of Privy Council and remained on the post till 1874. He died on 8th August, 1885 at the age of 84 years. Till 1853, the authorities were not clear about the education of Indians but later on it was felt that education of Indians would be of great help to the Britishers. In 1853, the Charter of east India Company was to be renewed and need for defining an educational policy had become apparent. Hence the next step in the history of Indian education was the parliamentary enquiry into the conditions of India in 1853. This of course preceded the renewal of the east India’s Charter. A committee was set up. The suggestions of the committee were favorably considered by the board of Directors. Mr. Charles Wood was the Chairman of Board of control. Charles Wood came to India, consulted Lord Dalhousie, went back and dispatched recommendations from England and that is why this document is known as “WOOD’S DESPATCH’ and not “WOOD’S REPORT’ or “ WOOD’S COMMITTEE REPORT”. In a sense, Despatch means official message. Woods educational Despatch popularly known as Woods Despatch is the corner stone of Indian education. It is termed as the “Megna Charta of Indian Education”. It was so comprehensive that it contains the scheme of education for all Indians. It is held that many experts put their heads together in drafting it. For example lord Dalhousie, the then Governor General, John Stuart Mill, Lord Northbrook and even Duff had contributed towards it. In words of Dr. S.N. Mukherjee, “The document though written over a century ago, appears quite modern even present”. It was no doubt, far wide and more comprehensive than the supreme government of any local Government could ever have ventured to prepare. It was for the first time in the annuals of India that Parliament investigated seriously into educational affairs of the country. A new chapter in Indian History had started. Westernization had set in and along with it gave birth to nationalism which gradually swept the whole country. There was feeling of oneness and people thought of one nationality despite diversities. A wave of nationalism overtook the country and dogmas were being shunned. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES The Despatch had the following objectives in view; •     To enable the natives of India to have those vast and material blessings which flow from the general diffusion of Western knowledge. •      To produce a high degree of intellectual fitness and also to raise the moral character of those who partake of the above advantage. •     To supply of east India Company with reliable and capable public servants, and; •     To secure for England a large and more certain supply of many articles, necessary for her manufacturers and extensively consumed by her population, as an almost in exhaustible demand for the produce of British labor. According to this declaration, new educational policies were framed and implemented. These policies included; •     Establishment of a department of education. •      Establishment of universities. •      Setting up of hierarchically linked educational institutions- primary, middle, high schools, colleges and universities. •      Spread of public education. •      A system for giving aid. •      Training of teachers. •     Education of women •      Professional and vocational education. •      Granting of priority in government services. •      Authorship and publication in Indian languages. •     Education of Muslims. Concerning this declaration, Paranjape’s view is that its objectives were the following – Education should evolve leadership in Indian students, industrial development should take place in India, education should make efforts for the protection of motherland, education should aim at a self-disciplined government. Thus while in 18554, it may been a declaration, but to refer to it as such today would be ridiculous, but to refer to it as such today would be ridiculous. Similar views have been appear rational or logic to refer to Woods Despatch ass the Magna Carta of Indian Education. SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-1 Q.1 What was the primary purpose of the Woods Dispatch of 1854? A. To establish new universities in India B.    To review and reform the educational policies in British India C.    To promote traditional Indian languages in education D.    To focus solely on religious education Q.2 Who was the key figure behind the Woods Dispatch? A.    Thomas Babington Macaulay B.    Sir Charles Wood C. Lord Curzon D. William Adam Q.3 What significant recommendation did the Woods Dispatch make regarding the medium of instruction in higher education? A.    To use Sanskrit as the primary language B.    To continue using Persian as the medium of instruction C.    To use English as the medium of instruction for higher education D.    To use regional languages for all subjects Q.4 According to the Woods Dispatch, what role was to be assigned to local languages in education? A.    They were to be completely removed from the curriculum B.    They were to be used for elementary education and vernacular schools C.    They were to replace English as the medium of instruction D.    They were to be used exclusively for religious education Q.5 What was one of the main objectives of the Woods Dispatch regarding educational institutions? A.    To establish a single central university in India B.    To increase the number of primary and secondary schools across India C. To consolidate all educational institutions under British control D. To close all existing educational institutions and open new ones Q.6 How did the Woods Dispatch propose to improve the administration of education in British India? A.    By centralizing all educational administration in London B.    By establishing a system of local education boards C.    By focusing solely on English education D. By privatizing educational institutions Q.7 What impact did the Woods Dispatch have on the curriculum of Indian educational institutions? A.    It introduced a curriculum solely focused on Western literature B.    It emphasized the need for a balanced curriculum incorporating both Western and Indian knowledge C.    It removed all Indian subjects from the curriculum D.    It required all students to study only religious texts Q.8 Which educational level did the Woods Dispatch particularly emphasize for expansion? A.    Tertiary education B.    Secondary education C.    Primary education D.    Vocational education Q.9 What was the significance of the Woods Dispatch in the context of Indian education? A.    It marked a shift from English to regional languages in higher education B.    It laid the foundation for the modern system of education in India by addressing various aspects of educational reform C.    It focused only on religious education and neglected secular subjects D.    It advocated for the closure of all existing schools and the opening of new ones Q.10 Which of the following was NOT a recommendation of the Woods Dispatch? A.    Expansion of primary education B.    Creation of local education boards C.    Promotion of indigenous languages as the medium of instruction in higher education D. Establishment of more vernacular schools 4.4 MAIN RECOMMENDATIONS OR FEATURES OF WOOD’S DESPATCH Wood’s Despatch is along report consisting of 100 paragraphs. In it all the important educational points have been dealt in detail. The main recommendations of the Despatch are as follows; •     Government’s acceptance of Educational responsibility: The Despatch for the first time clearly accepted that the responsibility of education in India lies on British Government, “Among many subjects of importance, name can have a stronger claim to own attention than that of education”. •     Aim of Education: The Despatch defined the aim of education keeping in view the interests of Indians and British rule. Education is to raise intellectual fitness and moral character of Indians. At the same time, it was to prepare them to become supporters of British rule in India. •     Encouragement to the oriental Education: The Despatch supported the Western education through English medium for the Indians. However, it recommended for the development of Indian literature. It suggested that the books of Western literature and Science should be translated in these languages. Also original books should be written and the writers should be rewarded and encouraged. •     Medium of instruction: The dispatch recommended that owing to the shortage of books in Indian languages, the medium of instruction should be English. But English should be needed for those people who have proper knowledge and taste for English and are able to understand European knowledge through this language. For others, Indian languages should be used. •     Filtration theory opposed: The dispatch criticized the Filtartion theory which was in