--- title: "Vol 1 0" book: "EDUGE 302Pedagogy of Sciences" category: "EDUGE" publisher: "Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd." type: "Educational Material" --- According to Latest Syllabus Read For Sure SuccessIn University Examination RATAN TEXT BOOK PEDAGOGY OF SCIENCES Vol-1 M.A.Education (Sem-IV) Dr. Ragini Singh Published by Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd. 2nd Floor, Centre Plaza, Parinay Kunj, Lajpat Kunj Marg, Agra-282002 Copyright Authors & Publishers Published by Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd. 2nd Floor, Centre Plaza, Parinay Kunj, Lajpat Kunj Marg, Agra-282002 ISBN :978-93-0970-902-9 Price 155.00 only Printed at : KIDS INTERNATIONAL PVT. LTD. C-60, 61, 62, 63, EPIP, Shastripuram, Agra - 282007 Ph. : +91 9719004921 Preamble to the Constitution of India WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, Having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens : JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation; IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION. SUCCESS Success is not permanent and failure is not final. Never stop working after success and, never stop trying after failure. A.P.J. ABDUL KALAM Unit-1 MEANING AND NATURE OF SCIENCE, IMPORTANCEOF SCIENCE IN LIFE STRUCTURE 1 .0   Learning Objectives 1.1    Introduction 1.2   Meaning of Science Self Check Exercise-1 1.3   Nature of Science Self Check Exercise-2 1.4   Importance of Science in Everyday Life Self-Check Exercise-3 1.5    Summary 1.6   Glossary 1.7   Answers to Self-Check Exercise 1.8   References and Suggested Readings 1.9   Terminal Questions 1 .0   Learning Objectives: After reading this unit, you will be able to •     Understand the meaning, nature & importance of General Science •     Understand the importance of science in life 1.1    INTRODUCTION: Today science is advancing at an amazing speed and everything of our life has changed beyond recognition. It constitutes an attempt to conquer the forces of nature and aims to give man increasing power over his surroundings. In the daily life of a man science is visible. For instance, he can now travel much faster and more comfortably than in the past Bullock carts in villages and horse carriages in town are being replaced by tractors, trucks auto-carriages in and cars. Invention of steam engine revolutionized travel Similarly quick means of communication have brought the peoples of the world together We can talk to any person through telephone and mobiles. Electronic mail (email) has made the transmission of any message across internet to any person in this world Science has played a tremendous role in our lives during the last century and is now changing our entire existence in such important aspects as health, communication transportation and power to visualize what science has done for man, it simply necessary to sit in a modern room and look around. There you will find nothing which the hand of science has left untouched. The curtains and carpets are tinted with dyes which no plant could have produced. The chemists have produced these out of the black and sticky coal tar from the same coal tar has been manufactured the Bakelite fountain pen and the ink in it. The artificial silk fabric of the chairs covers has been made from wood pulp. The electric light TV VCR the artificial graphite in the pencil, the nickel-plated door fitted is all feats of science. The invention of television is one of the most important events in human history It enables men to see peoples, images thousands of miles away from them. Cinematography is also a unique gift of science The talkies have definitely taken the place of the theatre and a large-scale cinema industry has sprung up. "Every comfort will be made to extend science to the vast numbers who have remained outside the pale of formal education "National Policy on Education (1992) 1.2    MEANING OF SCIENCE: Science has been derived from Latin word Scientia", which means knowledge. It has been defined in different fashions by different persons Commonly speaking •     'Science is a systematized body of knowledge'. •     'Science is organized common-sense'. •      'Science is a heap of truth.' The term science & general science are used synonymously Einstein defines science as "An attempt to make the chaotic diversity of our sense experience correspond to logically uniform systems of thought." According to the Columbia dictionary "Science is an accumulated & systematized learning in general usage restricted to natural phenomenon." According to Science Manpower Project", "Science is a cumulative and endless series of empirical observation which result in the formation of concepts & theories with both concepts & theories being subject of modification in the light of further empirical observation. Science is both a body of knowledge & the process of acquiring & refining knowledge." According to Griggs. In the literal sense science means the pursuit of knowledge but it has a wider connotation for our purpose, and can be said to mean knowledge of nature in the widest possible form on the basis of these definitions of science we can say that •     Science is a study of natural phenomenon •      It is organized & systematized learning •     It is a body of cumulative & ordered observations •     It is the knowledge based on observations, experiments. •     Science is a process as well as the product. Self Check Exercise-1: Q-1: Discuss the word science. 1.3    NATURE OF SCIENCE: Humans have always been curious about the world around them. The inquiring and imaginative human mind has responded to the wonder and awe of nature in different ways One kind of response from the earliest times has been to observe the physical and biological environment carefully, look for any meaningful patterns and relations, make and use new tools to interact with nature, and build conceptual models to understand the world This human endeavor is science. Science is a dynamic expanding body of knowledge covering ever new domains of experience. How is this knowledge generated? What is the so-called scientific method? As with many complex things in life, the scientific method is perhaps more easily discerned than defined But broadly speaking, it involves several interconnected steps observation, looking for regularities and patterns, making hypotheses, devising qualitative or mathematical models, deducing their consequences, verification or f. fiction of theories through observations and controlled experiments, and thus arriving it the principles, theories and laws governing the physical world There is no strict or in these various steps Sometimes, a theory may suggest a new experiment, at other times an experiment may suggest a new theoretical model Speculation and conjecture also have a place in but ultimately, a scientific theory, to be acceptable, must be verified by relevant observations and/or experiments The laws of science are never viewed as fixed eternal truths Even the most established and universal laws of science are always regarded as provisional subject to modification in the light of new observations, experiments and analysis. The methodology of science and its demarcation from other fields continue to be a matter of philosophical debate Its professed value neutrality and objectivity have been subject to critical sociological analyses Moreover, while science is at its best in understanding simple linear systems of nature its predictive or explanatory power is limited when it comes to dealing with non-linear complex systems of nature Yet, with all its limitations and failings, science is unquestionably the most reliable and powerful knowledge system about the physical world known to humans. How do we ensure that science plays an emancipative role in the world? The key to this lies in a consensual approach to issues threatening human survival today This is possible only through information, transparency and a tolerance for multiple viewpoints. In a progressive forward-looking society, science can play a truly liberating role, helping people out of the vicious circle of poverty, ignorance and superstition. In a democratic political framework, the possible aberrations and misuse of science can be checked by the people themselves Science tempered with wisdom, is the surest and the only way to human welfare. This conviction provides the basic rationale for science education. But science is ultimately a social endeavor Science is knowledge and knowledge is power. With power can come wisdom and liberation? Or as sometimes happens unfortunately power can breed arrogance and tyranny Science has the potential to be beneficial or harmful, emancipative or oppressive. History particularly of the twentieth century is full of examples of this dual role of science. How do we ensure that science plays an emancipative role in the world? The key to this lies in a consensual approach to issues threatening human survival today This is possible only through information, transparency and a tolerance for multiple viewpoints in a progressive forward-looking society, science can play a truly liberating role, helping people out of the vicious circle of poverty ignorance and superstition in a democratic political framework, the possible aberrations and misuse of science can be checked by the people themselves Science, tempered with wisdom, is the surest and the only way to human welfare. This conviction provides the basic rationale for science education. Nature of Science is a term that refers to various topics related to sociology, philosophy, and history of science It is a metacognition about science's products in an interdisciplinary analysis of these areas of knowledge, together with specialists in didactics of science and scientists Also, the NoS seek recognition of the values implicit in the development of theories and statements, given that science is not neutral and it is subject to constant review This leads to consider science beyond of the concept of an unalterable body of knowledge referred to in the scientific method. In general, the nature of science refers to key principles and ideas which provide a description of science as a way of knowing, as well as characteristics of scientific knowledge. Many of these intrinsic ideas are lost in the everyday aspects of a science classroom, resulting in students learning skewed notions about how science is conducted. The main ideas regarding the nature of science are: 1.     Scientific knowledge is tentative. Although scientific knowledge is supported by a wealth of data from repeated trials, it is not considered the final word. Scientific knowledge is at the same time stable and malleable Scientists continually test and challenge previous assumptions and findings. After all, science is a human endeavor, and we know human perspective is limited and fallible. This idea of fundamental uncertainty is vital to scientific studies and is the basis of great scientific discoveries. 2.    Nature of facts/hypotheses/theories. Some key words in science are often misinterpreted. Facts: Students often think of the pieces of scientific knowledge they learn as "facts" As mentioned in the last section, we should not refer to scientific knowledge as fact because that would tend to perpetuate the idea that scientific knowledge is inalterable Scientific facts are observable phenomenon in a particular situation "Dinosaurs were cold-blooded" is not a scientific fact because this phenomenon cannot be observed "The caterpillar is 26 cm in length" is an example of a fact, because the phenomenon was observed in a particular situation. Hypotheses: If you ask a student to tell you what a hypothesis is, you will likely receive the following response "A hypothesis is an educated guess" Although a hypothesis is partly a "guess" in the sense that it is an idea, this inevitable definition is not adequate A hypothesis is a statement, based on previous observations that can be tested scientifically. The idea that a scientific hypothesis must be testable often eludes students. Theories: In the colloquial, theories are often ideas that have not been validated in science, a theory has a much stronger meaning Scientific theories are broadly based concepts that make sense of a large body of observations and experimentation Because theories successfully be together such a huge amount of information, they are among the most important ideas in science. 3.    Scientific methods. In the first chapter of most science textbooks, there will be a section laying out "the scientific method," a step-by-step process that apparently must be followed in order to conduct scientific studies The danger in this approach is not only that learning the scientific method is a bummer to but that it is also quite restrictive in its scope. Scientists usually do not walk through the method sequentially. They often bounce around, perhaps forming a new hypothesis during experimentation. Studies in which no experimentation is performed are also valid scientific studies, but do not follow the scientific method. For example: Jane Goodall observed the behavior of the apes in Africa and did not experiment on them, yet her research is still considered science. This butterfly study is a good example of an observational study which does not follow the scientific method, yet students record scientific data and create scientific conclusions. 4.    Observations and inferences. It is important for students to understand the difference between observation and inference However, this knowledge in itself is not enough Students should also learn to make good observations and inferences and understand the role that observations and inferences play in the development of scientific knowledge. Observations: When we describe an environment based on our five senses, it is called an observation. For example, "Upon magnification, the painted lady eggs appear bluish and barrel-shaped" Observations are direct enough that most would make the same observation in the same situation. Inferences: When we bring our past experience into making a judgment based on an observation, it is an inference. For example, "The caterpillar appears as if it is about to form its chrysalis" is an inference, because you are interpreting observations according to knowledge from past experience. Inferences are important in science in making explanations, but one must be careful not to confuse observations with inferences when conducting a study. 5.    Human error. Although we take steps not to make errors in observation or experimentation, scientists are still human and make mistakes It is important to challenge students to view their mistakes or unexpected results as potentially helpful Scientific studies are most often riddled with problems that must be addressed Often, scientists do not find the answer they expect, but if they do not allow their expectations to cloud their judgment, they may be able to approach the problem in a more appropriate manner. Self Check Exercise-2 Q-1: Discuss the term nature of science. 1.4    Importance of Science in Everyday Life: Today science is advancing at an amazing speed and everything of our life has changed beyond recognition. It constitutes an attempt to conquer the forces of nature and aims to give man increasing power over his surroundings. In the daily life of a man science is visible. For instance, he can now travel much faster and more comfortably than in the past. Bullock carts in villages and horse carriages in town are being replaced by tractors, trucks auto-carriages in and cars. In every generation and in every century there always exist a number of people, who are afraid of everything that is related to possible changes. In various epochs they are called differently luddites, anti-globalists, ecologists and so on, but their nature is always the same They hate progress and strive to preserve the status quo without seemingly realizing the fact that the same very kind of people hated progress and strived to retain the status quo a hundred years ago, and now they use all the things that were denounced by their spiritual ancestors Science always has to fight against heavy odds, for it always tries to show how useful something may be to people who don't want to listen, knowing that the very moment they will be persuaded, they will use a yet another product of science against what has created it. It wouldn't be an exaggeration to say that a scientist is the hero of modern day, and not a politician or a social activist Invention of steam engine revolutionized travel. Then came the sensational invention of aero-planes Similarly, quick means of communication have brought the peoples of the world together We can talk to any person through telephone and mobiles Electronic mail (email) has made the transmission of any message across internet to any person in this world Further, it has made the use of radio both as a means of information and recreation In times of distress, wireless telegraphy renders extraordinary service A plane or ship in danger can at once contact on wireless the nearest aerodrome or port and get timely help. The importance of science in our daily life are discussed as below: Science has invaded every branch of modern life. It is the noise of machines, cars. mills and factories, etc. which awakens us every-day in the morning The food we eat, the clothes we wear, the books and papers we read, the recreations we enjoy the games we play-all have something or other to do with the application of science. Every person feels the effects of science in every sphere of life It is not merely the electric light or the electric fan, the radio or the cinema that displays the power of science in our life, but everything we do or is done to us is in some way or another connected with science. The things that we use in our daily life are mostly due to science. Our forefathers put on clothes woven by hand. Our clothes are made in large factories where scientific methods are used. We get so much paper to write on only because the piper mills can turn out huge quantities of it. Cloth and paper we had even before science came on the scene but no one could then think of the huge quantities in which they are produced now. Science has conquered time and distance. We can travel from one place to another with a quickness which our forefathers could not have dreamt of. In the morning, we get news of events that happened yesterday in all parts of the world Why should we talk of yesterday? With the help of the radio, we can listen to an American speaking. It would seem that he is before us and we are part of his audience. If we want to send a message to a person in America, we can send an email and he will get it in a few hours if we want to speak to our friends far from us, there is the telephone that will connect us. Effect of science on human life: It is, indeed, true that science has added tremendously to the comforts and conveniences of mankind. Unless one is an ascetic, one has no reason to reject the things science offers. By conquering time and distance science has brought mankind together and so far made life richer. By inventing medicines, it has made our day-to-day existence relatively free from disease, and has, indeed, added to our length of life. Examples of use of science in everyday life: This fan and light works from the application of electricity. Electricity is one of the wonders of modern science. The bus which has an engine works with petroleum. The train is driven by the power of coal. This is possible only because of the application of science. My doctor gives certain injections and the patient soon well enough to come here medical science is another achievement of modern science, the marvel of medicine. Contribution to our health and wellness: The invention of medicines for severe diseases is a significant contribution of science in the field of health and wellness Plague, small-pox, cholera, leprosy typhoid and even tuberculosis are no long terrible disease now. Human body has been thoroughly studied and most of the diseases are controlled by life-giving medicines and miraculous surgery Plastic surgery can make an ugly woman a beautiful lady. Science makes our life possible - today a human being cannot imagine his or her life without all the many thousands of little and big things, created by science in the course of millennia. And the people who denounce it for meddling with the things that we do not understand, just don't see that is no way to study a thing that you don't understand without, well, studying it Of course science always prevails in the end for life is stronger than death. But it is really embarrassing to see how hard it has to fight. Self-Check Exercise-3 Q-1 Which of the following statement best describes the nature of science? a)    Scientists are totally objective in their work b)    The scientific method is the only guide for conducting research c)    Science is a system of beliefs d)    Science is social in nature Q-2 The values of science for nature are: a)    Possibility b)    Reality c)    Interim d)    Uncertainty Q-3 Science has been derived from Latin word Scientia", which means knowledge. True/False Q-4 Science has been derived from Latin word Scientia", which means………... 