vogue at that time advocated for practical and useful education for common man. •     Extension of public Education: As Filtration Theory failed, Wood emphasized useful education for the public. As the public itself was unable to get such an education, so increase in the number of Primary, middle and High schools was emphasized. In order to co-ordinate education at these various levels it was suggested to implement at these various levels it was suggested to implement scholarships and other schemes. •     Department of public instruction: The Despatch recommended that Department of public instruction should be set up in all the provinces. Its highest officials should be designated as the Director of Public instruction. He should be assisted by deputy educational director, Inspectors and Deputy Inspectors of schools. •     Establishment of universities: The Despatch recommended the establishment of universities in presidency towns of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, and if necessary at other places too. The duties of the universities were to be as follows: •      To grant affiliation to colleges. •      To inspect the affiliated colleges and to raise their standard of teaching. •     To hold examinations and confer degrees. •     To encourage the cultivation of vernacular languages. •     To organize the departments of Arabic, Sanskrit and Persian. •     Establishment of graded schools: The Despatch recommended that there should be graded schools all over the country as follows; Primary schools-Middle schools-High schools-Colleges-Universities. •     Mass education: The Despatch admitted that mass education had totally bees neglected. Therefore, the Despatch instructed that useful and practical knowledge should be conveyed to the masses. To achieve this purpose, the dispatch recommended the establishment of increased number of high schools, middle schools and primary schools. It was proposed that scholarships should be awarded to promising candidates. The indigenous primary schools were regarded as the foundation upon which the fabric of education could be erected. •     Grant-in –Aid System: The Despatch proposed the sanction of grant-in –aid to the Indian Educational Institutions for increase in teachers’ salaries, scholarships, libraries, construction of buildings etc. Following types of institutions were declared eligible for grants; •      Institutions following the rules and regulations enforced by the government which was prepared to get them inspected by government inspectors. •      Institutions run very well by private institutions. •      Institutions free from communal feelings and not observing distinctions of caste, community and creed i.e. institutions imparting secular education. •      Institutions charging fees from students and not giving free education. •     Training of Teachers: Without proper training teachers would not be able to teach well. The Despatch recommended the need for establishing different types of training institutions. •     Education of women: In Woods Despatch much emphasis was laid upon education. The education recommended that the educational ladder would be incomplete without women education. It appreciated the work of the enlightened Indians engaged in this sacred job. •     Muslim Education: Concerning Muslim education, Mr. Charles wood found that Muslims in this country were educationally backward and hence they should be encouraged to gain more education and efforts should be made in this direction. •     Vocational Education: The Despatch pointed out the need of starting vocational schools and colleges for imparting instruction in different vocations. Vocational education may be considered as a necessary in order to prepare children for future life. •     Education and Employment: The Despatch recommended that academically, highly qualified person should be preferred more than the others for future life. •     Policy of Religious Neutrality: The Despatch directed the company to follow a policy of religious neutrality. No man’s religion was to stand in the way of securing an appointment under the government. Moreover, no religious instruction should be imparted in educational institutions. They were to be exclusively secular. SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-2 Q.1 What was one of the primary recommendations of the Woods Dispatch regarding the medium of instruction in higher education? A. To use Persian as the medium of instruction B.    To use Sanskrit for all higher education C.    To use English as the medium of instruction for higher education D.    To use local languages for all subjects Q.2 According to the Woods Dispatch, what was to be the role of local languages in the education system? A.    They should be the sole medium of instruction B.    They should be used only for religious education C.    They should be used in elementary and vernacular schools D.    They should be abolished from the educational curriculum Q.3 What did the Woods Dispatch recommend regarding the expansion of educational institutions? A.    Establishing new universities only in metropolitan areas B.    Expanding primary and secondary education by setting up more schools C.    Closing down existing schools to create new ones D.    Focusing solely on higher education and neglecting primary education Q.4 How did the Woods Dispatch propose to improve the administration of education in British India? A.    By centralizing control of education in London B.    By creating local education boards to oversee schools and colleges C.    By privatizing educational institutions D.    By removing all administrative controls and allowing self-management by schools Q.5 What was a key recommendation of the Woods Dispatch concerning the curriculum of educational institutions? A.    To focus exclusively on Western literature and sciences B.    To incorporate both Western and Indian knowledge into the curriculum C.    To eliminate all Indian subjects from the curriculum D.    To emphasize religious texts over secular subjects Q.6 Which educational level did the Woods Dispatch emphasize for improvement and expansion? A.    Higher education B.    Technical education C.    Primary and secondary education D.    Adult education Q.7 What did the Woods Dispatch suggest about the financial support for education? A.    Increasing financial support to English-medium schools only B.    Reducing funding for primary education C.    Providing more financial support to promote the establishment of schools and teacher training D.    Allocating funds exclusively for higher education institutions Q.8 How did the Woods Dispatch address the issue of teacher training? A.    It did not mention teacher training B.    It recommended setting up teacher training colleges to improve the quality of education C.    It suggested using untrained individuals for teaching D.    It focused only on improving the salaries of teachers Q.9 What was one of the criticisms of the Woods Dispatch? A.    It recommended eliminating English from the curriculum B.    It did not sufficiently address the need for vocational and technical education C.    It focused too heavily on traditional Indian education methods D.    It did not promote the use of local languages in elementary education Q.10 In what way did the Woods Dispatch aim to address educational disparities? A.    By concentrating resources in urban areas B.    By ensuring the establishment of schools in rural and underserved areas C.    By focusing only on elite schools D.    By creating educational programs exclusively for British expatriates 4.5 IMPACT OF WOOD’S DESPATCH ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN EDUCATION The Woods Dispatch of 1854, officially known as the "Despatch on the State of Education in India," had a significant and multifaceted impact on the development of education in British India. Here’s a summary of its key impacts: 1.    Expansion of Educational Institutions •     Establishment of New Schools and Colleges: The Woods Dispatch advocated for the creation of more schools and colleges, particularly emphasizing the need for both primary and secondary education. This led to the establishment of numerous educational institutions across India, including the foundation of new universities and colleges. •     Local Education Boards: It recommended the formation of local education boards to oversee and manage educational institutions. This decentralized approach aimed to improve the administration and implementation of educational policies. 2.    Curriculum Development •     Balanced Curriculum: The Dispatch emphasized a balanced curriculum that integrated both Western and Indian knowledge. This approach sought to combine Western scientific and literary knowledge with traditional Indian subjects, creating a more inclusive educational system. •     Inclusion of English: It reinforced the use of English as the medium of instruction for higher education while supporting the use of local languages in primary and vernacular schools. This dual approach aimed to bridge the gap between Western and indigenous educational practices. 