1.5    Summary: It cannot be denied that there is some truth in the above criticism. But we cannot now go back to the old days. We should have all the comforts and conveniences, and we should try to improve upon them. But we must try to be masters of scientific appliances and not their slaves. We should make use of machines, but our life must not be mechanized. The broadest concept of science and society relates the achievements of science to human welfare and to human values, blending and integrating in disciplines. This couples science to operational applications within our society by using its concepts to attack persistent problems of human experience and stressing its potential for improving the "quality of living". This goal changes forms of the established laws and concepts of science. 1.6    Glossary: Significant- Important or large enough to be noticed Phenomenon- A fact or an event in nature or society, especially one that is not fully understood Magnification: A comparison between the size of the image formed by a lens with respect to the size of the object. 1.7    Answers to Self-Check Exercise:Self-Check Exercise-1 Ans-1: "Science is a cumulative and endless series of empirical observation which result in the formation of concepts & theories with both concepts & theories being subject of modification in the light of further empirical observation. Science is both a body of knowledge & the process of acquiring & refining knowledge." Self-Check Exercise-2 Ans-1: Nature of Science is a term that refers to various topics related to sociology, philosophy, and history of science It is a meta cognition about science's products in an interdisciplinary analysis of these areas of knowledge, together with specialists in didactics of science and scientists Also, the NOS seek recognition of the values implicit in the development of theories and statements, given that science is not neutral and it is subject to constant review This leads to consider science beyond of the concept of an unalterable body of knowledge referred to in the scientific method. Self-Check Exercise-3 Ans-1 Science is social in nature Ans-2 Reality Ans-3 True Ans-4 knowledge 1.8    References and Suggested Readings: •     Das R.C. (1989) Science Teaching in Schools, New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. •     Kohli, V.K. (1998) How to Teach Science, Ambala Vivek Publishers. •     Kumar, Amit (2002) of Physical Sciences, New Delhi: Anmol Publications. •     Mangal. S.K. (1997) Teaching of Science, New Delhi: Arya Book Depot. •     Mohan, Radha (2002) Innovative Physical Science Teaching Methods. New Delhi: P.H.I. 1.9    Terminal Questions: 1.    Science has always responded to the needs of society. Comment. 2.     Discuss the significance of physical science relating it to the surroundings around you. 3.     Science helps in bringing all countries together. Justify this statement. 4.     Discuss in detail the place of science in school curriculum. 5.     What is the importance of science in our daily life? Unit-2 PLACE OF SCIENCE IN SCHOOL CURRICULUM AND RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER SUBJECTS STRUCTURE 2.0   Learning Objectives 2.1    Introduction 2.2   Place of science in school curriculum Self-Check Exercise-1 2.3    Relationship of science with other subjects Self Check exercise-2 2.4   Summary 2.5   Glossary 2.6   Answers to Self-Check Exercise 2.7   References and Suggested Readings 2.8   Terminal Questions 2.0   Learning Objectives: After reading this unit, you will be able to •      Explain the science in school curriculum: •      Explain the relationship of science with other subjects 2.1    INTRODUCTION: According to Science Manpower Project", "Science is a cumulative and endless series of empirical observation which result in the formation of concepts & theories with both concepts & theories being subject of modification in the light of further empirical observation. Science is both a body of knowledge & the process of acquiring & refining knowledge." There you will find nothing which the hand of science has left untouched. The curtains and carpets are tinted with dyes which no plant could have produced the chemists have produced these out of the black and sticky coal tar from the same coal tar has been manufactured the Bakelite fountain pen and the ink in it. Today science is advancing at an amazing speed and everything of our life has changed beyond recognition. It constitutes an attempt to conquer the forces of nature and aims to give man increasing power over his surroundings. In the daily life of a man science is visible. For instance, he can now travel much faster and more comfortably than in the past Bullock carts in villages and horse carriages in town are being replaced by tractors, trucks auto-carriages in and cars. Invention of steam engine revolutionized travel Similarly quick means of communication have brought the peoples of the world together We can talk to any person through telephone and mobiles. Electronic mail (email) has made the transmission of any message across internet to any person in this world Science has played a tremendous role in our lives during the last century and is now changing our entire existence in such important aspects as health, communication, transportation and power. To visualize what science has done for man, it simply necessary to sit in a modern room and look around. The artificial silk fabric of the chairs covers has been made from wood pulp. The electric light TV VCR the artificial graphite in the pencil, the nickel-plated door fitted is all feats of science. The invention of television is one of the most important events in human history It enables men to see peoples, images thousands of miles away from them. Cinematography is also a unique gift of science The talkies have definitely taken the place of the theatre and a large-scale cinema industry has sprung up. "Every comfort will be made to extend science to the vast numbers who have remained outside the pale of formal education "National Policy on Education (1992) 2.2    PLACE OF SCIENCE IN SCHOOL CURRICULM: The fore-going discussion reveals that man's future is stubbornly linked to scientific advances and the development of productive activity Obviously, therefore, science must find a respectable place in the school curriculum All the words over this feeling is being generated. In India, through the efforts of National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), science has been made a compulsory subject through the school stage. The views of Kothari Commission, UNESCO's International Commission on the development of Education and National Policy on Education, in this connection are worth considering. Kothari Commission (1964-66): The Commission stated that— "We lay great emphasis on making sciences an important element in the school curriculum We, therefore, recommend that science and mathematics should be taught on a compulsory basis to all pupils as a part of general education during the ten years of schooling In addition, there should be provision for special courses in these subjects at the secondary stages, for the students of more than average ability." UNESCO'S International Education Commission (1972): In line with the strategy of Kothari Commission, UNESCO'S International Education Commission recommended as under; "Science and technology must become essential component in any Educational enterprise, they must be incorporated into all educational activity intended for children, young people and adults, in order to help the individual to control social energies as well as natural and productive ones thereby achieving mastery over himself, his choices and actions and finally they must help a man to acquire a scientific turn of mind so that he becomes able to promote science without being enslaved by it." Regarding the shape of science and its relation with humanities this commission hoped that: The natural sciences will one day incorporate the science of man, just as the science of man will incorporate the natural sciences, there will be a single science." National Policy on Education (1992); The National policy has made science as a compulsory subject at school level. It goes further saying that science education may be given even out of the school youth and adolescents. The policy recommends as under; "Every effort will be made to extend science education to the vast numbers who have remained outside the pale of formal education." Science is vitally important in our daily lives as it provides us with an understanding of how the universe behaves Physical Science explains the measure of the different physical quantities that play a vital role in our daily life, such as volume, weight, mass, distance, etc. By these standard units of measurement, we can organize our daily activities and this has united human activities all over the world. Physical Science can solve many of the crises facing the world, such as global warming, waning energy, overpopulation, natural disasters, and the slow poisoning of our planet. We can discuss the Importance of physical sciences as a subject of the school curriculum on the basis of its value in different spheres such as: 1.    Intellectual Value. The Science has introduced us to new ways of thinking and reasoning Scientific knowledge helps to sharpen our intellect & promotes intellectual honesty The science education can develop the positive attitudes like open mindedness such positive is helpful to an individual to understand, evaluate and solve many problems faced in life. 2.    Vocational Value. In present age all the vocation need the knowledge of science more ever there are large no of vocations for which study of science is compulsory requirement examples: Medicine, Engineering Computers Para medicines, agriculture etc. The study of science at a school level is the basis of many vocations & other productive activities in the latter of students. 3.    Aesthetic Value. Knowledge of science develops in man a passion for truth & thus he has a passion for beauty The English Poet Keats has said. Truth is Beauty Science is basically unfolding of the mysteries of nature & nature is a store house of all the beautiful things Thus teaching of science is necessary for developing aesthetic sense in an individual. 4.     Utilitarian Value. Scientific principles & laws find a large number of applications in our everyday life. For proper utility of such applications knowledge of science is necessary Electronics, Electricity Communication, transport etc all integral part of our life is strongly influenced & advanced due to advancement in science Thus teaching of science is necessary from utilitarian point of view. 5.    Cultural Value. Science has played an important role in determining the culture & civilization of a country from time to time. It has affected our way of thinking & way of living Science has a direct influence in dispelling many traditional beliefs Science has made us more aware of the universe we live The scientists take an equal responsible part in the vital issue of our country so as to bring about consideration & integration of scientific developments & our cultural heritage. 6.    Moral Value. Knowledge of science develops in us truthfulness & reasoning. These qualities are desirable in all human beings. These qualities make the life worth living. This could be possible with the teaching of science. 7.    Psychological Value. Teaching of science is essential for developing scientific attitudes & scientific temper The principle of learning by doing is the main basis of the teaching of science & satisfies the instincts of curiosity, creativeness, self-assertion, self-expression etc of the pupils. 8.     Adjustment Value. Science develops in us a scientific attitude It also develops in an individual a problem-solving attitude. These attitudes help to solve any problems in life successfully. A person having scientific attitude lives a peaceful & successful life. 9.    Leisure Time Value. Science has helped us to overcome the problem of passing our leisure time & to make best use of it. Science has provided us with a large number of devices such as television, radio, cinema etc which are the source of entertainment to all of us They also serve as source of knowledge & are used for spread of mass education & making the community aware of dangers of various is Science has also provided large number of hobbies which we can pursue in our leisure time. Self Check exercise-1 Q-1: Discuss the role of science to enhance intellectual value. 2.3    Correlation of science with other subjects It often happens that the various aspects of a topic are dealt with by different teachers from the point of view of their own subject. The impact of these lessons on a people is much greater when they are discussed about the same time by different teachers instead of separating them by long intervals Teachers therefore must strive for some degree of correlation Science can be correlated with almost all subjects. A few of them are as discussed below; 1.    Science and mathematics: Mathematics is probably the sole language of science and therefore a real understanding of science is impossible without adequate knowledge of mathematics Algebraic equation, graphs, geometry, co-ordinate geometry, calculus, simple statics are some of the useful tools of science. Science and mathematics teachers should cooperate in the consideration of such matters as following; a.     Can scientific data be used for illustrating mathematical problems? b.    Can  exercise on measurements, finding  volume, area be transferred to mathematics side? c.     Can mathematics teacher teach and give practice in certain mathematical operation before science teacher use it in the class? 2.    Science and Geography: Subjects like meteorology, rocks and soil, distribution of plants and animals’ life etc. bring the two subjects very close to each other The question arise who would deal with these subjects first, science teacher or geography teacher? The actual recording of atmospheric pressure, temperature, wind direction, humidity and rainfall, the study of recording instruments are science Geography interprets the results got by science in terms of climate and its effects on land and man. The way in which the breaking down of different types of rocks produces different types of soil is nothing but science Geography lessons on these subjects will, therefore be better understood and appreciated if they have already been discussed in the science class Again the topic like relationship between plants and animal distribution, the density and activities of human population, the occurrence and composition of clay, hills and coral reefs concerns both geographer and the scientists Thus one subject can very well help the other. 3.    Science and language: language and composition teacher may occasionally be requested to look at a set of science essay, or descriptive accounts of experiments so that both teacher and taught feel that there is close cooperation for a good descriptive style Language teacher may suggest essays on scientific topics Passage from original and historical scientific works may be used for translation Science books on natural history and biography are valuable contribution to literature and provide excellent reading material. 4.     Science and history: It is useful to mention events in the world history which coincide with important scientific discoveries. Certain important discoveries and inventions took place in the reign of certain famous kings who patronized the scientists. German gained scientific leadership in the early years of the century and her monopoly of the manufacture of many scientific instruments paved the way for the World War 1. Correlation between science and history is very prominent in topic like the story of the man, the story of the earth, and the story of the wheel. The story of man endeavors to fight disease may be correlated with the work in history such as leprosy and plague in the east, scurvy and small pox in Europe, the ideals of health in time of Greeks, parliamentary acts for the better sanitation and living condition etc. 5.    Science and Social Studies: Science and social studies are very much inter- dependent. There is great impact of science on our way of thinking, behaving eating and living Science is an important factor in determining our faith and beliefs. Development of scientific attitudes and training in scientific methods the major goal of science teaching, have revolutionized our outlook and way of looking upon world problems. The teacher of social studies should not ignore or under estimate this impact of science and try to bring active and living correlation between science and social studies. On the other hand, the science teacher should also emphasis to his students how faith and beliefs are being shattered and conception of man, God, and life are changing. 6.    Science and craft: Correlation between the science department and department of Work Experience or SUPW of a school can result in a good deal of improvisation and construction of useful science apparatus. Students can construct a piece of apparatus and models of scientific interest during craft period. The making of useful and serviceable model of scientific interest by a student has a lot of educational value. 7.    Science and Art: 1.    A good drawing in the biology is impossible unless the student get a good deal of practice in art lesson. 2.    By learning to draw plants and animals, students can learn not only the form but the habits of these living things. 3.     Drawing in physics and chemistry though much simpler still need the knowledge of some art. 4.    Bad lettering often spoils a good drawing Lettering should be done in script. Even simple lettering requires practice. 5.    Chart and diagrams to be displayed in the laboratory should be of more permanent nature. 8.    Science and Music: The knowledge of resonance, vibrating system in string s and air column, reverberation, music scales etc. can be very helpful to the students of music The production and reproduction of sound, the gramophone, sound films, tape recorders and other phonetic instruments are all based on the principle of science. Self Check exercise-2 Q-1: How will you correlate science with mathematics? Q-2: The continuous and comprehensive evaluation in science means: a)    Summative and formative evaluation b)    More frequent test and examination c)    Routine activities and exercises to assess d)    Evaluation of all aspects of science Q-3: The first step of scientific method is: a)    Forming a hypothesis b)    Making an observation c)    Conducting an experiment d)    Predicting the result of experiment Q-4 Science and social studies are very much inter- dependent. True/False Q-5 Mathematics is probably the sole language of ……. 2.4    Summary: The teacher of social studies should not ignore or under estimate this impact of science and try to bring active and living correlation between science and social studies. On the other hand, the science teacher should also emphasis to his students how faith and beliefs are being shattered and conception of man, God, and life are changing. It cannot be denied that there is some truth in the above criticism. But we cannot now go back to the old days. We should have all the comforts and conveniences, and we should try to improve upon them. But we must try to be masters of scientific appliances and not their slaves. We should make use of machines, but our life must not be mechanized. The broadest concept of science and society relates the achievements of science to human welfare and to human values, blending and integrating in disciplines. This couples science to operational applications within our society by using its concepts to attack persistent problems of human experience and stressing its potential for improving the "quality of living". It is useful to mention events in the world history which coincide with important scientific discoveries. Certain important discoveries and inventions took place in the reign of certain famous kings who patronized the scientists. 2.5    Glossary: Improvisation: The art of composing, uttering, executing, or arranging anything without previous preparation. Self-expression: The expression of one’s feeling, thoughts, or ideas, especially in writing, art, music, ordnance. Cinematography: The art, technique, or science of filmmaking, which includes the process of shooting and the development of a film. 2.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise:Self-Check Exercise-1 Ans-1: The Science has introduced us to new ways of thinking and reasoning Scientific knowledge helps to sharpen our intellect & promotes intellectual honesty The science education can develop the positive attitudes like open mindedness such positive is helpful to an individual to understand, evaluate and solve many problems faced in life. Self-Check Exercise-2 Ans-1: Mathematics is probably the sole language of science and therefore a real understanding of science is impossible without adequate knowledge of mathematics Algebraic equation, graphs, geometry, co-ordinate geometry, calculus, simple statics are some of the useful tools of science. Science and mathematics teachers should cooperate in the consideration of such matters as following; a.     Can scientific data be used for illustrating mathematical problems? b.    Can  exercise on measurements, finding  volume, area be transferred to mathematics side? c.     Can mathematics teacher teach and give practice in certain mathematical operation before science teacher use it in the class? Ans-2 Routine activities and exercises to assess Ans-3 Making an observation Ans-4 True Ans-5 Science 2.7    References and Suggested Readings: •     Das R.C. (1989) Science Teaching in Schools, New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. •     Kohli, V.K. (1998) How to Teach Science, Ambala Vivek Publishers. •     Kumar, Amit (2002) of Physical Sciences, New Delhi: Anmol Publications. •     Mangal. S.K. (1997) Teaching of Science, New Delhi: Arya Book Depot. •     Mohan, Radha (2002) Innovative Physical Science Teaching Methods. New Delhi: P.H.I. 2.8    Terminal Questions: 1.    Science has always responded to the needs of society. Comment. 2.     How will you correlate science with other subjects? 3.     Science helps in bringing all countries together. Justify this statement. 4.     Discuss in detail the place of science in school curriculum. 5.     What is the importance of science in our daily life? Unit-3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING SCIENCES, TAXONOMY OFEDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES Structure: 3.1    Introduction 3.2   Learning Objectives 3.3   Aims as Objectives of teaching Science Self Check Exercise-1 3.4   Meaning of the learning objectives Self Check Exercise-2 3.5   Taxonomy of the educational objectives Self Check Exercise-3 3.6   Summary 3.7   Glossary 3.8   Answers to Self-Check Exercise 3.9   References and suggested readings 3.10  Terminal Questions 3.1   Introduction Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or recognition of facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental levels, to the highest order which is classified as evaluation.The objectives of science teaching have gone under a tremendous change during the course of last few decades. The subject of science has acquired its place as an independent subject a few years ago only. The development of science and technology and their expansion have influenced the educational objectives. According to the NCERT in its Evaluation and Examination Score towards which action is taken, it is that systematic change which is realized by activity for which we all work. Objective is that final point of educational process whose realization is achieved by planned activities of teaching. Objectives are determined by from psychological and philosophical point of view. These Objectives are realized by the teaching of different subjects in school. Teaching objectives curriculum and methods are selected on the basis of subject Objectives are of great importance in class teaching. Educational objectives are achieved by teaching of a subject. Educational objectives keep changing as per the needs of life philosophy, country and community. 3.2    Learning Objectives: After studying this chapter, the students will be able to: •     Know about the Aims as Objectives of teaching Science •     Meaning of the learning objectives •     Taxonomy of the learning objective 3.3    Aims as Objectives of teaching Science: Generally, the term 'aims and objectives' are used synonymously where as in reality there is a lot of difference in the two terms. AIM is general declaration of intent which gives direction to a teaching program OBJECTIVE is small objective, helps required in achieving a specific aim which makes the study of sciences more useful and helps in bringing about the desired behavioral changes in the students. The following table helps in making these differences clear/evident. Difference between aims and objectives | SI. | Aims | Objectives | |---|---|---| | 1. | Aim is a general declaration of intent which gives direction to a teaching program. | Objective is a particular point in that direction. | | 2. | Aim is the answer to the question of why a subject is taught. | It is an answer to the question of what will be achieved after the teaching of that topic. | | 3. | They are indefinite and vague. | They are generally definite and clear. | | 4. | These are close to the ideals which cannot be fully achieved. | They can be achieved. | | 5. | School,   society  and   nation   are responsible for their fulfillment. | Mostly the teacher is responsible for their fulfillment. | | 6. | A lot of time is taken for their achievement. | Time is not much. The achievement of objectives can be verified along with the teaching of the lesson or after the completion of the lesion. | We teach science for the Knowledge and understanding of science, nurturance of the process skills, development of scientific attitude and scientific temper, nurturance of the natural curiosity, creativity and aesthetic sense, imbibing values, developing problem- solving skills, and relating physical science education with natural and social environment, technology and society. Many of the above aims are common to all educational processes. It has also been emphasized+ that achieving aims of physical science should be a continuous effort of the teachers. The aims of science teaching are discussed as below: 1.     To provide practical knowledge of the subject matter/content. 2.    To provide the latest knowledge. 3.     To provide the broad objectives of sciences i.e. skill, knowledge, interest appreciation, application and understanding etc. 4.    To provide fundamental skills and processes for proper understanding of the subject matter. 5.    To give students broad genuine appreciation of what development of sciences means to modern life. 6.     To satisfy the natural interest in things and forces of nature with which men are surrounded. 7.     To contribute specific ideals like concepts of accuracy, truthfulness, honesty, open mindedness, ordered system, neatness and accuracy to etc. 8.     To stimulate spirit of study, investigation and invention. 9.     To educate them regarding the application of science in their social and physical environment. 10.    To develop their observation capacity. 11.    To encourage them to read the life stories of great scientists. 12.    To develop the capacity to solve day to day problem. 13.    To develop economic efficiencies. 14.    To develop scientific attitude, scientific appreciation and scientific temper among students. The objectives of science teaching are to affect all-round development of a student in order to make him an efficient and able citizen. This wide objective of science teaching directs class teaching. A student's behavior is changed suitably by class teaching. Therefore, an objective of science teaching is to effect behavioral change in a student. The objectives of science teaching have gone under a tremendous change during the course of last few decades. The subject of science has acquired its place as an independent subject a few years ago only. The development of science and technology and their expansion have influenced the educational objectives. In the beginning, emphasis was laid on the knowledge of facts. Gradually attention was paid towards planning and generalization. In the third and fourth decade of the nineteenth century, a science committee was appointed to determine teaching objectives of science, which in its report attached importance to practical and experimental aspect of science. A revolutionary change occurred in the objectives of science teaching after the Second World War. Besides knowledge of scientific facts and theories, importance now came to be given to scientific attitude, experimental work and problem solving. The main objectives of science teaching are given as below: •     Know the facts and principles of physical science and its applications, consistent with the stage of cognitive development. •     acquire the skills and understand the methods and processes that lead to generation and validation of scientific knowledge, •     develop a historical and developmental perspective of physical science and to enable her to view physical science as a social enterprise, •      Relate to the environment (natural environment, artifacts and people), local as well as global, and appreciate the issues at the interface of physical science, technology and society. •     acquire the requisite theoretical knowledge and practical technological skills to enter the world of work •      Nurture the natural curiosity, aesthetic sense and creativity in science and technology. •     imbibe the values of honesty, integrity, cooperation, concern for life and preservation of environment, and •      Cultivate scientific temper objectivity, critical thinking and freedom from fear and prejudice. Self Check Exercise-1 Q-1: What do you mean by the term aim? Q-2: What is the main objective of science teaching? 3.4    MEANING OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES Teachers are entrusted with the responsibility to provide learning experiences and opportunity to each learner, so that the learner can learn to the best of her ability and develop her full potential of learning Identifying certain perceptible changes in terms of remembering, understanding, applying and analyzing, etc. that need to be brought out in the learner before transacting a particular topic/unit in the class helps a teacher to discharge this responsibility. These desirable strands of remembering, understanding. applying and analyzing for a particular topic/unit in terms of perceived learning are broadly known as learning objectives This desirability should be viewed from the perspective of the existing knowledge and background of the learners, not of the teachers. In other learning objectives are the statements in specific and observable term that tell what the learner is expected to achieve as a result of engaging her in teaching- learning process. For example, writing three properties of vector product mathematically. Learning objectives of physical science should be consistent with the aims of physical as well as cognitive abilities of the learners. Obvious all the scientific facts principles and theories of science cannot be learnt by all learners and there may be a qualitative hierarchy in different aspects of learning of a particular learner. For example, a learner may be very good in experimental skills, but not so in solving numerical problems. You have to keep in mind the nature of science in general and the topic in particular, the scope of the content to be transacted to the learners, the context in which learning is taking place and needs, abilities and learning difficulties of the learner. Understanding how to develop learning objectives will help you to structure teaching-learning and assessment processes and optimize learning. Furthermore, classifying the objectives will help you to focus on various aspects of student's learning in their knowledge and cognitive process dimension about which we shall discuss in the next section. Learning objectives should be aligned with three major components of teaching-learning process the objective, assessment and teaching learning activities. Whether the objectives are realized or not is known by assessment of learners. Accordingly teaching-learning activities are modified to realize the objectives. Thus, the three components are consistent with each other If three components are congruent, teaching-learning is meaningful. 3.5    TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES Learning Taxonomy - Bloom's Cognitive Domain "Bloom's Taxonomy is designed to be a classification of the student behaviors which represent the intended outcomes of the educational process. It is assumed that essentially the same classes of behavior may be observed in the usual range of subjectmatter content of different levels of education (elementary, high school, college), and in different schools. Thus, a single set of classification should be applicable in all these circumstances. What we are classifying is the intended behaviors of students the ways in which individuals are to think, act or feel, as a result of participating in some unit of instruction. (Only such of those intended behaviors as are related to mental acts of thinking are included in the part of the Taxonomy developed in the handbook for the cognitive domain). It is recognized that the actual behaviors of the students after they have completed the unit of instruction may differ in degree as well as kind from the intended behavior specified by the objectives That is the effects of instruction may be such that the students do not learn a given skill to any degree. We initially limited ourselves to those objectives referred to as knowledge, intellectual abilities, and intellectual skills. (This area, which we named the cognitive domain, may also be described as including the behavior, remembering, reasoning, problem solving. concept formation, and to a limited extent creative thinking)" Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or recognition of facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental levels, to the highest order which is classified as evaluation. Self Check Exercise-2 Q-1: Discuss the main function of Blooms taxonomy. | Cognitive learning is demonstrated by knowledge recall and the intellectual skills comprehending information, organizing ideas, analyzing and synthesizing data, applying knowledge, choosing among alternatives in problem-solving, and evaluating ideas or actions | |---| | Level and Definition Illustrative | Verbs | Example | | Knowledge is defined as the remembering of previously learned material. This may involve the recall of a wide range material, from specific facts to complete theories, but all that is required is for the student to bring to mind the appropriate information. Knowledge represents the lowest level of learning outcomes in the cognitive domain. | arrange, describe, duplicate, identify, label, list, match, memorize, name, order, outline, recognize, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce, select, state | Memory of specific facts, terminology, rules, sequences, procedures, classifications, categories, criteria, methodology, principles, theories and structure. Recite a policy. Quote prices from memory to a customer. Know the safety rules. Describe the painting. | | Comprehension is defined as the ability to grasp the meaning of material. This may be shown by translating material from one form to another (words to numbers), by interpreting material (explaining or summarizing) and by estimating future trends (predicting consequences or effects). These learning outcomes go one step beyond the simple remembering of material, and represent the lowest level of understanding. | classify, convert, defend, describe, discuss, distinguish, estimate, explain, express, extend, generalize, give examples, identify, indicate, infer, locate, paraphrase, predict, recognize, rewrite, report, restate, review, select, summarize, translate | Stating problem in own words. Translating a chemical formula. Understanding a flow chart. Translating words and phrases from a foreign language. Explains in one's own words the steps for performing a complex task. What is the subject or theme? | | Application refers to the apply, change, choose, ability   to   use   learned compute, demonstrate, material   in   new   and discover,    dramatize, concrete  situations.  This  employ,        illustrate, may include the application  interpret,    manipulate, of such things as rules,  modify,         operate, methods,         concepts,  practice,        predict, principles,    laws,    and prepare,       produce, theories.           Learning  relate, schedule, show, outcomes   in   this   area sketch, solve, use, write require a higher level of understanding than those under comprehension. | Taking principles learned in math and applying them to figuring the volume of a cylinder in an internal combustion engine. Use a calculate manual to an employee's vacation time. If you could interview the artist, what questions would you ask? | |---|---| | Analysis refers to the ability  analyze,       appraise, to break down material into  break down, calculate, its component parts so that  categorize,    compare, its organizational structure  contrast,       diagram, may be understood. This  differentiate, may      include      the discriminate, identification of the parts,  distinguish,    examine, analysis of the relationships  experiment,     identify, between     parts,     and illustrate, infer, model, recognition      of      the outline,    point    out, organizational     principles  question, relate, select, involved.           Learning  separate,     subdivide, outcomes here represent a test higher intellectual level than comprehension       and application because they require an understanding of both the content and the structural   form   of   the material. | Discussing how fluids and liquids differ. Detecting logical fallacies in a student's explanation of Newton's 1st law of motion. Recognize logical fallacies in reasoning. Gathers information from department a and selects the required tasks for training. Explain what you think the artist is trying to say about the subject matter. | | Synthesis refers to the arrange, assemble, ability to put parts together categorize, collect, to form a new whole. This combine, comply, may involve the production compose, construct, of a unique communication create, design, develop, (theme or speech), a plan of devise, design, explain, operations (research formulate, generate, proposal), or a set of integrate, manage, abstract relations (scheme modify, organize, plan, for classifying information). prepare, propose, Learning outcomes in this rearrange, reconstruct, | Writing a comprehensive report on a problem-solving exercise. Planning a program or panel discussion. Writing a comprehensive term paper. Integrates training from several sources to solve a problem. What ways would you render the subject differently? | | area stress creative behaviors, with major emphasis on the formulation of new patterns of structures. Integrate. | rearrange, reconstruct, relate, reorganize, revise, rewrite, set up, summarize, synthesize, tell, write | | |---|---|---| | Valuation is concerned with the ability to judge the value of material (statement, novel, poem, research report) for a given purpose. The judgments are to be based on definite criteria. These may be internal criteria (organization) or external criteria (relevance to the purpose), and the student may determine the criteria or be given them. Learning outcomes in this area are highest in the cognitive hierarchy because they contain elements of all of the other categories, plus conscious value judgments based clearly defined on criteria. | appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose, compare, conclude, contrast, defend, describe, discriminate, estimate, evaluate, explain, judge, justify, interpret, relate, predict, rate, select, summarize, support, value | Making judgments based on internal evidence or external criteria. Evaluating alternative solutions to a problem. Detecting inconsistencies in the speech of a student government representative. Explain and justify a new budget. Hire the most qualified candidate. What is your opinion of the painting? Why? | Self -Check Exercise-3 Q-1 Which option is false in reference to Bloom’s taxonomy? a)    It deals with the classification of learning objectives within education b)    It was published in 1966 AD. c)    It contributes the children’s mental development d)    It was named after Benjamin Bloom, the education psychologist Q-2 Which of the following is not an affective domain? a)    Receiving b)    Analyzing c)    Valuing d)    Organizing Q-3 "Bloom's Taxonomy is designed to be a classification of the student behaviors which represent the intended outcomes of the educational process. True/False Q-4 Bloom identified …. Levels within the cognitive domain. 3.6    Summary: A student's behavior is changed suitably by class teaching. Therefore, an objective of science teaching is to effect behavioral change in a student. The objectives of science teaching have gone under a tremendous change during the course of last few decades. The subject of science has acquired its place as an independent subject a few years ago only. The development of science and technology and their expansion have influenced the educational objectives. In the beginning, emphasis was laid on the knowledge of facts. As a result of scientific and technological development, extensive change has occurred in the objectives of science teaching. Now, together with the attainment of knowledge, importance is also attached to concepts, abilities, aptitudes and skill development in science teaching Whatever may be the aims of teaching science (as they change with requirements of time) the basis of their formation should be child, society and subject matter Apart from these aims discussed, the most important function of science education should be development of all dimensions of child's and this can only be possible if we shift our focus from acquisition of knowledge to development of scientific attitude, reflective thinking, skills, desirable habits, interest in scientific literature and impact of subject on their daily life, provide work for leisure, training for better living, providing opportunities and facilities for specialization for vocation etc. Learning objectives of physical science should be consistent with the aims of physical as well as cognitive abilities of the learners. Obvious all the scientific facts principles and theories of science cannot be learnt by all learners and there may be a qualitative hierarchy in different aspects of learning of a particular learner. For example, a learner may be very good in experimental skills, but not so in solving numerical problems. 