3.    Teacher Training and Quality •     Teacher Training Colleges: One of the significant recommendations was the establishment of teacher training colleges. This focus on improving teacher quality aimed to enhance the overall standard of education by ensuring that educators were well-trained and proficient in their subjects. 4.    Focus on Primary and Secondary Education •    Emphasis on Primary Education: The Dispatch stressed the importance of primary education and aimed to make it more accessible. This led to increased efforts in establishing primary schools and improving literacy rates among the general population. •    Support for Vernacular Schools: By promoting the use of local languages in elementary education, the Dispatch helped to improve access to education for children in rural and underserved areas. 5.    Educational Administration • Decentralization: The recommendation for local education boards marked a shift towards decentralized educational administration. This approach allowed for more localized management and oversight of schools, which helped in addressing regional educational needs more effectively. 6.    Increased Funding and Support • Financial Support: The Dispatch called for increased financial support for education, particularly for the development of schools and teacher training programs. This led to better funding for educational institutions and the improvement of infrastructure. 7.    Impact on Higher Education • Promotion of English-Medium Higher Education: The Dispatch reinforced the role of English in higher education, which contributed to the establishment of Englishmedium universities and colleges. This shift facilitated access to Western knowledge and aligned Indian higher education with global standards. 8.    Cultural and Social Impact • Educational Inclusivity: By advocating for a curriculum that included both Western and Indian knowledge, the Woods Dispatch helped to promote a more inclusive educational approach. This integration of diverse educational content aimed to foster a more well-rounded and informed student population. EVALUATION OF DESPATCH Merits: Decision of Educational policy: Due to the Wood’s Despatch, British parliament for the first time made an attempt to decide the educational policy in India and give it a legal form. The directors of the east India Company had not decided the policy about the Indian education. Through this dispatch they decided it for the first time. Aim: Wood’s Despatch clearly laid down the aim of education in India. Government responsibility: Through this dispatch, it was recognized to be the duty and responsibility of the British government to educate the common people of India. Rejection of downward filtration theory: Wood’s Despatch rejected the downward filtration theory. It was considered totally useless for Indian education. The Despatch took active steps for the encouragement of public education. Scheme of education: This Despatch, for the first time, put up a scheme of education from primary standard to the university level. It gave practical suggestions based on the lines functioning in England. Literature and Culture: The Despatch recognized the importance and value of Indian Literature and culture. Indigenous language: The Despatch recommended Indian languages and literature for inclusion in the course of study. Unlike Macaulay, it appreciated Indian literature. Books in Indian Languages: Wood arranged to get books written in Indian languages. Translation: The Despatch laid stress on the translation of books of Western knowledge into Indian languages. It recommended encouragement to the authors for this purpose. Department of Public Instruction: Wood suggested for setting up a department of public Instruction in each province with a director of public Instruction, a deputy director, inspectors and deputy inspectors so that educational institutions could be properly inspected and standards could be maintained. Native institutions: The Despatch attracted the attention of the government towards the improvement of native educational institutions. Indian languages: Wood recognized Indian languages as the media of education along with English. Universities: The Despatch ordered for establishing universities at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay and, if necessary, at other places also. High school and colleges: The Despatch suggested for increasing the number of high schools and colleges. Providing Employment: The Despatch paid attention to solving the problem of unemployment by encouraging the vocational education. Women Education: The Despatch recognized the need for development of women education as the duty and responsibility of the government. Grant-in-aid: The Despatch suggested that the grant-in-aid system as functioning in England should apply to various educational institutions in India as well. Scholarships: The Despatch provided for the facility of scholarships for the poor and meritorious students to enable them to gain education. Meritorious teachers: In order to encourage general people towards education system, the Despatch suggested for preference to highly educated person in government services. Better pay scales: The Despatch recommended for better pay scales to the teachers to attract a large number of efficient persons to teaching profession. Demerits: Nominations: All the members of Senate of the universities were to be nominated by the government. Hence, sometimes, the persons ignorant about educational problems became the members of the Senate. Government control: This Despatch put the education under the direct control of the government. This government control ended the traditional free teaching work in the country. Foreign Model: The Despatch adopted the model of London University for Indian universities. Thus, the ancient Indian university system was neglected. Education for bread earning: The education has a very vast aims, but the preference of high education in government services, as laid down by the Despatch, limited the aim of education and it became only the means of bread earning. Blow to old Institutions: According to the Despatch, the persons educated on the Western lines and languages were to be given priority in services. Therefore, the old educational institutions began to lose their existence. Westernization: Wood’s Despatch concentrated the attention of the people on the western knowledge. Hence, Indian literature and knowledge was neglected. A time came when people educated on Western lines began to think that everything indigenous was bad, while anything Western was good. Improvement of Indian languages was planned by filling them with translations of Western books. Neglect of Indian Religion: Indian education gave prominent place to Indian religion. The education system gave prominence to Christianity. Thus, Indian religions were neglected by educated people. They were very much influenced by western religion. Neglect of Spiritualism: The neglect of religion caused educated Indians forget the Indians spiritualism and disciplined ways of life. Degeneration of Indian Languages: Though wood had recognized the usefulness of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian, yet as the aim of education was declared as the extension and development of Western knowledge, Science and literature the value of Indian languages was brought down indirectly. Lack of flexibility: According to this Despatch, an education department was set up in each province and education went under the direct control of the government. The institutions were only to obey the departmental order. So they lost their own inspiration resulting in the lack of flexibility in the educational system. Neglect of orientation: The Despatch resulted in the neglect of native education system by the people. It was left without any attention. Subservience: Education was proposed not in the interest of Indians, but to create faithfulness towards British government. Its aim was to make Indians loyal to the British government. Mercenary aim: Educational institutions were established to prepare fit for government services. Therefore, the aim of education was livelihood only. Lack of support to indigenous Institutions: The government was spending the major portion of money allotted for education in the development and extension of English schools. The Indigenous educational institutions had to suffer a step motherly treatment from the government as well as from the higher classes of the society. Poor people were unable to support them due to want of resources. The grant-in-aid was given to those institutions where the public could be at 50 percent of the expenditure. Therefore, it was also not much helpful for the oriental education. Ills of foreign medium: As the medium of instruction was English, so the students were bound to study English in order to understand other subjects like History, Geography, Mathematics etc. Thus, they had to spend a large period for the study. Still the majority of the students could not gain the success that they might have gained through the media of Indian languages. Examination-cantered education: This system of education destroyed the system of self-study and meditation. The main aim of the students was to pass the examination. They did not care to study the whole course and depended on selected reading. Examination assumed a very important place and so the study became examination minded. No Secularism: The Despatch has said that government would follow a policy of secularism. It would not be partial to any religion but it did show favor to Christianity. SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-3 Q.1 What was one of the primary impacts of the Woods Dispatch on the establishment of educational institutions in British India? A.    