3.7    Glossary: Objective: A form of category by which we can make a desired change in the behaviour of students Comprehension: An exercise that tests how well you understand spoken or written language Methodology: A way of doing something based on particular principles and methods Nurturance: Emotional and physical nourishment and care given to someone 3.8    Answers to Self-Check Exercise:Self-Check Exercise-1 Ans-1: AIM is general declaration of intent which gives direction to a teaching program OBJECTIVE is small objective, helps required in achieving a specific aim which makes the study of sciences more useful and helps in bringing about the desired behavioral changes in the students. The following table helps in making these differences clear/evident. Ans-2: The objectives of science teaching are to affect all-round development of a student in order to make him an efficient and able citizen. This wide objective of science teaching directs class teaching. A student's behavior is changed suitably by class teaching. Therefore, an objective of science teaching is to effect behavioral change in a student. The objectives of science teaching have gone under a tremendous change during the course of last few decades. Self-Check Exercise-2 Ans-1: Bloom's Taxonomy is mainly designed to be a classification of the student behaviors which represent the intended outcomes of the educational process. It is assumed that essentially the same classes of behavior may be observed in the usual range of subject-matter content of different levels of education (elementary, high school, college), and in different schools. Self-Check Exercise-3 Ans-1 It was published in 1966 AD. Ans-2 Analyzing Ans-3 True Ans-4 Six 3.9    References and suggested readings: Mangal S. K. , Teaching of Physical Sciences Bhatnagar AB, Teaching of Science Kulshrestha S.P. Gaya Singh, Teaching of Science Ahmann, J.S and Glock. M.D. 3.10    Terminal Questions: 1.    What are the objectives of science teaching at secondary level? 2.     Describe the objectives of science teaching on the basis of Bloom's taxonomy. 3.    What are the objectives of science teaching? What do you understand by specific behavioral objectives? Write them separately. 4.    Analyze the objectives of science teaching at high school level. How far can they be realized? 5.    What is the between aims and objectives? ***** Unit-4 FORMULATION OF THE EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES Structure: 4.1    Introduction 4.2   Learning Objectives 4.3   Formulation of the educational objectives Self-Check-Exercise-1 4.4   Summary 4.5   Glossary 4.6   Answers to Self-Check Exercise 4.7   References and suggested readings 4.8   Terminal Questions 4.1   Introduction The objectives of science teaching are to affect all-round development of a student in order to make him an efficient and able citizen. This wide objective of science teaching directs class teaching. A student's behavior is changed suitably by class teaching. Therefore, an objective of science teaching is to effect behavioral change in a student. The objectives of science teaching have gone under a tremendous change during the course of last few decades. The subject of science has acquired its place as an independent subject a few years ago only. According to the NCERT in its Evaluation and Examination Score towards which action is taken, it is that systematic change which is realized by activity for which we all work. Objective is that final point of educational process whose realization is achieved by planned activities of teaching. Objectives are determined by from psychological and philosophical point of view. These Objectives are realized by the teaching of different subjects in school. Teaching objectives curriculum and methods are selected on the basis of subject Objectives are of great importance in class teaching. Educational objectives are achieved by teaching of a subject. Educational objectives keep changing as per the needs of life philosophy, country and community. Learning objectives of physical science should be consistent with the aims of physical as well as cognitive abilities of the learners. Obvious all the scientific facts principles and theories of science cannot be learnt by all learners and there may be a qualitative hierarchy in different aspects of learning of a particular learner. For example, a learner may be very good in experimental skills, but not so in solving numerical problems. 4.2    Learning Objectives: After studying this chapter, the students will be able to Know about: •      Formulation of instructional objectives 4.3    FORMULATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES Benjamin S. Bloom has divided the cognitive objectives into six categories. But instructional objectives are related to classroom objectives. We will see them one by one. (A) Classroom Instructional Objectives: - 1.    The pupil acquires knowledge of scientific facts, terms, concepts, principles, theories. Specifications: - i)      The pupil recalls....... a)    The facts, terminology. b)     The definition of various laws, principles. c)     The names of different parts of flower, leaf, plants. d)    The concept of classification of substances. e)    The names of types of diseases. ii)     The pupil lists all the elements on the periodic table. iii)    The pupil recognizes....................... a)    Different apparatus used in various experiments. 2.    The pupil develops an understanding of various scientific terms, facts, definitions, concepts, laws, theories, procedures, etc. Specifications: - i)     The pupil sees a relationship between different facts, concepts i.e., mass and volume. ii)     The pupil cites examples of metals and metalloids. iii)    The pupil classifies plant kingdom and animal kingdom. iv)    The pupil selects appropriate for performing experiment. v)    The pupil compares the characteristic of metals, non-metals etc. vi)    The pupil defects errors in a given example. vii)    The pupil rectifies errors in a given statement, diagram, formula, example etc. viii)    The pupil verifies the answer by substituting the values in a given problem or equation. ix)    The pupil uses an appropriate method to solve a problem, to do titration. x)     Pupil cites illustrations of different types of chemical equations. 3.    The pupil applies his knowledge and understanding in new andunfamiliar situation. Specifications: - i)     The pupil analyses the given example into what in given and what to be found out. ii)     The pupil formulates hypothesis to organize the elements. iii)    The pupil collects relevant data related to a hypothesis. iv)    The pupil selects relevant data, i.e., facts and principles for a particular situation e.g., Relationship among different group elements. v)    The pupil judges the adequacy of data or procedure or apparatus e.g., to check laws of reflection, refraction, etc. vi)    The pupil suggests new illustrations for different of lenses, propagation of lights etc. vii)    The pupil predicts various applicability of laws. viii)    The pupil solves the problems on velocity, momentum, etc. ix)    The pupil interprets various graphs, charts etc. x)     The pupil translates statements into symbols. 4.    The pupil develops the skills required for science learning.Specifications: - i)     The pupil checks the feasibility on instruments before using them. ii)     The pupil rectifies the defects in the instruments e.g. the presence of air bubble in the burette during titration. iii)    The pupil sets up appropriate apparatus for perform different experiment. iv)    The pupil measures with reasonable accuracy the length of pendulum and period of oscillations. v)    The pupil reads the log table, mathematical symbol, and different tables. vi)    The pupil records the observation accurately and neatly. vii)    The pupil makes accurate observations while reading graphs, tables etc. viii)    The pupil uses the relevant data to reach at a solution. ix)    The pupil draws conclusions. x)    The pupil summarizes observations after the experiment. B)    Personality Objectives 5.    The pupil develops interest in science. Specifications: - i)     The pupil reads, on his own, a number of books, magazines, newspapers related to scientific information. ii)     The pupil visits places of scientific importance and interest e.g., planetarium, laboratories, science center’s etc. iii)     The pupil participates in activities like debates, projects, talks, elocution, in or out side school. iv)    The pupil collects, picture, specimens, data, of scientific importance from books, journals, gardens etc. v)    The pupil prepares models, charts, pictures etc. vi)    Contributes exhibits censuring scientific facts for display in or outside schools. vii)    The pupil writes articles, news items related to scientific concepts. viii)    The pupil prefers to attend to programme related to science on TV, Radio, etc. ix)    The pupil meets scientist astronauts etc. x)    The pupil helps in maintenance of a science laboratory, science club, museum, herbarium etc. 6.    The pupil develops positive scientific attitude. Specifications: i)     Pupil respects research finding or new approaches contrary to existing theory. ii)     The pupil accepts those conclusions based on logical reasoning. iii)    The pupil expresses his ideas in a logical sequence. iv)    The pupil arrives at a judgment after weighing all possible evidence carefully. v)    The pupil considers new ideas, discoveries, and inventions free from prejudice. vi)    The pupil reconsiders his own judgments and beliefs in the light of new knowledge and theories. vii)    The pupil cooperates with others in arranging scientific, models, charts, materials, etc in proper places. viii)    The pupil faces problems with full confidence. 7.    The pupil appreciates the contribution of science in every walk of life and knowledge. Specifications: - i)     The pupil expresses his appreciation of man's effort to conquer nature and natural forces. ii)     The pupil recognizes the contribution of scientists to the modern world. iii)    The pupil derives a sense of pleasure in understanding the achievement of science e.g., God particle, travel to space, satellites etc. Self-Check-Exercise-1 Q-1According to blooms taxonomy of educational objectives, the lowest level of cognitive domain is: a)    Analysis b)    Evaluation c Comprehension d Knowledge Q-2The question, how would you prove that the earth is round and not round? is based on ………. objective. a)    Comprehension b)    Evaluation c)    Application d)    Synthesis Q-3Instructional objectives are related to classroom objectives. Q-4An objective of science teaching is to effect behavioral change in a student. True/False 4.4    Summary: We initially limited ourselves to those objectives referred to as knowledge, intellectual abilities, and intellectual skills. (This area, which we named the cognitive domain, may also be described as including the behavior, remembering, reasoning, problem solving. concept formation, and to a limited extent creative thinking)". Furthermore, classifying the objectives will help you to focus on various aspects of student's learning in their knowledge and cognitive process dimension about which we shall discuss in the next section. Learning objectives should be aligned with three major components of teaching-learning process the objective, assessment and teaching learning activities. Whether the objectives are realized or not is known by assessment of learners. Accordingly teaching-learning activities are modified to realize the objectives. Whatever may be the aims of teaching science (as they change with requirements of time) the basis of their formation should be child, society and subject matter Apart from these aims discussed, the most important function of science education should be development of all dimensions of child's and this can only be possible if we shift our focus from acquisition of knowledge to development of scientific attitude, reflective thinking, skills, desirable habits, interest in scientific literature and impact of subject on their daily life, provide work for leisure, training for better living, providing opportunities and facilities for specialization for vocation etc. 4.5    Glossary: Logical: Seeming natural, reasonable or sensible Hypothesis: Tentative solution of the problem Creative thinking: It is the characteristics of someone or some process that forms something new and valuable 4.6    Answers to Self-Check Exerciser: Ans-1Knowledge Ans-2Evaluation Ans-3True Ans-4 True4.7    References and suggested readings: Mangal S. K. , Teaching of Physical Sciences Bhatnagar AB, Teaching of Science Kulshrestha S.P. Gaya Singh, Teaching of Science Ahmann, J.S and Glock. M.D. 4.8    Terminal Questions: 1.    What are the objectives of science teaching? What do you understand by specific behavioural objectives? Write them separately. 2.    Analyze the objectives of science teaching at high school level. How far can they be realized? Unit -5 Curriculum Meaning of science curriculum, Principle of Curriculum Construction Structure: 5.1    Introduction 5.2   Learning Objectives 5.3   Meaning of science curriculum Self Check Exercise-1 5.4   Principle of Curriculum Construction 1.4.1    Aims of education and objectivity 1.4.2    Child-centric principle 1.4.3    Principles of civic and social needs 1.4.4    Principle of conservation and providing proper inspiration 1.4.5    Principles of creativeness and activity centeredness 1.4.6    Principle of forward-looking 1.4.7    Principle of preparation for living 1.4.8    Principle of integration and correlation 1.4.9    Principle of developing scientific attitude 1.4.10    Principle of individual difference 1.4.11    Principle of social relevancy and utility 1.4.12    Principle for utilization of leisure 1.4.13    Principle of variety and flexibility Self-Check Exercise-2 5.5   Summary 5.6   Glossary 5.7   Answers to Self-Check Exercise 5.8   References and Suggested Reading 5.9   Terminal Questions 5.1    Introduction: Before starting to think about the science curriculum it becomes necessary to know about the meaning of the term curriculum. Curriculum includes the totality of experiences that a child receives through the numerous activities that go on in the classroom, library, laboratory, workshop, assembly hall, science club, play field and in the manifold informal contacts between the teacher and students. In a way the whole life of the school becomes curriculum which can touch the life of students at all points and help in the development of balanced personality, Science curriculum is sum total of activities performed in the school to develop balanced personality. It becomes important to think how to develop a balanced personality of the students. Science is one of the school subjects which can develop the scientific temper and develops balanced personality of the students because of the following essential values. Curriculum has been regarded as a means to achieve the set goals. In context to physical sciences it may be regarded all what is to be given or acquired by the child in the form of specific learning experiences for achieving the aims and objectives of physical science teaching. The learning experiences imparted or gained by the child in the subject physical sciences need to be quite diversified and varied and talking and listening in the classroom. As a result by the term physical sciences curriculum, we mean all those learning experience that are received by a child through a number of activities going on inside the school or outside the school in the form of formal or informal education for the realization of the set goals and objectives of leaching physical sciences. 5.2    Learning Objectives: After studying this chapter, the students will be able to know about: •     Meaning of science curriculum •      Principles of curriculum construction 5.3    Meaning of Science Curriculum: Curriculum etymologically the term has been derived from a Latin word which stands for a 'course to' run. A renowned educationist Cunningham has defined it in the following words, "The curriculum is the tool in the hands of the artist to mould his material (the pupils) according to his ideals (objectives) in his studio (the school). In every sense, therefore, curriculum should stand for all those experiences that can be included in the study of a particular subject which are thought to be essential for the realization of the set goals or objectives of that study. Secondary Education Commission stated that curriculum does not mean only academic subjects traditionally taught in school, but it includes totality of experiences that a pupil receives through the numerous activities that go on in the school, classroom, library, laboratory, workshop and playground and in the manifold informal contacts between the teachers and the pupils Curriculum is an important element of education, aims of education are reflected in the curriculum. In other words, the curriculum is determined by the aims of life and society. Aims of life and society are subject to constant change. Hence, the aims of education are also subject to change and dynamic The aims of education are attained by the school programmes, concerning knowledge, experiences, activities, skills and values. The different school programmes are jointly known as curriculum Traditional concept-The traditional curriculum was subject-centred while the modern curriculum is child and life-centred From now on, the physical science teacher is expected to play a more important role. He is emphasized to use educational technology for more effective learning. He is also to include values while teaching physical science values like truth, cleanliness, trust, respect, love, nonviolence, right conduct and peace. If these values inculcated among students along with scientific temper, will make them better human beings and citizens. The teacher is now guided for more objective evaluation. He is supposed to be more accountable to prepare students for twenty-first century. Some of the definitions of curriculum are given as below. Froebel - "Curriculum should be conceived as an epitome of the rounded whole of the knowledge and experience of the human race." Crow and Crow - The curriculum includes all the learners' experience in or outside school that are included in a programme which has been devised to help him developmentally, emotionally, socially, spiritually and morally". T.P. Nunn-The curriculum should be viewed as various forms of activities that are grand expressions of human spirit and that are of the greatest and most permanent significance to the wide world". Self Check Exercise-1 Q-1: Discuss the term curriculum. 5.4    Principle of Curriculum Construction: In case when we talk about the construction and organization of the curriculum in the subject physical sciences we usually mean to think about the type of learning experiences to be given to the child at the various age and grade levels for the realization of the set goals at that particular age and grade level Naturally, it will need a systematic and sequential planning as to widen the sphere of learning experiences at each level by keeping in view the principle of integration and correlation. How it can be done and what principles are to be followed for this purpose can be understood through the following discussion. The content of curriculum is determined on the basis of some academic principles which are stated below: 5.4.1    Aims of education and objectivity Life is complex A curriculum should reflect the complexities of life in other words, in farming the curriculum one should take into consideration the aims and objectives of education. 5.4.2    Child-centric principle What is to be given to the children in the form of learning experiences at a particular age and grade level should suit properly their age and mental level development. The intelligence and the mental functioning of the children grow with their age and so their capacity of understanding and grasp. Therefore, it will be in the fitness of things if their courses or content of study in any subject should be framed to suit their ability. Nothing should be taught to them which may float above their heads. The curriculum should be framed according to the actual needs, interests and capacities of the child. That means a curriculum must be child-centric as modern education is child-centred. 5.4.3    Principles of civic and social needs: Man is a social being. He lives in the society. The child develops in the society. Modern education aims at both developments of the individuality of the child as well as the development of the society. 5.4.4    Principle of conservation and providing proper inspiration: Man has conserved experiences very carefully for better adaptability. Education is regarded as a means of deserving the cultural heritage of humanity. The school serves two-fold functions in this regard preservation of the past experiences and transmission of experiences. Physical science education must place to such learning experiences which may prove helpful in providing due inspiration to the children. For this purpose, it may have biographies and life history of great scientists and developmental history or the scientific inventions and discoveries. With the provision of science clubs and other co-curricular activities a physical science may also provide proper opportunity to the students of getting inspiration and stepping in to the foot prints of the great inventors and discoveries. 