It led to the closure of existing schools and colleges B.    It resulted in the creation of numerous new schools and colleges C.    It focused solely on the development of universities in metropolitan areas D.    It abolished all private educational institutions Q.2 According to the Woods Dispatch, what role were local languages to play in the Indian educational system? A.    They were to be used exclusively in higher education B.    They were to be used for primary and vernacular education C.    They were to be eliminated from the curriculum D.    They were to be used only for religious instruction Q.3 What administrative change did the Woods Dispatch recommend to improve the management of education? A.    Centralizing all educational administration in London B.    Creating local education boards to oversee schools and colleges C.    Privatizing educational institutions D.    Allowing self-management by individual schools Q.4 How did the Woods Dispatch address the quality of education through teacher training? A.    It recommended eliminating teacher training programs B.    It proposed establishing teacher training colleges to improve teaching standards C.    It focused solely on increasing teachers' salaries D.    It suggested using untrained teachers for educational efficiency Q.5 What was a significant criticism of the Woods Dispatch regarding vocational education? A.    It promoted vocational education excessively B.    It failed to address the need for vocational and technical education C.    It recommended the elimination of vocational training programs D.    It focused only on higher education and neglected vocational training Q.6 How did the Woods Dispatch impact the use of English in higher education? A.    It recommended replacing English with local languages B.    It reinforced the use of English as the medium of instruction for higher education C.    It suggested removing English from the educational curriculum altogether D.    It encouraged the use of multiple languages in higher education Q.7 What was one of the financial recommendations made by the Woods Dispatch? A.    Reducing funding for primary education B.    Increasing financial support for the establishment of new schools and teacher training programs C.    Focusing only on funding higher education institutions D.    Privatizing financial support for educational institutions Q.8 In terms of curriculum, what did the Woods Dispatch recommend? A.    Exclusively focusing on Western literature and sciences B.    Integrating both Western and Indian knowledge into the curriculum C.    Eliminating all Indian subjects from the curriculum D.    Emphasizing only religious education Q.9 What was the impact of the Woods Dispatch on primary education? A.    It emphasized the need to close down primary schools B.    It led to increased efforts in expanding and improving primary education C.    It recommended that primary education be made optional D.    It focused solely on secondary education Q.10 How did the Woods Dispatch influence the educational administration in rural areas? A.    It did not address rural education B.    It recommended focusing only on urban areas C.    It aimed to improve educational administration and access in rural and underserved areas D.    It encouraged the privatization of rural schools 4.6    SUMMARY By 1853 a number of problems concerning education in the country had risen which required immediate solution. As a result of an inquiry made by the Government, Sir Charles Wood, the then Secretary of state, sent a despatch popularly known as Wood's Despatch to the Court of the Directors of the East India Company in 1854. Wood's Education Despatch formed the basis of the education policy of east India company's government in India since 1854. The despatch drew special attention of the government 'to the importance of placing the means of acquiring useful and practical knowledge within reach of the great mass of the people'. English was to be the medium of instruction in the higher branches, and the vernacular in the lower. This Despatch gave many recommendations, on the basis of these recommendations the new system of education in India gradually evolved. No doubt, with the progress of time the system underwent changes, but the original blue-print was framed by the Despatch of 1854. Despite many limitations the Despatch, it has contributed a lot to the organization and stabilization of the present Indian educational system. 4.7    GLOSSARY Educational Reform-Changes and improvements made to the educational system to enhance its effectiveness and accessibility. Western Knowledge-Knowledge and educational content originating from Western countries, including subjects such as science, literature, and philosophy. Indian Knowledge- Traditional knowledge and educational content originating from Indian culture and heritage, including subjects such as Sanskrit literature and local history. Decentralization-The distribution of administrative authority away from a central authority to local or regional levels. 4.8    ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES Exercise-1 Answer1: B. To review and reform the educational policies in British India Answer2: B. Sir Charles Wood Answer3: C. To use English as the medium of instruction for higher education Answer4: B. They were to be used for elementary education and vernacular schools Answer5: B. To increase the number of primary and secondary schools across India Answer6: B. By establishing a system of local education boards Answer7: B. It emphasized the need for a balanced curriculum incorporating both Western and Indian knowledge Answer8: C. Primary education Answer9: B. It laid the foundation for the modern system of education in India by addressing various aspects of educational reform Answer10: C. Promotion of indigenous languages as the medium of instruction in higher education Exercise-2 Answer1: C. To use English as the medium of instruction for higher education Answer2: C. They should be used in elementary and vernacular schools Answer3: B. Expanding primary and secondary education by setting up more schools Answer4: B. By creating local education boards to oversee schools and colleges Answer5: B. To incorporate both Western and Indian knowledge into the curriculum Answer6: C. Primary and secondary education Answer7: C. Providing more financial support to promote the establishment of schools and teacher training Answer8: B. It recommended setting up teacher training colleges to improve the quality of education Answer9: B. It did not sufficiently address the need for vocational and technical education Answer10: B. By ensuring the establishment of schools in rural and underserved areas Exercise-3 Answer1: B. It resulted in the creation of numerous new schools and colleges Answer2: B. They were to be used for primary and vernacular education Answer3: B. Creating local education boards to oversee schools and colleges Answer4: B. It proposed establishing teacher training colleges to improve teaching standards Answer5: B. It failed to address the need for vocational and technical education Answer6: B. It reinforced the use of English as the medium of instruction for higher education Answer7: B. Increasing financial support for the establishment of new schools and teacher training programs Answer8: B. Integrating both Western and Indian knowledge into the curriculum Answer9: B. It led to increased efforts in expanding and improving primary education Answer10: C. It aimed to improve educational administration and access in rural and underserved areas 4.9    REFERENCES/ SUGGESTED READINGS Chaube, S. P: History and Problems of Indian Education, Vinod Peestak Mandir, Agra. Naik P. and Nurullah, S.: A Student’s History of Education in India, MaCMillan India Ltd., 1996. Aggarwal, J. C.: Landmarks in the History of Modern Indian Education, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 2005. Nurullah, S. and Naik, I. P.: History of Education in India during the British Period, MaCmillan India, 1951.Ll Purkait, B. R.: Milestones of Indian Education, New Central Book Agency, 2005, Kolkata. Rawat, P. L.: History of Indian Education, Ram Prasad & Sons, Agra, 1991. 4.10    TERMINAL QUESTIONS Q.1 Describe the Main Recommendations/Features of Wood’s Despatch. Q.2 Explain the Impact of Wood’s Despatch on the Development of Indian Education. Unit- 5 HUNTER COMMISSION (1882) AND IT’S INFLUENCE ON SUBSEQUENT DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN INDIA Structure: 5.1    Introduction 5.2   Learning Objectives 5.3   Specific Issues and Main Recommendations of Hunter commission Self-Check Exercise-1 5.4   Critical Examination of the Report Self-Check Exercise-2 5.5  Summary 5.6   Glossary 5.7   Answers to Self-Check Exercises 5.8   References/Suggested Readings 5.9   Terminal Questions 5.1   INTRODUCTION Indian Education Commission; The revolt of 1857 shook the very foundation of British empire India. The administration was taken away from the company and transferred to the crown. The normalisation of condition took some time. Wood’s Despatch had also put an end to the monopoly of missionaries over education. Thus, under the influence of this Despatch, the British government established a General Council of education of Indian in England. When lord Rippon became the Viceroy, this intuition asked him to carry out a survey of education in India. On reaching India, Lord Rippon appointed an Indian education Commission on February, 1882. The Chairmen of this commission was William Hunter of its 21members, 7 were Indian and of even these seven, there were nominated by the Government .its Indian members were Anand Mohan Bose, Sayad Mahmood, Nhunder Mukerjee, T. K. Tailang, P.RanganandMudaliar, MaharajJitendra Mohan Thakur and Haji Ghulam. Its member secretary was B.L. Rice. 5.2  LEARNING OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, the learners will be able to: •     Describe the Hunter Commission. •     Explain the Main recommendations. 5.3  SPECIFIC ISSUES AND MAIN RECOMMENDATIONS OF HUNTER COMMISSION As a result of wood’s despatch, universities were established in 1857by different acts Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. On the pattern of London University, Lahore University was established in 1869, but it was only in 1877 that the Calcutta threw the Matriculation examination opened to girls, followed by Madras in 1881 and Bombay in 1883. It was felt that too much was begin done in India for higher education at that primary education was being neglected. The government did not carry out the grant-in – aid policy as suggested by the Wood’s Despatch. Terms of Reference “It will be the duty of the commission to enquire particular into the manner in which effect have been given to the principals of the Despatch of 1854, and to suggest such majors as it made think desirable in order to the further carrying out of the policy there in laid down.” It was the desire of the Governor General –in –Council that the commission should specially bear in mind the great importance which the government attaches to the subject of Primary education. The development of Despatch of elementary education was on the main objects contemplated by the Despatch of 1854….; the principal object, there for of the inquiry of the commission should be present state of elementary education throughout the empire and the means by which this can everywhere extended and improved. •    Should government withdraw from direct educational enterprise in focus of missionaries as the Despatch of 1854 had created such hope. •    What should be the policy of government about religious education? Should it be imparted in schools or not? If it was to be imparted, in what form and with what condition was it to be permitted? Main Recommendations: (A) Regarding primary Education :- the commission gave considerable attention to primary education and their recommendation can be put under the following heads; •    Policy: Regarding the policy of government towards primary education,the commission recommended; The commission observed that primary education should be related to life. It should be practical and useful. Its purpose should be to make the student self reliant. Its curriculum should consist of such subjects which may furthers their goals. The student should be given primary education through the medium of their mother tongue. Persons who have reserved primary education should be given preference in services suitable for them. Primary education should be encouraged. Steps should be taken to develop primary education. The backward and triable people should be encouraged to reserved primary education. •    Legislation and administration: The Indian education commission recommended that the control of primary education should be made over to district board, municipal boards and towards areas. Thus, it made the government free form its responsibility. •    Curriculum:- The commission left the organisation of the curriculum on the provincial Government with the suggestions that they should organise the same in their respective areas according to the needs of the locally concerned. At the same, time the commission also suggested that the subject offered for the life should be incorporated in the curriculum. It opined that agriculture, physics, trigonometry, geography, medicine and accountancy should be included in the curriculum as these subjects are closely related to life. •     Finance:- The commission made several recommendations on the subject of finance; •     The commission recommended that a specific fund should be created for primary education. •     The accounts of primary education fund in municipal areas should be separated from those for the rural area in order to avoid the expenditure in municipal areas of money meant for villages. •      It laid down that local fund should be utilised mainly for primary education and only incidentally – if at all- of secondary and colligate education. •      It observed it was the duty of government to assist the local funds by a suitable system of grant in aid. •     Establishment of Training Instutions:- the commission urged the necessity of opening training schools for training of teachers. It rightly fund training to teachers necessary for development of primary education. It gave the following suggestion in this connection. •     Training school be established at such places from where trained teachers may be made available le for the areas where are no trained teaches. There should be at least one normal school within the jurisdiction of each inspector of schools. •      Inspectors of schools should take personal interest in the origination and maintains of normal schools. •     Normal schools should also get reasonable share of the grant sanctioned for primary education. (B)    Indigenous Education:- the commission recommended that only those institutions should      be called indigenous intuitions or “Pathshalas” that are run by Indians according to the Indian traditions of education. The commission gave the following suggestion in this regard; •      No restriction:- No restriction should be for admission to such institutions. •     Encouragement:- The government should give encouragement to such institutions. •      Administration:- Such institutions, if they think proper, may voluntarily hand over administration to the Municipal Board and District Boards. •     Curriculum:- the government should not interfere in their curriculum in any way. •      Financial aid:- The Government should grant special financial aid for inclusion of subject of practical value in life in the curriculum of these institutions. •    Training of Teachers:- Proper arrangement for the training of the teachers of these institutions should also be made. •    Scholarships:- Poor students in these institutions, should be given stipends and scholarship. Thus the commission fully relishes the needs for leading a helping hand to this particular system which was neglected previously. (C)Secondary Education :- In the field of secondary education , the Commission suggested proper remedies to purge it of certain defects and expand it in a healthy state. Recommendation of the commission can be studied as under. (i)    Government withdrawal:- The Commission recommended the complete withdrawal by the government from this field and entrusting it to the care of efficient Indians. (ii)    Grant –in-aid:- The commission recommended “ At least one model high school may be established in such