5.4.5    Principles of creativeness and activity centeredness: Children are very active in nature. They take interest in the things and events related with the playful activities. They enjoy the participation in the activities and experiences where they find opportunity for self-doing like manipulation of the objects with their own hands and exploring or discovering the things with their own sense organs. Therefore, attempts should be made to include such learning experiences in the science curriculum which may provide children sufficient opportunity for self-doing in the form of independent observation, experimentation and improvisation etc. However, the level of such experiences should always vary according to the needs of the age group and environmental circumstances of the children. Education not only conserves that past experiences of humanity but also helps an individual to develop his innate potentialities. 5.4.6    Principle of forward-looking The aim of life-centred education is not limited to the present life-situations in the family and society. Hence, education must prepare the child of shouldering future responsibilities. So in farming the curriculum we must take into consideration the future needs of the child as well as the needs of the society. 5.4.7    Principle of preparation for living: The children should know the various activities of the environment around them and how these activities are people to meet their basic needs of food, shelter, clothing, recreation, health and education. The content of learning experience for children should be linked with the needs of environment in which they live. The children for rural areas can understand and grasp easily the information which is directly connected with their experience in their own rural environment. In the same way the children of urban areas can understand things in a better and easy way which are connected with modern inventions and development. Similarly, the contents of the learning experiences for children belonging to hilly areas, deserted places, and sea beaches should be located with the things and events related to these places. 5.4.8    Principle of integration and correlation: Subjects should be arranged logically and psychologically in accordance with the child's developing interests. It is a natural law that children will be able to learn better in which they have special taste and inclination of mind. Such things they can retain in their memory for a long time as well. It is also found that at different stage of age group, children have different interest patterns. Besides that there comes a change in their interests according to change in the circumstances and situations. Therefore the learning experiences should be designed as to suit the interest and tastes of the age group of the children. It should be carefully observed that the learning experience in science at different levels should be essentially correlated with the learning experiences of other subjects of the school curriculum. All the subjects of the school curriculum through their respective learning experiences are to attain the same goal i.e. the realization of the aims of education. Therefore what is included in the learning experiences of the physical science curriculum should have a direct or indirect relationship with the curricular contents of the other subjects taught at a particular grade or level. 5.4.9    Principle of developing scientific attitude: Development of scientific attitude is one of the major objectives of physical science education. Therefore the learning experiences included in the science curriculum should essentially serve this purpose as effectively as possible. We must include in it such topic curricular or extracurricular experiences which may help the children to give up the false beliefs and superstitions, and picking up the habits of open mindedness, critical observation, independent thinking, scientific method of attacking the problem etc, essential for the development of a proper scientific attitude among them. 5.4.10    Principle of individual difference: The curriculum should be framed in such a way that every individual can have opportunity for self-expression and development. The curriculum should be based on the psychology of individual difference, which can meet the complexities of modern democratic society. 5.4.11    Principle of social relevancy and utility: Subjects should not be determined on the basis of their disciplinary value but on the basis of their intrinsic value, social relevancy and utility. 5.4.12    Principle for utilization of leisure: Variety of subjects such as games and sports, fine arts, subjects of aesthetic value are to be introduced in the school programme to utilize leisure. Relative significance and importance of each subject in the curriculum has to be judged and determined in the light of the time available in the timetable, which is regarded as the mirror of the school programme. 5.4.13    Principle of variety and flexibility: The curriculum should include such activities and experiences, which may facilitate his normal development. The curriculum for girls should naturally be different from that of boys and girls have different needs and attitudes. Instead of being rigid the physical science curriculum should show signs of flexibility and dynamicity. With the lapse of time and other factors, the changes in the social set up and environmental surroundings are bound to appear and in case science education has to cater to the needs of the society. and day to day requirements it has to be re-designed and remodeled as to suit these. changes Similarly, the content and learning experiences related with physical science education need to be varied according to the variation in the physical science and social environment, prevailing situations and circumstances and even the physical and mental level of the children belonging to a particular community, society or region. Moreover, the contents or learning experiences are to be enriched and modified in the light of the development and advancement introduced in the field of science and technology. Consequently the physical science curriculum must adopt adequate flexibility in terms of the selection as well as organization of the learning experiences. In this way the physical science curriculum should be planned and formed in the light of the well thought principles mentioned as above. The other most important thing which should also be kept in view is the active involvement of the teacher who actually has to implement and carry out the spirit of curriculum. Therefore, it is essential to take advice and help of some of the experience holder physical science teacher for the construction and planning of physical sciences curriculum at different grade level and stages. Their practical experiences regarding the difficulties faced in physical sciences teaching and the type of learning experiences required for achieving the set objectives may certainly help in arriving at many good things regarding the framing of an appropriate curriculum. Self-Check Exercise-2 Q-1 Curriculum in school means: a)    All the educational experiences under the school’s jurisdiction b)    All the subjects offered by the school c)    All the learning experiences provided in the class d)    All the academic works undertaken in school and communities Q-2 Area of curriculum includes: a)    Internal activities in the school b)    Both of them e)    External activities in the school Q-3 Development of scientific attitude is one of the major objectives of physical science education.                                             True/False Q-4 “The curriculum is the tool in the hands of the artist to……… his material (the pupils) according to his ideals (objectives) in his studio (the school). 5.5    Summary: The manner in which curriculum is delivered will be determined by the society in which is living. All of the definitions of curriculum have some commonality that will link to part of another definition. Curriculum is the information that is or will be taught. What determines or what is important to teach will be defined by status, position and politics that are evolving at the time the curriculum is planned. There has been change in the definition of curriculum since its original, but that change in definition has accommodated the change society. Overall curriculum as a definition has adapted with time but the method in which curriculum is delivered has changed. Curriculum is meant the of experiences which a student performs in and outside the classroom. To the modern concept, the curriculum is the collection of experiences, activities and real life situations. The curriculum is subject centered, examination centered but not as per objectives of science teaching. It is incapable of meeting needs of students and community, and is not related to life. It should be reconstructed on the basis of principles of curriculum construction. Now the physical science teacher is expected to play a more important role. He is emphasized to use educational technology for more effective learning. He is also expected to inculcate values while teaching science values like truth, cleanliness, trust, respect, love, non-violence, right conduct and peace. If these values inculcated among students along with scientific temper, will make them better human beings and citizens. There is a need to have objective evaluation in physical science. Some of the important things should be kept in mind at the time of the development of curriculum. 5.6    Glossary: Intrinsic value: The anticipated or calculated value of a company, stock, currency or product determined through fundamental analysis Etymologically:    It is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of a word’s semantic meaning across time, including its constituent morphemes and phone memes. 5.7    Answers to Self-Check Exercise:Self-Check Exercis-1 Ans-1: Bloom's Taxonomy is designed to be a classification of the student behaviors which represent the intended outcomes of the educational process. It is assumed that essentially the same classes of behavior may be observed in the usual range of subjectmatter content of different levels of education (elementary, high school, college), and in different schools. Self-Check Exercis-2 Ans-1 All the educational experiences under the school’s jurisdiction Ans-2 Both of them Ans-3 True Ans-4 Mould 5.8    References and Suggested Reading: •     Bobbitt, J. F (1918). The curriculum. Boston: Houghton Mifflin •     Tyler, R. W (1949). Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. •     American Psychological Association, January 18, 2006. Retrieved April 15,    2009, from http://www.psychologymatters.org/thinkagain.html •     Bloom, J. W. (2006). Background to curriculum: historical definitions. The exploring science site. Retrieved April 15,   2009, from http://elsci.coe.nau.edu/readarticle.php? article id=19 •     Lekan, T. (2009) Retrieved April,    15,    2009, from http://irs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/anicke/Dewey.html •     Ornstein, A., Hunkins, F. (2004). Curriculum: foundation, principles, and issues (p2) Boston: Pearson 5.9 Terminal questions: 1.     What is your definition for curriculum? How does it compare to historical definitions? Compare it to three different historical definitions. 2.     What are major social influences on curriculum today? Political influences? 3.    How has technology changed the way that we look at curriculum? Unit-6 Curriculum Meaning of Science Curriculum, Organizational Structure of Curriculum Structure: 6.1    Introduction 6.2   Learning Objectives 6.3   Meaning of science curriculum Self Check Exercise-1 6.4   Organizational structure of curriculum Self Check Exercise-2 Self Check Exercise-3 6.5    Selection of content 6.6   Organization of Facts Self Check Exercise-4 6.7   Factors affecting curriculum organization Self-Check Exercise-5 6.8   Summary 6.9   Glossary 6.10  Answers to Self-Check Exercise 6.11  References and Suggested Reading 6.12    Terminal Questions 6.1    Introduction: Before starting to think about the science curriculum it becomes necessary to know about the meaning of the term curriculum. Curriculum includes the totality of experiences that a child receives through the numerous activities that go on in the classroom, library, laboratory, workshop, assembly hall, science club, play field and in the manifold informal contacts between the teacher and students. In a way the whole life of the school becomes curriculum which can touch the life of students at all points and help in the development of balanced personality, Science curriculum is sum total of activities performed in the school to develop balanced personality. It becomes important to think how to develop a balanced personality of the students. Science is one of the school subjects which can develop the scientific temper and develops balanced personality of the students because of the following essential values. Curriculum has been regarded as a means to achieve the set goals. In context to physical sciences, it may be regarded all what is to be given or acquired by the child in the form of specific learning experiences for achieving the aims and objectives of physical science teaching. The learning experiences imparted or gained by the child in the subject physical sciences need to be quite diversified and varied and talking and listening in the classroom. As a result, by the term physical sciences curriculum, we mean all those learning experience that are received by a child through a number of activities going on inside the school or outside the school in the form of formal or informal education for the realization of the set goals and objectives of leaching physical sciences. 6.2    Learning Objectives: After studying this chapter, the students will be able to know about: Meaning of science curriculum Organizational structure of curriculum Selection of content & Organization of Facts Factors affecting change in science curriculum 6.3    Meaning of science curriculum: Curriculum etymologically the term has been derived from a Latin word which stands for a 'course to' run. A renowned educationist Cunningham has defined it in the following words, "The curriculum is the tool in the hands of the artist to mould his material (the pupils) according to his ideals (objectives) in his studio (the school). In every sense, therefore, curriculum should stand for all those experiences that can be included in the study of a particular subject which are thought to be essential for the realization of the set goals or objectives of that study. Secondary Education Commission stated that curriculum does not mean only academic subjects traditionally taught in school, but it includes totality of experiences that a pupil receives through the numerous activities that go on in the school, classroom, library, laboratory, workshop and playground and in the manifold informal contacts between the teachers and the pupils Curriculum is an important element of education, aims of education are reflected in the curriculum. In other words, the curriculum is determined by the aims of life and society. Aims of life and society are subject to constant change. Hence, the aims of education are also subject to change and dynamic. The aims of education are attained by the school programmes, concerning knowledge, experiences, activities, skills and values. The different school programmes are jointly known as curriculum Traditional concept-The traditional curriculum was subject-centred while the modern curriculum is child and life-centred from now , the physical science teacher is expected to play a more important role. He is emphasized to use educational technology for more effective learning. He is also to include values while teaching physical science values like truth, cleanliness, trust, respect, love, nonviolence, right conduct and peace. If these values inculcated among students along with scientific temper, will make them better human beings and citizens. The teacher is now guided for more objective evaluation. He is supposed to be more accountable to prepare students for twenty-first century. Some of the definitions of curriculum are given as below. Froebel - "Curriculum should be conceived as an epitome of the rounded whole of the knowledge and experience of the human race." Crow and Crow - The curriculum includes all the learners' experience in or outside school that are included in a programme which has been devised to help him developmentally, emotionally, socially, spiritually and morally". T.P. Nunn-The curriculum should be viewed as various forms of activities that are grand expressions of human spirit and that are of the greatest and most permanent significance to the wide world". Self Check Exercise-1 Q-1: What do you mean by curriculum? 6.4    ORGANIZTIONAL STRUCTURE OF CURRICULUM: In some school’s curriculum is organized on a correlated or fused subjectcentered basis. The fused types include core integrated, unified, broad field and subject-centered activity curriculum. Each of these are considered to be an effective means for communicating information and skills to the children and youths. TYPES OF CURRICULUM ORGANIZATION: 1.     Correlated-subject-centered: - It refers to the teaching of two subjects in close relationship. 2.    Fused subject-centered: - It brings together two or more subjects and teaching is done in combination. 1.    Core: - two or more class periods are scheduled and are assigned to the same teacher. 2.     Integrated: it means teaching content is in such a way as to erase subject- matter lines completely. Thus, using subject matter as a resource in the developing unit or project children rather than the subject is integrated. 3.     Unified curriculum is as similar to fused curriculum as to be considered synonymous. 4.     Broad fields are a variation of fusion. Combining history, civics and geography in the social studies creates a broad field. 5.     Subject-centered activity curriculum: this makes use of activity in projects to make learning meaningful. It involves art and craft work. 6.     Experience curriculum is a general term for a curriculum organization which is flexibly planned so that the experiences of the children serve their needs and purposes in the ways consistent with principle of human development. It relates to the whole life of the children, not merely to the happiness at the school activity in the subject-centered curriculum. Class-room furniture is moveable, curriculum flexible, learners vocal. The child centered curriculum is learner oriented. Scope and sequence of each learner's activities and experiences in the school are adjusted to his biological, intellectual and social growth. Self Check Exercise-2 Q-1: Discuss two types of curriculum organization. CORE CURRICULUM Little agreement is found among people as to what constitutes a core. A somewhat possible definition of core is given under. The core is curriculum includes learning experiences that are fundamental for all learners because they drive from our common individual drives or needs and from our civic and social needs as participating members of a democratic society. Core is the minimum that an individual needs for learning a satisfactory life in the modem society. It prepares him for living and not for making a living. It teaches subject matter which may help him in the solution of problems that may have to be faced by him as an adult in the initial stages the core in the curriculum is emphasized and as the child reaches higher stages, the importance of the core decreases in the beginning the curriculum is same for all the pupils and at a later stage takes place and students are allowed to opt for subject they like the best. The problem of the specialization is postponed to the university stage. In the early stage the learner is required to become a human being first and at the last stage he is required to be a technician, a scientist, an engineer, a doctor, an artist etc. The core curriculum tries to meet needs of every school child up to 14+ and introduces him to move towards advanced studies if he wants to continue his e3ducation beyond this age Up to 8 we have core subjects (social studies, general science, crafts, and languages) after that we have periphery. The national policy on education-1986 has laid greater emphases on the teaching of the science and has made several recommendations. NCERT has been engaged in revising the old science texts under the guidelines and recommendations of new policy of education. Class 3rd to 12th science texts is now available in the market. In primary classes (3rd 4th, 5th) more emphases is laid on use of environment and local resources. At the middle level (6, 7th, and 8th) integration of all the sciences is tried out. At secondary level (9th, 10th) there are no separate texts of physics, chemistry and biology. There are two texts one for class 9th and other for class 10th. Here also like the middle science texts integration of all the sciences is being tried out. Let us hope for the best. At senior secondary level (XI, XII) physics, chemistry and biology text-books are continued to prepare students for admission to B.Sc., medical and engineering etc., hopefully in the more effective way. From now on, the science teacher is expected to play a more important role. He is emphasized to use educational technology for more effective learning. He is also expected to inculcate values while teaching science value like truth, cleanliness, trust, respect, love, non-violence, right conduct and peace. If these values are inculcated among the students along with scientific temper, will make them better human beings and citizens. The teacher is now guided for more objective evaluation. He is supposed to be more accountable to prepare students for twenty-first century. Self Check Exercise-3 Q-1: What do you mean by the term core? 6.5    Selection of content For selection of content in the curriculum, it is tried to make utility and meaningfulness as the bases. The content should be specified as per the educational objectives since the ancient times. However, awareness has increased in the present times in this context According to Wheeler's Criteria, the selection of content should be done as follows: 1.    After objectives have been determined, suitable context should be selected for their realization. 2.    The content should be authentic. 3.     The significance of content should be specified on the basis of its basic concepts and assumptions. 4.    The selection of content should be on the basis of student's needs and aptitudes. 5.     Only that content should be selected which is helpful to solve present and future problems of students. 6.     While selecting the content, student's ability to learn and difficulty level should be kept in view. 6.6    Organization of Facts: After the content has been selected, it should be so arranged that students do not face any difficulties in assimilating it. According to the principles of correlation, the selected content should be so organized that a particular material can relate with other branches of science. This correlation should be two- way. The content studies in one class should assist in the study of content in the next class. This type of relationship is called vertical correlation. When the content of one subject has mutual relationship with content of another subject, it is called horizontal relationship. The science content should be so organized that students can take advantage of both these relationships and can assimilate the content easily and conveniently. Besides, those situations should be made the basis in the organization of facts which remain in a student's contact. The organization of content should be such that it fulfills individual differences, interests, attitudes, abilities and skills and provide opportunities for progress. The laws of transfer of learning should also be kept in view while organizing content, so that a student is able to learn one subject with the help of another subject. Self Check Exercise-4 Q-1: Discuss the primary factors that affect the curriculum organization. 6.7  FACTOR AFFECETING CURRICULM ORGANIZATION: Factors which affect the curriculum organization should be considered along with the principles. Though curriculum is the core of the whole educational enterprise, it is likely to be affected by: 1)    Teacher (2) text-books (3) tools, aids and equipment’s (4) guidance and counseling (5) supervision and administration (6) examination and evaluation. The primary factors which determine the content and method of teaching are (1) the need of society (2) the position of scientific knowledge (3) the particulars of the development of the children who study science. Keeping the above factors in view, the framers of curriculum should try to coordinate them in such a way that all the three are equally realized. Stress on one factor should not hamper the fulfillment of the other but should rather be equally emphasized Out of these three factors, the most flexible and changeable n factor is the rapid and unprecedented achievements in the field of science and technology. These changes affect the society as well as the individual. These are so rapid that the new invention of today becomes old and out dated tomorrow. This requires the revision of the curricula every now and then so that the children's knowledge is up-to-date. Science occupies different places in the curricula in different states in the country. In some it is compulsorily studied up to 8th class and in other up to 10th class Similarly the number of periods for teaching science also varies from two to five periods per week Keeping in view the need, economy and culture of the country the curricula in all the states should be similar. A well-integrated curriculum should be framed including the study of science as well as language and humanities. Self-Check Exercise-5 Q-1 The concept of curriculum development excludes: a)    International Considerations b)    Family Aspirations c)    Societal Goals d)    National Goals Q-2 According to the principles of correlation, the selected content should be so organized that a particular material can relate with other branches of science. True/False Q-3 The national policy on education-1986 has laid greater emphases on the teaching of the science and has made several recommendations.          True/False Q-4- "Curriculum should be …………. as an epitome of the rounded whole of the knowledge and experience of the human race." 6.8    Summary: The manner in which curriculum is delivered will be determined by the society in which is living. All of the definitions of curriculum have some commonality that will link to part of another definition. Curriculum is the information that is or will be taught. What determines or what is important to teach will be defined by status, position and politics that are evolving at the time the curriculum is planned. There has been change in the definition of curriculum since its original, but that change in definition has accommodated the change society. Overall curriculum as a definition has adapted with time but the method in which curriculum is delivered has changed. Curriculum is meant the of experiences which a student performs in and outside the classroom. To the modern concept, the curriculum is the collection of experiences, activities and real-life situations. The curriculum is subject centered, examination centered but not as per objectives of science teaching. It is incapable of meeting needs of students and community, and is not related to life. It should be reconstructed on the basis of principles of curriculum construction. Now the physical science teacher is expected to play a more important role. He is emphasized to use educational technology for more effective learning. He is also expected to inculcate values while teaching science values like truth, cleanliness, trust, respect, love, non-violence, right conduct and peace. If these values inculcated among students along with scientific temper, will make them better human beings and citizens. There is a need to have objective evaluation in physical science. Some of the important things should be kept in mind at the time of the development of curriculum. 6.9    Glossary: Commonality: A sharing of characteristics in common possession Assimilate: To learn and understand something Evaluation: The process of judging and calculating the quality, importance, amount or value of something. 6.10    Answers to Self-Check Exercise:Self-Check Exercise-1 Ans-1: The curriculum includes all the learners' experience in or outside school that are included in a programme which has been devised to help him developmentally, emotionally, socially, spiritually and morally". Self-Check Exercise-2 Ans-1: Correlated-subject-centered: - It refers to the teaching of two subjects in close relationship. Self-Check Exercise-3 Ans-1: Core is the minimum that an individual needs for learning a satisfactory life in the modem society. It prepares him for living and not for making a living. Self-Check Exercise-4 Ans-1: The primary factors which determine the content and method of teaching are (1) the need of society (2) the position of scientific knowledge (3) the particulars of the development of the children who study science. Self-Check Exercise-5 Ans1- International Considerations Ans-2 True Ans-3 True Ans-4 Conceived 6.11    References and Suggested Reading: •     Bobbitt, J. F (1918). The curriculum. Boston: Houghton Mifflin •     Tyler, R. W (1949). Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. •     American Psychological Association, January 18, 2006. Retrieved April 15,    2009, from http://www.psychologymatters.org/thinkagain.html •     Bloom, J. W. (2006). Background to curriculum: historical definitions. The exploring science site. Retrieved April 15,   2009, from http://elsci.coe.nau.edu/readarticle.php? article id=19 •     Lekan, T. (2009) Retrieved April,    15,    2009, from http://irs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/anicke/Dewey.html •     Ornstein, A., Hunkins, F. (2004). Curriculum: foundation, principles, and issues (p2) Boston: Pearson 6.12 Terminal questions: 1.     What is your definition for curriculum? Discuss the concept of curriculum. 2.     Males and females are shown to be psychologically different when it comes to learning. How could you regulate your classroom to be able to accommodate each? 3.    How could the way that different people learn change the way that we look at curriculum? Unit-7 Science Club, Science Fair Structure: 7.0    Introduction 7.1    Learning Objectives 7.2   Science Club Self Check exercise-1 Self Check exercise-2 Self Check exercise-3 7.3    Science Fair Self Check exercise-4 Self Check exercise-5 7.4   Summary 7.5   Glossary 7.6   Answers to Self-Check Exercise 7.7   References and suggested readings 7.8    Terminal Questions 7.0   Introduction: The non-formal mode of education is an organized activity with educational purposes carried on outside the highly structured frame work of formal educational systems and consists of an assortment of separate educational activities, not bound by age restrictions, time schedules and sequences to keep in line with the levels of academic standards. It can assume a variety of forms; it can use any pedagogical method or methods to suit the specific requirements of the learners. It should, however, be distinguished from the informal mode of education. The informal mode of education is incidental without being organized and pre-planned learning experiences, whether in school or outside school. Recognizing the importance of non-formal mode of education, the Government of India has already initiated pilot projects with the help of UNICEF and UNESCO in many parts of the country to provide education to children in the age group of 6 to 15 through non-formal methodology. Co-curricular activities ensure balanced development of the child and good citizenship of the country. The commission also stressed "We conceive of the school curriculum as the totality of learning experiences that the school provides for the pupils through all the manifold activities in the school or outside that are carried on under its supervision. Learning by doing and learning by living are the two cardinal principles of teaching and the same is true in the case of teaching science. 7.1    Learning Objectives: After studying this chapter, the students will be able to know about the meaning, organization, and utility of Science Club, Science Fair, in the field of education. 7.2    Science Club: The present age is the age of science and technology. The progress and development of the society is now closely linked with the progress and development in the field of sciences which in turn depends upon the quality of science education imparted to the youngsters in schools Consequently it needs the inclusion of genuine interest towards the of sciences, development of scientific attitude and nurturing of the creative and inventive faculties of the science of the students. Science club is an organization which caters for the inculcation of scientific attitude, a genuine interest in science and scientific activities, supplements the work of the classroom and the laboratory and puts the syllabus on practical bias. Through the science club the learning of science becomes joyful. The students learn the things without the conscious effort on their part and pursue science as a pleasant hobby and not a burden on them. They get a better comprehension of the things and thereby develop a zealous enthusiasm in them to strive tirelessly for the cause of science. So, there should be science clubs up to higher secondary stage which can provide a large number of activities and thereby, widen and deepen the interests of pupils and provide means of developing desirable ways of utilizing leisure time. Curiosity for the unknown and self-realization are two such instincts which determine the child's behaviour to a great extent. The child motivated by these instincts to observe the things about him by opening things, implements and tools to know as much as he can. It is sorrowful that in this effort he often destroys things. So, this instinct of his should be moulded in to creativity. The formal form of education in the classroom does not provide an opportunity to him to express the above instincts. It is necessary to make available suitable opportunities to him in order to make science education more interesting and to allow the students to use their scientific talents. In place of this formal and bounded education, a vista should be provided which may have the following facilities. The convenience of allowing the students to work according to their desire and on their own. The convenience of using their scientific knowledge The opportunities to use their creative facilities for inventions. The students can be provided such a stage in the form of a science club or discussion. The science club is such as an organization in which such opportunities can be provided to the students. Self Check exercise-1 Q-1: What do you mean by science club? Significance of science club: 1.     Spinal cord: The science club is the spinal cord of the biology curriculum. It can be proved that the scientific activities conducted outside the classroom are able to face the activities conducted in the regular classroom teaching. 2.    According to interest: The education in the science club is based on the maxim 'learning by doing. So, it is more interesting. As compared to classroom formal teaching, it is according to the ability and interest of the students, because much emphasis is not lead on the regular and definite teaching-learning. 3.    Co-operation: The students have more opportunities to work in co operation with one another in a science club. Thus, it has the following advantages: (a)    It provides effective opportunities for self-expressions. (b)    It encourages research proclivity of the students. (c)    It develops hand skills. 4.    Informal teaching: The club provides opportunities to acquire such qualities which they cannot beget in the classroom for example: (a)    The classroom work is formal. They are told in the class but is to be done, while they busy themselves of their own free volition. (b)    They have to follow the instructions of the teachers in the classroom while working on a topic or a project, while they determine the working of the club programs by themselves. (c)    The students in a classroom work to appease the teachers, while in a club they work of their own free will. (d)    In the classroom, the students work by a definite method, while in a club they work as may be convenient to them. McKnow has compared the educational significance of science club and classroom teaching as follows: "The science club provides nutrition to the individual interest of the students. It is a good medium of expression also. There is no harassment of boundation, but has an experience of freedom. The student is not bounded within the four walls of the classroom in a science club. By the formal classroom teaching acquaints himself mere theories of science in a less or greater extent, but by the science club, he experiences fully how to use them in the practical life. Whereas in the classroom he passes his time in treading the of trodden path and to conduct the experiments as told by the teacher, while in the science club he moves according to his interest and invests his talents and faculties in knowing newer things, invention and using his creative powers". The above discussion makes it clear that the science club has great educational and experimental significance even though it is non-formal by nature. In India, a science club movement was started some years back. In science clubs such activities are organized which are desired to develop scientific knowledge of children. Self Check Exercise-2 Q-1: Write two significance of science club. Objectives of Science Club: •      To inculcate scientific attitude. •     To develop habits of exploration. •      To develop interest in the scientific hobbies. •     To widen the outlook of the students and to enable them to apply their knowledge of science in certain life situations. •     To develop in children a sense of healthy competition. •     To keep the students in touch with the recent advances of science. •     To contact other science clubs to exchange views and information. Self Check Exercise-3 Q-1: Write two objectives of science club. Organization of Science Club: Every science club should have a constitution and every member should strictly abide by There should be a head an executive body elected from amongst the students consisting of a chairman, secretary, a treasurer, librarian, a store keeper, a publicity officer, class representative, and teacher in charge and sponsor. This committee should formulate the constitution of the club before the election of office bearers is held and the membership is thrown open. The constitution of the club should include decisions and directions about the following aspects: •     The name of the club and its aims •     Conditions and the procedure of becoming the member •     Types of activities to be undertaken •     Expelling of members Activities of the Club: •      Holding discussion, meeting, declamations, debates, etc. •      Arranging excursions and visits to places of scientific interest. •      Holding science exhibitions and fairs annually. •     Improvising and preparing hand-made apparatus. •     Celebrating science days. 7.3 Science Fairs: Science fairs provide an excellent opportunity for discovering and encouraging science talent. The science fairs have Science fairs and exhibitions are organized by government agencies and non-government agencies too. The government agency which organizes science fairs for children is NCERT. The main objectives of national level science fairs are: •     To give encouragement to students to try out their ideas. •     To provide opportunity to students to witness the achievements of their colleagues and thereby stimulate them to plan their own projects. •     To popularize activities among greater number of students. Self Check Exercise-4 Q-1: Discuss the term science fairs. Organization of Science Fair: The organization of science fair should be a teacher-pupil activity and everything should be thought of well in advance The following procedure is suggested for organization and administration of the science fair: 7.3.1 - Planning: During planning the following aspects should be considered: Objectives and aims of the fair. •     Scope of the fair •     Procedure. •      Financing. •      Place, time and duration. •      Other factors and facilities. 7.3.2    Distribution of work: After planning, the work should be assigned to different individuals or groups. 7.3.3    Execution: The different committees now execute the playing of the fair. The programmes like demonstration, films, charts, models, collections etc are organized. It is well leveled, preferably with an explanatory called with title and explanation. Selected students should make in charge in various activities. They should be given full explanation of each experiment a day before the exhibition is opened. The fair can be inaugurated by some important man of science. People from other schools and from the community may be invited. 7.3.4    Judging: The fair should be judged by different committees of judges for different items of the fair. The judging criteria should be made well known to the participants in the fair. Judges may be chosen from amongst the individuals in the community having some background of science, scientists, college professors, science teachers etc. It is always better not to allow the public or students to see the exhibition before the judging has been completed. The judging criteria should be well known to the participants in the fair. These criteria may even be displayed at a prominent place for public view. The judging system should be as objectives as possible. Separate criteria and proformae be developed for each item. These proformae may be developed on the lines suggested below: •     Scientific approach (30%) •     Originality- in planning and execution (20%) •     Technical skill and workmanship (20%) •     Thoroughness (10%) - gives clear, full and concise story of the project Completeness and accuracy of presentation of exhibit. •      Dramatic value (10%) - exhibit attractive. Labels large and descriptions neatly presented. •      Personal interview •     (10%) with the respective students who exhibit After the fair is over the teacher and the students should evaluate it and find out whether the objectives of the fair have been achieved or not. If not, where does the fault lie and, then to improve it next time. Self-Check Exercise-5 Q-1 Science parks are places meant for: a)    Scientific research b)    Leisure activities c)    Interactive exhibits d)    Both 2 and 3 Q-2 Science fairs provide an excellent opportunity for ………………science talent. 