district , where they may be required in the interests of the people and where the people them selves may not be advanced or wealthy enough to establish such school for themselves within a grant-in-aid. (iii)    Private enterprise:- Primary education being regarded as the primary concern of the state, less importance was attached to secondary education. The commission recommended that the state should soon relieve itself of the responsibility of secondary education on by sanctioning grant-in-aid to it and entrusting it to private enterprise. (iv)    Bifurcation of Secondary education:- The commission recommendation that in the upper classes of high school there be two divisions- one leading to the Entrance examination of the universities, the other of a more practical character, intended to fit youth for commercial or non-literacy pursuits. •    Medium of Instruction:- Possibly the commission favoured English as the medium of instruction and ignored the chain of mother tongue for the same. The commission did not lay down any definite policy with regard to middle schools and left them to the care of the private management according to the circumstances. •    Training of Graduate teachers:- the commission emphasised the necessity of teachers training for raised the standard of secondary education. At the time of Hunter Commission there were only two training school in the country, one at Lahore and other Madras. The commission recommended shorter than for those who are not graduates. The trainees should be examined both in theory and practices of teaching. •    Education Department :- Hunter Commission realised that the efficiency of Education Department had gave down. It was not helping the development of education. So the commission gave the following suggestions for the reorganization of Education Department. •    For inspected primary school such local persons should be appointed who are commersant with the local ever. •    The no of inspectors should be increased •     The emolument of assistant inspectors should be raised •     Mostly Indian should be appointed as inspectors. (D)    Higher Education :- Hunter Commission gave some important suggestion for the improvement of higher education. It observed that at the time of giving grant it should be checked that the education instructional well utilised the given grant. The grant should be determine keeping in view the strength of the teacher and students, need and capacity of the institution. The college engaged in higher education should be given sufficient grants for experimental laboratories, regarding rooms, libraries, equipment’s, sciences rooms, building and furniture etc. (i)    Indainisation of Resources:- Hunter Commission was required to consider whether the government schools should remain under the contract of Government or should they be transferred to Indian hands. This problem arose because most of the schools and colleges were opened by the Government according to the recommendation of this measure as they found the Government as their rival in the field of education. Consequently, missionaries also opened a no. of schools. So the government thought over the problem of retaining its schools or handing them over to Indians. Some people were of the view that the Government should withdraw itself completely from the field of education. The other group of persons wanted that government should wholly control education. The commission studied this issue and recommended that the Government should withdraw itself completely from the field of education. (ii)    Religious Education:- Hunter Commission was required to give its opinion regarding the policy that the Government should adopt for religious education. The commission recommended as follows •     The Government should have no hand in the religious education in schools. •     The Manager of the non-government schools should be free to give or not to give a place to religious education in their schools. The Government should place no restriction in this respect. •      While giving grants, special attention should be paid to the standard of the school while give religious education. (E)    Education of various Groups:- (i)    Women Education: - Hunter Commission made the following recommendation with regard to women education. (a)    Education in special subjects: - the commission maintained that, because of the different nature of their life duties, the curriculum for the girls should be different from that for boys. Subject useful in their life should be included in their curriculum. The commission observed that literary subject would not be useful for girls. Therefore, they should be given education in subject useful in their life. (b)    Education by Local Boards:- The local boards should be made responsible for women’s education. In the absence of such a local boards in same areas the Government should the responsibility for women education. (c)    Women Teacher:- only lady teacher should be appointed in Girls schools. (d)    Inspectors:-Inspectors for girls school should be appointed this policy would encourage Women education also. (e)    Liberal Grant-in-aid:- Liberal Grant-ion-aid should be given to private Girl’s schools. (f)    Free education:- Free education should be provided to girls. (g)    Arrangements for “PARDA” observed Ladies:- Special arrangements should be made for “PARDA” observing ladies. (h)    Hostel :- Decent arrangement for the Hostel should be made. (ii)    Muslim Education:- the commission considered that the education of the Muslim was not given sufficient and proper attention. The commission advocate that every effort should be made to popularise Muslim education. The commission recommended the following regarding popularisation of Muslim education. •     Responsibility :- Local bodies should be made responsible for Muslim education. •     Indigenous Muslim School:-Indigenous Muslim schools should be encouraged. •      Special funds •     Medium Hindustani & Urdu. •     Scholarships •     Number of free ship should be fixed. •     Normal schools should be opened for training of Muslim teachers. •     The existing normal school should be recognised and encouraged. •     Muslim inspectors should be appointed for Muslim schools. (iii)    Education for V.I.P’s:- The commission recommendation that for children of Rajas, Maharajas, Nawabs, and Talukedars special Schools should be opened. (iv)    Education of Backwards Classes:- Hunter Commission recommended that in Government schools special facilities should be provided fore backward classes. It further suggested that some Government Schools should be opened for children of backward classes. The suggestions of the commission led to the progress of education of backward classes. (v)    Education for Aboriginals existing in a country from its earliest time and hill Tribes:- Hunter Commission suggested that special provisions should be made for education for Aboriginals and Hill Tribes. Keeping in view the geographical and social conditions and traditions of the people, special type of schools should be opened in these areas. SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-1 Q.1 What was a primary issue addressed by the Hunter Commission in 1882? A. The establishment of new universities B.    The declining quality of education and curriculum relevance C.    The promotion of English as the only medium of instruction D.    The closure of all private educational institutions Q.2 According to the Hunter Commission, what was a major recommendation for improving primary education? A.    Eliminating vernacular languages from the curriculum B.    Expanding primary education to increase access in rural and underserved areas C.    Focusing solely on secondary and higher education D.    Centralizing educational administration in London Q.3 How did the Hunter Commission propose to address the issue of teacher training? A.    By reducing the number of teacher training institutions B.    By setting up teacher training colleges to improve teaching standards C.    By eliminating teacher training programs altogether D.    By focusing solely on increasing teachers' salaries Q.4 What recommendation did the Hunter Commission make regarding the curriculum? A.    It should focus exclusively on Western literature B.    It should be revised to make it more practical and relevant to Indian society C.    It should be limited to religious studies only D.    It should remain unchanged from the existing system Q.5 Which administrative reform did the Hunter Commission suggest? A.    Centralizing all educational administration in the British government B.    Decentralizing educational administration to allow for more localized management C.    Privatizing all educational institutions D.    Eliminating all administrative oversight of schools Q.6 What was one of the criticisms the Hunter Commission had about the existing education system? A.    