7.4    Summary: In order to make science clubs more effective, the NCERT organized some science club sponsor's workshops during the last few years. In these workshops, some such activities were organized which were desired to be started in the science clubs. These workshops could make a little impact on the science clubs. The problem of finance and guidance still remains unsolved. The role science teacher is very important here. The success of failure of the programme depends upon his enthusiasm, resourcefulness and ingenuity. He is the pivot of all activities. It is also the responsibility of the physical science teacher to encourage the students to take part in science fairs at district, state or national level. It very important to include field trips in the curriculum of physical sciences. 7.5    Glossary: Falsification: The action of changing something, such as a document, in order to deceive people Plagiarism: Presenting ideas from another source as your own, with or without consent of the original author, by incorporating it in to your work without full acknowledgement Anatomy: A field in the biological sciences concerned with the identification and description of the body structures of living things. 7.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise:Self Check Exercise-1 Ans-1: Science club is an organization which caters for the inculcation of scientific attitude, a genuine interest in science and scientific activities, supplements the work of the classroom and the laboratory and puts the syllabus on practical bias. Self Check Exercise-2 Ans-1: The science club is the spinal cord of the biology curriculum. It can be proved that the scientific activities conducted outside the classroom are able to face the activities conducted in the regular classroom teaching. The education in the science club is based on the maxim 'learning by doing. So, it is more interesting. As compared to classroom formal teaching, it is according to the ability and interest of the students, because much emphasis is not lead on the regular and definite teaching-learning. Self Check Exercise-3 Ans-1: To develop habits of exploration. To develop interest in the scientific hobbies. Self Check Exercise-4 Ans-1: Science fairs provide an excellent opportunity for discovering and encouraging science talent. The science fairs have Science fairs and exhibitions are organized by government agencies and non-government agencies too. Self Check Exercise-5 Ans-1 Both 2 and 3 Ans-2 Discovering and encouraging 7.7    References and suggested readings: •     School Science (Quarterly), NCERT, New Delhi. Baez, Albert B. Innovations in Science Education - World Wide. Paris: The Unesco Press, 1976. •     Kuhn, David J. "Science Education in a Changing Society". Science Education, 56(3), 1972. •     Misra, K.S. Perspectives of Science Education. Agra: Arya Book Depot, 1997. 7.8    Terminal Questions: 1.    What are the objectives of science club? Discuss the role of science teacher in organizing science club. 2.     What are science fairs? Describe their educational utility. Unit-8 SCIENCE LABORATORY: NEED AND IMPORTANCE SCIENCE EXHIBITIONS Structure: 8.0    Introduction 8.1    Learning Objectives 8.2   Science Laboratory: Need and importance Self Check exercise-1 8.3   Science Exhibitions Self Check Exercise-2 Self-Check Exercise-3 8.4   Summary 8.    5   Glossary 8.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise 8.7    References and suggested readings 8.8    Terminal Questions 8.0 Introduction: It is the natural urge in children to make things, to break things and to handle things but the present curriculum doesn't provide ample opportunities for the students for self-expression, independent research, constructive activities and other projects. It becomes absolutely clear from the subject matter of the physical science that it is not possible to conduct its teaching-learning only by speech or hearing. That is, it can neither be taught like other social sciences, nor can it be studied. On the contrary, the following process is followed in the teaching- learning of sciences: They are demonstrated They are inspected They are experienced Different functional and practical activities and tasks are used in its teachinglearning. The use of science laboratories and practical tasks and certainly useful in the of physical sciences, but the extensive objectives of teaching of life sciences cannot be obtained only by them It is necessary to assimilate the knowledge and skill of life sciences in the practical 19fe and to create interest and favorable attitude towards its studies. It is necessary that the following qualities are created in the students: Curiosity towards scientific discoveries, experiments and uses Desire for invention Development of creativity In the direction of creating the above qualities, only classroom teaching and laboratories work are not sufficient. The students need something more for it. The question is: What should be done for success in this direction? We can answer this question like this: We should go out of the field of curriculum and formal teaching, to opt for co-curricular activities and non-formal approaches. Different types of co-curricular activities can be organized for supplementing classroom teaching. Some of these activities are as follows: Science Clubs. Science Fairs. 8.1    Learning Objectives: After studying this chapter, the students will be able to know about the meaning, organization, and utility of Science laboratory, Science exhibition, in the field of education. 8.2    Science Laboratory: Need and importance: A laboratory is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. Laboratories used for scientific research take many forms because of the differing requirements of specialists in the various fields of science and engineering. A physics laboratory might contain a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, while a metallurgy laboratory could have apparatus for casting or refining metals or for testing their strength. A chemist or biologist might use a wet laboratory, while a psychologist's laboratory might be a room with one-way mirrors and hidden cameras in which to observe behavior. In some laboratories, such as those used by scientists, computers (sometimes supercomputers) are used for either simulations or the analysis of data collected elsewhere. Scientists in other fields will use still other types of laboratories. Engineers use laboratories as well to design, build, and test technological devices. The need and importances of the science laboratory are discussed as below: Scientific laboratories can be found as research and learning spaces in schools and universities, industry, government, or military facilities, and even aboard ships and spacecraft. Science is different from any other subject. In order to understand its concepts, one has to look beyond the books and conventional classroom teaching. Effective teaching and learning of science involve seeing, handling, and manipulating real objects and materials. The knowledge that kids attain in classrooms would be ineffectual unless they actually observe the process and understand the relationship between action and reaction. Effective teaching and learning of science involve a perpetual state of show and tell good schools combine classroom teaching with laboratory experiments to ensure that their students grasp each and every concept thoroughly. It is also believed that laboratory teaching and experiments that are being conducted their help encourage deep understanding in children. Children are able to retain the knowledge for longer when they see the experiments being performed in front of their eyes. Science lab equipment allows students to interact directly with the data gathered. They get a first-hand learning experience by performing various experiments on their own. Students are made to use the models and understand different scientific theories and concepts. It is also found that school science lab equipment and supplies make teaching and learning easy both for the teachers, as well as for the students. There are several scientific theories and concepts that are difficult to explain directly from the books Anatomy models, physics science kits, and chemistry science kits for instance make it easy to understand the otherwise complex theories of science. Science is a practical subject, teaching of which cannot be done properly only in theory form. For proper education of science, it is necessary to conduct various kinds of experimental works, which are practical in nature. These practical functions cannot be carried out in absence of scientific apparatus and equipments. The place where various kinds of scientific apparatus and equipments are arranged in systematic manner is called science laboratory. Science laboratory is central to scientific instructions and it forms essential component of science education. It is in this place that various kinds of practical works are carry out by the students. Without proper and well-equipped science laboratory, it is not possible to carry out the science teaching process effectively in any school or educational institution. Students learn to handle various apparatus and to think independently in the laboratory, because of which it is considered to be one of an important place. When students carry out various kinds of experiments, then they draw conclusions from their studies, which raise their level of self-confidence and develop scientific attitude among them. These are considered to be main objectives of science teaching, for which it is considered by experts that without a well-equipped and organized scientific laboratory, there cannot be any proper teaching of science. Students should be encouraged by the science teacher to make active parts in various experimental processes, as most of the achievements of modern science are due to the application of experimental methods If students get information or knowledge by playing active role in learning process then they get permanent kind of information, because of which at school stage, practical work is considered to be more important for the students. Although it has proven by the above discussion that science laboratories play very important functions, for which they are considered to be much important, but still need and importance of science laboratories can be explained in the following points: i.      In laboratory, it is possible to keep various scientific instruments and chemicals in safe and secure conditions, as without them, it is not possible to carry out any kind of experiment in any way. ii.     If there is proper of well-equipped and properly arranged laboratory in the school, then students will get encouraged by it to take active part in the experimental processes as in such kind of laboratory, a congenial kind of atmosphere exist, which promote the interest of students in practical works. iii.    With the help of well-equipped and organized laboratory, science teacher will get help in developing the scientific attitudes among the students to considerable extent. iv.    All the students have to carry out experiments collectively in the laboratory as often there is shortage of such facilities in schools. With such functions, spirit of co-operation and team work gets developed among the students and they begin to appreciate the work done by others. Not only this, through this, they also begin to appreciate the views and ideas of others, which help them in becoming successful in future life. v.    When students themselves get the opportunity to take part in experimental processes, then their area of experiences get widen and their level of intuitiveness also get developed, as a result of which, they become people with wide mentality and open-mindedness. Self Check exercise-1 Q-1: What do you mean by the term laboratory? 8.3    Science Exhibitions: Everybody knows about the term 'Exhibition', which mostly related to student and school. Maximum schools are conducting different types of exhibitions related to subject and non-subjects. In our school life, we too participated many kinds of exhibitions, to exhibit our latent in any specific field. I am sharing some of the benefits from 'Exhibitions in schools", please participate and share your valuable points on this topic. An exhibition, in the most general sense, is an organized presentation and display of a selection of items. In practice, exhibitions usually occur within museums, galleries and exhibition halls, and World's fairs. Exhibitions can include many things such as art in major museums and smaller galleries, interpretive exhibitions, natural history museums and history museums, and also varieties such as more commercially focused exhibitions and trade fairs. The word "exhibition" is usually, but not always, the word used for a collection of items. Sometimes "exhibit" is synonymous with "exhibition", but "exhibit" generally refers to a single item being exhibited within an exhibition. Exhibitions may be permanent displays or temporary, but in common usage, "exhibitions" are considered temporary and usually scheduled to open and close on specific dates. While many exhibitions are shown in just one venue, some exhibitions are shown in multiple locations and are called travelling exhibitions, and some are online exhibitions. Though exhibitions are common events, the concept of an exhibition is quite wide and encompasses many variables. Exhibitions range from an extraordinarily large event such as a World's fair exposition to small one-artist solo shows or a display of just one item. Curators are sometimes involved as the people who select the items in an exhibition Writers and editors are sometimes needed to write text, labels and accompanying printed material such as catalogs and books. Architects, exhibition designers, graphic designers and other designers may be needed to shape the exhibition space and give form to the editorial content Organizing and holding exhibitions also requires effective event planning management, and logistics.[1] Art exhibitions include an array of artifacts from countless forms of human making paintings, drawings, crafts, sculpture, video installations, and sound installations. Performances, interactive art, etc. Art exhibitions may focus on one artist, one group, one genre, one theme or one collection; or may be organized by curators, selected by juries, or show any artwork submitted. Fine arts exhibitions typically highlight works of art with generous space and lighting, supplying information through labels or audio guides designed to be unobtrusive to the art itself. Exhibitions may occur in series or periodically, as in the case with Biennales, triennials and quadrennials. Interpretive exhibition: Interpretive exhibitions are exhibitions that require more contexts to explain the items being displayed. This is generally true of exhibitions devoted to scientific and historical themes, where text, dioramas, charts, maps and interactive displays may provide necessary explanation of background and concepts. Interpretive exhibitions generally require more text and more graphics than fine art exhibitions do. The topics of interpretive graphics cover a wide range including archaeology anthropology, ethnology, history, science, technology and natural history. Commercial exhibitions: Commercial exhibitions, generally called trade fairs, trade shows or expos, are usually organized so that organizations in a specific interest or industry can showcase and demonstrate their latest products, service, study activities of rivals and examine recent trends and opportunities. Some trade fairs are open to the public, while others can only be attended by company representatives (members of the trade) and members of the press. Science exhibitions: learning outside the school: Many schools organize school level science exhibition every year. It is a great idea to arrange an outside visit for those schools to visit the science exhibition. By visiting those exhibitions students can learn about different scientific lessons and they will be able to know many scientific facts by visiting method. By visiting a science exhibition, they can learn the importance of science exhibition. By this activity teacher may be able to create scientific attitude among the students. He can teach students about the objectives and meaning of science exhibition. Visiting other school's science exhibition is a nice activity of learning outside the school". By visiting a science exhibit student can learn how to make a science exhibit. There are many Regional Science centers in India in many cities where students may visit science exhibitions and much more. They can also participate in different scientific activities like science quiz, science related competitions, science workshops etc. Science exhibition: learning inside the school There are many activities that can be done inside the school, just like science exhibition and making science models. Making science models is a very interesting activity. This activity depends upon the different factors and available resources school manager has the required resources he may organize science exhibition in his schools, but if he do not has enough resources he can do another activities like inspiring students to prepare the scientific models. Students can learn by preparing the scientific models. There is teacher's different role. He can be as a motivator (Teacher as a motivator). Teacher has a great opportunity to develop student's creativity by preparing science kits or models involving students directly (teacher as a facilitator). The great way is teacher play a role as a facilitator in learning. Self Check Exercise-2 Q-1: Discuss interpretive exhibition. Benefits of Exhibitions in school are: 1.     Before exhibition, subject teachers find out or choose their best students to exhibits something different to others. In addition, teachers give their selected students a short list of contents, which they can study, create a subject, & design the exhibit. At this time, the teacher-student interaction increases; where teacher understand the knowledge of student and students to understand their teacher's quality and interest, vise verse. 2.     While preparing for exhibition, students are in happy mood in thought of participating and showing their friends a new thing different from others. Their inner core develops while doing some creativity act in this stage. 3.     At the time of exhibition, every student feels happy and enthusiastic, which we never find in other competitions. This is because, art, games, athletic or music are not fond for every student everyone do not like everything. However, in exhibition, participants were keen to show their content and non-participants were willing to know about various subjects, and gain some knowledge on different subjects. 4.     It provides a platform to the students to exhibit their inner talents. As it is completely practical based, so students also find interest in participating in such events. 5.     It strengthens the student's knowledge of the subject matter. In these events the groups of students are divided according to their age and class standards. Thus, they are given projects based on their class standards only 6.     Students can develop the skills of leadership, and relate how to work in groups through such events. As they have to work in a group, it is very important for them to work co- operatively. 7.     A science fair project even provides an opportunity for the discussion of ethical issues, such as plagiarism and falsification of data. Indeed, such a discussion is highly recommended. The ease of copying information from the Internet is hard to resist, and many students are far ahead of their teachers in understanding what is possible. 8.     It plays a vital role in spreading awareness about a particular issue. Self-Check Exercise-3 Q-1 Which one of the following is co-curricular activity in science teaching? a)    Science Club b)    Audio-visual Aids c)    Text-Book d)    Black-Board Self-Check Exercise: Q-2 Interpretive exhibitions are exhibitions that require more contexts to explain the items being displayed.                                             True/False 8.4    Summary: It very important to include field trips in the curriculum of physical sciences. It is well known fact that while things which can be learnt best in school should be learnt there, things which can be learnt best outdoors should be learnt out-doors. Text books are important tool in the hand of a teacher. It helps student to how and what they learn to achieve some definite goals. When we make a text we should give importance to its content organization literary style, vocabulary, mechanical makeup and authorship. 