It was too focused on vocational training B.    It had significant disparities in access and quality across regions and communities C.    It provided too many resources to rural schools D.    It emphasized too much on traditional Indian education Q.7 How did the Hunter Commission recommend improving female education? A.    By focusing solely on vocational training for women B.    By increasing funding and promoting access to educational opportunities for girls C.    By removing all special programs for female students D.    By integrating female students into male-dominated educational institutions only Q.8 What was a key recommendation regarding the use of vernacular languages in the Hunter Commission’s report? A.    Vernacular languages should be used exclusively in higher education B.    Vernacular languages should be incorporated into primary education to improve accessibility C.    Vernacular languages should be completely phased out of the education system D.    Vernacular languages should only be used for religious education Q.9 What impact did the Hunter Commission’s recommendations have on funding for education? A.    They recommended reducing financial support for education B.    They suggested increasing financial support for expanding infrastructure and resources C.    They focused on allocating funds exclusively for higher education D.    They proposed privatizing financial support for educational institutions Q.10 What was the Hunter Commission’s view on the existing administrative structure of education? A.    It was highly efficient and required no changes B.    It was ineffective and needed significant administrative reforms C.    It was too decentralized and required centralization D.    It should be managed solely by private organizations 5.4  CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF THE REPORT The Hunter Commission, formally known as the Hunter Commission on Indian Education (1882), was a significant inquiry into the state of education in British India. While it made several notable recommendations and contributions, it has been subject to critical examination for various reasons. Here’s a critical analysis of the Hunter Commission: 1.    Scope and Focus Strengths: •     Comprehensive Review: The Hunter Commission provided a detailed analysis of the Indian educational system, covering primary, secondary, and higher education. •     Focus on Access: It highlighted the need for expanding educational access, especially in rural and underserved areas, and recommended increasing educational opportunities for girls. Criticisms: •     Limited Scope: Some critics argue that the Commission's scope was limited in addressing the broader socio-economic factors affecting education, such as poverty and social inequalities. •     Focus on British Interests: The recommendations were largely in line with British colonial interests, aiming to produce a class of educated Indians who could assist in the administration of the colony, rather than fostering a more independent and indigenous educational development. 2.    Curriculum Relevance Strengths: •     Curriculum Reform: The Commission recommended revising the curriculum to make it more practical and relevant to Indian society, which was a step towards improving educational content. Criticisms: •     Limited Integration of Local Knowledge: While the Commission advocated for practical relevance, critics argue that it did not adequately incorporate indigenous knowledge or cultural perspectives into the curriculum. The emphasis remained on Western education, which sometimes led to a marginalization of local languages and traditions. 3.    Administrative Reforms Strengths: •     Decentralization: The Commission’s recommendation for decentralizing educational administration aimed to improve local management and address regional needs more effectively. Criticisms: •     Implementation Challenges: In practice, the decentralization recommendations faced challenges. Bureaucratic inefficiencies and lack of coordination often undermined the intended benefits of local administration. •     Persistence of Central Control: Despite recommendations for decentralization, central control over educational policy and funding often remained strong, limiting the effectiveness of local boards. 4.    Teacher Training and Quality Strengths: •     Emphasis on Training: The Commission emphasized the importance of teacher training and proposed the establishment of teacher training colleges to improve teaching standards. Criticisms: •     Implementation Issues: The actual implementation of teacher training programs was often slow and inadequate. Many teacher training colleges faced issues such as lack of qualified trainers and insufficient resources, which affected the quality of education. 5.    Funding and Resources Strengths: •     Increased Funding: The Commission advocated for increased financial support for education, which was essential for expanding and improving educational infrastructure. Criticisms: •     Inequitable Distribution: Despite recommendations for increased funding, the allocation of resources was often uneven. Rural and marginalized areas continued to face shortages of funds and educational resources. •     Focus on Government Schools: The emphasis on funding government schools sometimes led to neglect of private and community-based educational initiatives. 6.    Female Education Strengths: •     Promotion of Female Education: The Commission recognized the importance of female education and recommended measures to increase access for girls, which was a progressive step for the time. Criticisms: •     Limited Impact: Although the recommendations were positive, the actual impact on female education was limited due to prevailing social attitudes and lack of implementation at the grassroots level. 7.    Socio-Economic Impact Strengths: •     Recognition of Disparities: The Commission acknowledged disparities in educational access and sought to address them through various recommendations. Criticisms: •     Insufficient Address of Socio-Economic Factors: The recommendations did not sufficiently address the underlying socio-economic issues affecting education, such as poverty and social discrimination. This limited the effectiveness of the reforms in achieving long-term educational equity. Merits:- •     Supported Wood’s Despatch of 1854. •     Education Departments given more responsibility. •     Bifurcated courses recommended. •     Encouraged Indian Enterprise. •     Awakened public enthusiasm in education. Drawbacks:- •     Expectations from education department were too ambitious. •     Primary education transferred to weaker agencies which proved harmful. •      “Payment by Results” rule of grant-in-aid did not proved healthier. •      No policy regarding medium of instruction laid down. •     Recommendations on religious education were impracticable. •     Expansion of higher education would lower the vale and recognition of degree was not considered. Adaption of Recommendations:- The imperial government accepted all the recommendations of the commission except that on religious education. The effect were; •      Transfer of primary education to local bodies. •     State laid down the policy not to open more Government school & colleges but maintain the existing ones. •     Great encouragement accorded to Indian Enterprise in Education. Missionaries were put in a secondary position. Education in Indian was developed with a greater stride during the 20 years that followed the appointment of Hunter Commission. The number of school and college increased. But the standard of education fell down due to paucity of funds. The education institutions did not have proper building, libraries and other necessary equipment. There were no trained teachers for school. Bookish knowledge was over emphasized, the students were not given practical experiences useful in actual life situations. Thus the education given to youths was one side. The sole purpose before the students was to pass the examinations with good marks. In fact, nothing useful in practical life was taught to them. In its report the University education commission of 1902 has remarked that,” The purpose of education in India is not to receive education but to pass examination.” The Indian public was not unaware of this defect. However, two groups of people were thinking differently about education. One group was keen for expansion of education and the other group was perturbed over the fall of standard of education. “Gopal Krishan Gokhale” was the advocate of first group. He insisted on expansion of education on the Western pattern as the same would do good whether it was of poor standard or high. Thus, Gokhale emphasized quantity instead of quality. In a way, he very right because it was from the quantity that quality could also come out. In view of the things as existing then, this appeared to be the right measure also because of the very few people education in English. SELF-CHECK EXERCISE-2 Q.1 What was a major criticism of the Hunter Commission's scope and focus? A.    It extensively covered indigenous educational systems B.    It focused too much on vocational training C.    It was seen as limited in addressing broader socio-economic factors affecting education D.    It recommended the elimination of primary education Q.2 How did the Hunter Commission's recommendations for curriculum reform fall short, according to critics? A.    The curriculum was too focused on local languages B.    It did not sufficiently incorporate indigenous knowledge or cultural perspectives C. It recommended exclusive use of traditional Indian education D. It proposed the removal of all Western educational content Q.3 What administrative reform did the Hunter Commission recommend? A.    Centralizing all educational administration B.    Decentralizing educational administration to improve local management C.    Privatizing all educational institutions D.    Removing all forms of government oversight Q.4 What was one of the criticisms related to the implementation of teacher training recommendations by the Hunter Commission? A.    There was an oversupply of qualified teachers B.    Teacher training colleges faced challenges such as lack of qualified trainers and resources C.    Teacher training programs were too effective D.    All teacher training colleges were closed down Q.5 According to the Hunter Commission, what was the intended effect of increasing financial support for education? A.    To reduce the number of government schools B.    To expand and improve educational infrastructure and resources C.    To eliminate private educational institutions D.    To focus exclusively on higher education funding Q.6 What was a significant limitation in the impact of the Hunter Commission's recommendations on female education? A. It had no recommendations for female education B.    The recommendations had limited impact due to prevailing social attitudes and implementation issues C.    It recommended excluding women from educational institutions D.    It led to a significant decline in female literacy rates Q.7 How did critics view the Hunter Commission's approach to addressing socioeconomic disparities in education? A.    It fully resolved socio-economic disparities B.    It made significant progress in addressing socio-economic issues C.    It insufficiently addressed socio-economic factors affecting education D.    It completely ignored socio-economic disparities Q.8 What was one of the administrative challenges faced in implementing the Hunter Commission's recommendations? A. Over-centralization of educational administration B.    Inconsistent and ineffective implementation of decentralized management C.    Excessive privatization of educational institutions D.    Complete removal of administrative oversight Q.9 What was the Commission’s view on the use of vernacular languages in education? A.    Vernacular languages should be excluded from the curriculum B.    Vernacular languages should be used exclusively for religious studies C.    Vernacular languages should be incorporated into primary education to improve accessibility D.    Vernacular languages should only be used in higher education Q.10 How did the Hunter Commission’s recommendations affect funding distribution? A.    Funding was evenly distributed across all educational institutions B.    Funding was increased, but its distribution was often uneven and favored government schools C.    All funding was redirected away from rural schools D.    Funding was reduced for both primary and secondary education 5.5    SUMMARY Hunter Commission played a crucial role in shaping the development of Indian education by addressing several key issues and making important recommendations. However, its impact was limited by challenges in implementation, persistent central control, and insufficient integration of indigenous perspectives. While it made strides in expanding access to education and improving teacher training, criticisms highlight the need for more comprehensive reforms that address socio-economic factors and ensure equitable distribution of resources. The Commission's recommendations laid the groundwork for future educational reforms but also revealed gaps that needed further attention in subsequent policy efforts. Recognition of primary education as education of the masses, use of mother tongue as the medium of instruction, provision of primary education in backward areas, Transfer of control of primary education to local bodies, introduction of the system of payment by result, freedom in selecting text books, adjusting school hours and holidays according to local needs, establishment of normal schools in each division, maintenance of separate fund for primary education, assisting local body by grant-in-aid system, inclusion of more practical subjects and various co-curricular activities, opening of night schools etc. are the basic recommendations which were made by Hunter Commission in 1882 regarding the Primary Education in India. Leave the expansion of secondary education to efficient private bodies, gradual withdrawal of the Government from direct enterprise, maintenance of some secondary schools by the Govt. as model to aided schools, charging lower rate of fees in the aided school, introduction to commercial and non-literary courses in the curriculum, sanctioning grant-in-aid to improve secondary education etc. are the basic recommendations which were made by Hunter Commission in 1882 regarding the Secondary Education in India. Hunter Commission made valuable recommendations in the field of Primary education and Secondary education. Although some of these recommendations had adverse effects in the progress of Primary education in subsequent period. 5.6    GLOSSARY Curriculum Reform- Changes and improvements made to the content and structure of educational courses and subjects. Vernacular Languages- Local or regional languages spoken by the people of a specific area. 5.7    ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISES Exercise-1 Answer1: B. The declining quality of education and curriculum relevance Answer2: B. Expanding primary education to increase access in rural and underserved areas Answer3: B. By setting up teacher training colleges to improve teaching standards Answer4: B. It should be revised to make it more practical and relevant to Indian society Answer5: B. Decentralizing educational administration to allow for more localized management Answer6: B. It had significant disparities in access and quality across regions and communities Answer7: B. By increasing funding and promoting access to educational opportunities for girls Answer8: B. Vernacular languages should be incorporated into primary education to improve accessibility Answer9: B. They suggested increasing financial support for expanding infrastructure and resources Answer10: B. It was ineffective and needed significant administrative reforms Exercise-2 Answer1: C. It was seen as limited in addressing broader socio-economic factors affecting education Answer2: B. It did not sufficiently incorporate indigenous knowledge or cultural perspectives Answer3: B. Decentralizing educational administration to improve local management Answer4: B. Teacher training colleges faced challenges such as lack of qualified trainers and resources Answer5: B. To expand and improve educational infrastructure and resources Answer6: B. The recommendations had limited impact due to prevailing social attitudes and implementation issues Answer7: C. It insufficiently addressed socio-economic factors affecting education Answer8: B. Inconsistent and ineffective implementation of decentralized management Answer9: C. Vernacular languages should be incorporated into primary education to improve accessibility Answer10: B. Funding was increased, but its distribution was often uneven and favored government schools 5.8    REFERENCES/ SUGGESTED READINGS •     Chaube, S. P: History and Problems of Indian Education, Vinod Peestak Mandir, Agra. •    Naik P. and Nurullah, S.: A Student’s History of Education in India, MaCMillan India Ltd., 1996. •     Aggarwal, J. C.: Landmarks in the History of Modern Indian Education, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 2005. •      Nurullah, S. and Naik, I. P.: History of Education in India during the British Period, MaCmillan India, 1951.Ll •     Purkait, B. R.: Milestones of Indian Education, New Central Book Agency, 2005, Kolkata. •    Rawat, P. L.: History of Indian Education, Ram Prasad & Sons, Agra, 1991. 5.9    TERMINAL QUESTIONS Q.1 Describe the Hunter Commission. Q.2 Explain the Main recommendations. 76