8.5    Glossary: Independent research: is an educational activity that allows students to investigate a topic of interest. Constructive activities: A type of play, a learning theory, or a teaching method. Curator: A person whose job is to look after the things that are kept in a museum. 8.6    Answers to Self-Check Exercise:Self-Check Exercise-1 Ans-1: A laboratory is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. Self-Check Exercise-2 Ans-1: Interpretive exhibitions are exhibitions that require more contexts to explain the items being displayed. This is generally true of exhibitions devoted to scientific and historical themes, where text, dioramas, charts, maps and interactive displays may provide necessary explanation of background and concepts. Interpretive exhibitions generally require more text and more graphics than fine art exhibitions do. Self-Check Exercise-3 Ans-1 Science Club Ans-2 True 8.7    References and suggested readings: •     Chauhan. S.S (1985), Innovation in teaching-Learning Process, Delhi, Vikas Publishing House. •      Das RC (1985), Science Teaching in school, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. •     Retrieved from Preserve Articles www.preservearticles.com •     E How-Qualities of Good Textbooks www.ehow.com 8.8    Terminal Questions: 1.    What are the objectives of science exhibition? Discuss the role of science teacher in organizing science exhibition. 2.    Discuss the need and importance of science laboratory. ***** Unit-9 SCIENCE TEXT BOOKS Structure: 9.0    Introduction 9.1    Learning Objectives 9.2   Science text-books Self Check Exercise-1 Self Check Exercise-2 Self Check Exercise-3 9.3   Summary 9.4   Glossary 9.5   Answers to Self-Check Exercise 9.6   References and suggested readings 9.7   Terminal Questions 9.0   Introduction: Learning by doing and learning by living are the two cardinal principles of teaching and the same is true in the case of teaching science. It is the natural urge in children to make things, to break things and to handle things but the present curriculum doesn't provide ample opportunities for the students for self-expression, independent research, constructive activities and other projects. It becomes absolutely clear from the subject matter of the physical science that it is not possible to conduct its teaching-learning only by speech or hearing. That is, it can neither be taught like other social sciences, nor can it be studied. In addition to academic improvement, there is the opportunity to engage the student more fully, expose them to technology used in the workplace and get immediate feedback of classroom knowledge. Smart classes use all interactive modules like and presentations and these visually attractive methods of teaching becomes appealing to students who are already struggling with the traditional method of teaching in a classroom’s text book should really design for the pupils rather than the teacher. Text book should stimulate reflective thinking and cultivate in students the scientific attitude. In the teaching-learning process, the text-book occupies an important place. There is a saying "As is the text-book, so is the teaching and learning". 9.1    Learning Objectives: After studying this chapter, the students will be able to know about the meaning and importance text books in the field of education. 9.2    SCIENCE TEXT BOOKS "As the text book, so is the teaching and learning" Text books are the most widely used of all instructional materials. Now a day's text book has become a course of study. A set of unit plans and a learning guide as well. A text book should really design for the pupils rather than the teacher. Text book should stimulate reflective thinking and cultivate in students the scientific attitude. In the teaching-learning process, the text-book occupies an important place. There is a saying "As is the text-book, so is the teaching and learning". A good textbook can even replace class-room teaching. The science text-book should aim at aiding the pupils in the development of their personalities, in developing open mindedness, developing appreciation and understanding of nature and not merely stuffing their minds with facts. Self Check Exercise-1 Q-1: Discuss the role of text books in teaching learning process. Importance: Sometime back, Gaodhi Ji, as an educationist was of the opinion that there should be no text-books and the students with the help of the subject teacher, should evolve their own text book. It was expecting too much from the children, to be idealistic. But for the subject of science good text book are a necessary, rather than the same may be considered as indispensable. Sometime back the position of textbooks in the schools has been disheartening. A number of committees were set up in different states to improve their quality. By establishment of the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT. good books in the direction is being done. The central committee of NCERT has set up a number of expert panels and Editorial Boards for all school subjects. These books are being brought out in English and Hindi and then the same are translated into Regional Language by the State Governments. Functions of Science Text-Books: Good science Text-Books are necessary for the following purposes- 1.    To supplement the class work. 2.     For home study after demonstration lesson in the class. 3.    For doing homework and the preparatory part of the assignment. 4.     For a scientific and speedy revision after the course has been finished. 5.    To develop an open mindedness, training in scientific method and to inculcate other scientific discipline. 6.     To develop particular skills, which may later on, be of utility in life. Self Check Exercise-2 Q-1: Write two functions of science text books. Qualities of a good science Text book Thurber Collette suggested six criteria for choosing a good textbook. They are: 1.    Content 2.     Organization 3.     Literary style vocabulary 4.      Illustrations 5.    Teaching aids 6.    Mechanical make up and appearance 7.    Authorship Content The content of text books for any one subject matter field is remarkable uniform about 85 percent of the content being common to all of them 1.    The content should be appropriate for the age level and experience backgrounds of the pupils 2.    The concept should not be too complex for the maturity of the pupils 3.     The content should be consistent with the pupil's needs and interests 4.    The statements must be accurate Il Organization 1.    The subject matter should cover the whole syllabus 2.    Subject matter should be developed in psychological sequence 3.    The text book has to be organized into units which are based on student interests and probability of use 4.     Inductive approach is to be used whenever possible in introducing new topic 5.    At the end of each unit there should be assignments informing to the following 6.     Application to life situations 7.    Self-assessment test 8.     Suggestions for further reading 9.     Numerical questions if necessary 10.   Assessment for practicing skills 11.   The text book should be written in simple unambiguous scientific language. Prefer simple and compound sentence to complex sentences 12.    It should contain a glossary of technical terms used in the books 13.   It should suggest some good methods of learning's 14.   Historical development of science should be attempted 15.    Adequate provision should be made to correlate science with other subject and crafts. 16.   It is better if the text book contains examples from the local environment 17.   There should be a detailed table of contents and index text books 18.    Controversial topics should be treated impartially 19.    The social significance of science should be stressed 20.    Headings and sub-headings should be in bold type 21.    Important principles should be set in italics 22.    Each text books should be accompanied by a laboratory manual and pupil's work book 23.    It must be supplemented by a teacher's hand book III . Literary style and Vocabulary of text book Literary style has much to do with the readability of the book. Although style is difficult to judge. 1.    Length of sentences 2.     Directness of sentences 3.    Number of ideas per seconds 4.    Use of lead sentence or paragraphs 5.     Presence or absence of irrelevant thoughts continuity of thought While evaluating a text book the teacher must whether or not the vocabulary is excessive or in appropriate text book should be easy to read IV    Illustrations The quality and the quantity of the illustrations should be considered. 1.     Photographs should be clearly reproduced 2.     Diagrams should be carefully made attractive 3.    Color in the illustrations add to eye appeal and when properly used has considerable teaching value 4.    The recently introduced transparencies made on plastic sheets are excellent teaching aids but because of cost it can only be used in small quantities in any one book 5.     Photograph should have relation with content in the text V    Teaching aids 1.    The table of content and Index should be comprehensive 2.    Glossary should be included 3.     Activities should be given the end of a chapter 4.     Activities should be closely related to content VI    Mechanical make-up and appearance 1.     Artistic cover 2.     Durability for binding 3.    Size of the book 4.    Good quality of paper 5.     Length of line and size- legible 6.     Attractive over all experience 7.    Cover design and colour should be appealing 8.    Ample space to be left between lines to provide for ease in reading VII Authorship Only such persons who have experience of teaching the subject should be allowed to become authors of school science text books. Such authors can understand the actual learning's situations. Certain qualifications may also be prescribed for the authors. It will be better if some training is given to them VIII Characteristic Besides these characteristics, the UNESCO Planning Mission has given some principles of writing text-books in U.S.S.R. and other countries. They are as follows: (i)     It should be first of all according to the requirements of the syllabus. It should also help in the improvement of the syllabus. (ii)    The facts, concepts etc., should be modern and within the comprehension of the pupils. (iii)    The contents should contain not only the established facts but also the problems which are being researched and thereby, arousing the interest in the pupils in these problems. (iv)    It should help in linking up science with life and practice. The pupils should be equipped with "know-how' utilizing the knowledge in everyday life. (v)    The whole content of the text-book should be aimed at shaping the integrated modern scientific outlook which ensures success in mastering scientific knowledge and solution of the problems of vital issues. The content should be simple, brief, exact, definite and accessible. Self Check Exercise-3 Q-1 Identify media resources that may be helpful in the teaching-learning process. a)    Newspaper b)    Picture c)    Exhibitions d)    All of the above Q-2 In the teaching-learning process, the text-book occupies an important place. True/False Self-Check Exercise: Q-3 “As is the text-book, so is the ……….and learning". 9.3    Summary: It is well known fact that while things which can be learnt best in school should be learnt there, things which can be learnt best outdoors should be learnt out-doors. Text books are important tool in the hand of a teacher. It helps student to how and what they learn to achieve some definite goals. When we make a text we should give importance to its content organization literary style, vocabulary, mechanical makeup and authorship. In the teaching-learning process, the text-book occupies an important place. There is a saying "As is the text-book, so is the teaching and learning". A good text-book can even replace class-room teaching. The science text-book should aim at aiding the pupils in the development of their personalities, in developing open mindedness, developing appreciation and understanding of nature and not merely stuffing their minds with facts. 9.4    Glossary: Demonstration lesson: A planned for a group of students that can serve as a test of teachers skills. Accessible: Possible to be reached Unambiguous: Expressed in a way that makes it completely clear what is meant. 9.5    Answers to Self-Check Exercise:Self-Check Exercise-1 Ans-1: In the teaching-learning process, the text-book occupies an important place. There is a saying "As is the text-book, so is the teaching and learning". A good text- book can even replace class-room teaching. The science text-book should aim at aiding the pupils in the development of their personalities, in developing open mindedness, developing appreciation and understanding of nature and not merely stuffing their minds with facts. Self-Check Exercise-2 Ans-1: To supplement the class work. For home study after demonstration lesson in the class. Self-Check Exercise-3 Ans-1: All of the above Ans-2: True Ans-3 Teaching 9.6    References and suggested readings: •     Chauhan. S.S (1985), Innovation in teaching-Learning Process, Delhi, Vikas Publishing House. •      Das RC (1985), Science Teaching in school, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. •     Retrieved from Preserve Articles www.preservearticles.com •     E How-Qualities of Good Textbooks www.ehow.com 9.7    Terminal Questions: 1.    What do you mean by text-book? Discuss the advantages of a goodtext-book. Unit-10 SMART CLASSROOM IN SCIENCE, NEEDAND IMPORTANCE OF THE TEACHING AIDS Structure: 10.0 Introduction 10.1    Learning Objectives 10.2    Need and Importance of the teaching Aids Self Check Exercise-1 10.3    Smart classroom in science Self Check exercise-2 10.4    Summary 10.5    Answers to Self-Check Exercise 10.6    Glossary 10.7    References and suggested readings 10.8    Terminal Questions 10.0 Introduction: Teaching aids should be used to supplement the process of teaching Most of teaching aids are sensory aids and their function is to make teaching correct, effective and interesting. It can assume a variety of forms; it can use any pedagogical method or methods to suit the specific requirements of the learners. It should, however, be distinguished from the informal mode of education. The informal mode of education is incidental without being organized and pre-planned learning experiences, whether in school or outside school. Recognizing the importance of non-formal mode of education, the Government of India has already initiated pilot projects with the help of UNICEF and UNESCO in many parts of the country to provide education to children in the age group of 6 to 15 through non-formal methodology. Co-curricular activities ensure balanced development of the child and good citizenship of the country. The commission also stressed "We conceive of the school curriculum as the totality of learning experiences that the school provides for the pupils through all the manifold activities in the school or outside that are carried on under its supervision. 10.1    Learning Objectives: After studying this chapter, the students will be able to know about the meaning, teaching aids, smart classroom and text books in the field of education. 10.2    Need and Importance of the teaching Aids: Teaching aids are those tools and devices by the use of which communication of ideas between persons and groups in various teaching-training situations is helped. Teaching aids should be used to supplement the process of teaching Most of teaching aids are sensory aids and their function is to make teaching correct, effective and interesting. The importance of the teaching aids is given as below: 1.    Help to draw interest: - The audio-visual aids help the teacher to win the interest and attention of the pupils. They motivate the students to physical and mental activity. 2.    Learning become effective: - They save time and make teaching learning process effective and durable. Studies have shown that pupils retain the knowledge gain through these aids for a much longer duration of time as compared to the subject matter learnt in the absence of these aids. 3.    Firsthand experience: - They help the pupils to get firsthand experience by looking at concrete things, living specimens and actual demonstrations, handling the apparatus and performing the practical themselves. 4.    Help for clear conception: They help the pupils to have clear conception of information, facts and principles. Students can have better understanding of the various complicated and difficult topics. 5.    Change for atmosphere: - They help to bring a change in the atmosphere of class. The traditional monotony goes away. For example, when a film strip or slide is shown, the students laugh, talk and pass their comments as they go outside the class. 6.    Teacher becomes friendly: Through this process the attitude of the teacher is very friendly. For the purpose of explaining models, showing exhibitions or taking the pupils to outdoor places, the teacher has to be a true friend and guide. The pleasant and natural atmosphere thus created, greatly helps proper learning. 7.    To inspire proper thinking: - They help the students to inspire correct thinking for they give actual meaningful association. In the words of Edger Dale -"because audio-visual aids supply of concrete basis for the conceptual thinking, they give rise to meaningful association. Hence, they offer the best antidote available for the disease of verbalism." 8.     To develop scientific attitude: - They help the pupils to develop scientific attitude and get training in the scientific method. 9.    To teach large numbers: - A large number of students can be taught at a time by their use. For example, the use of magic lantern or epidiascope can be conveniently made for big audience. 10.    Based on principle of psychology: - It is most convenient, easy and natural way of learning, for the use of audio-visual aids is based on the principle of psychology. Self Check Exercise-1 Q-1: What are the teaching aids? 10.3    Smart classroom in science: Smart classrooms are the amalgamation of technology used at the teacher's desk and in front of the classroom, technology in the hands of the student and a physical environment that allows the successful use of that technology. There is solid research supporting modest academic gains from the use of technology in the classrooms. In addition to academic improvement, there is the opportunity to engage the student more fully, expose them to technology used in the workplace and get immediate feedback of classroom knowledge. Smart classes use all interactive modules like and presentations and these visually attractive methods of teaching become appealing to students who are already struggling with the traditional method of teaching in a classroom. In fact, smart classes are almost like watching movies as sometimes, animated visuals are used to teach a point. This kind of visual is both eye-catching and young students can easily relate with them. This is because the audio-visual senses of students are targeted and it helps the students store the information fast and more effectively. And then, there is the advantage of utilizing much of the time wasted earlier in drawing or preparing diagrams on board. Smart boards have all these information in memory and can be presented during the time of class lectures and thus, the time saved can be used in more important things. Some students and teachers have problems with chalk dust and they tend to suffer from allergic reactions. The smart boards save you from such distress and won't let you develop any health issues later Smart boards are a lot smarter when it comes to field trips which are impossible with textbooks. A field trip to the deserts of Sahara or the rainforests of the Amazon basin becomes easy with visuals in the smart boards of smart classroom. These visuals are definitely more attractive than those descriptions in a few lines of a textbook. One of the main reasons behind the constant increase in popularity of smart classes is the fact that this kind of education is perfect for all kinds of students. A classroom has students with varied power of understanding and learning, and studying from notes and other materials becomes difficult for some students. But the use of smart classes and modern technology eases the learning process for all students. Moreover, this kind of education in class promotes more interaction between teacher and student with more participation from both sides. 1.    Improving classroom management SMART Board uses in the classroom at the elementary level increasingly are including management start-of-day routines such as taking attendance and lunch count. For example, before class every day, a first-grade teacher may post large, colorful icons marked with individual student names. The board may also saw pictures of the day's choices. Then, instead of waiting for roll call and lunch count or checking in on a magnet board or pocket chart, the students use their fingers to guide their icons to their lunch choices. The teacher views the class and the board to see if the record keeping is complete. Then she can report the attendance and lunch counts. This process also helps young students become comfortable with the touch process that is becoming so important in using Wi-Fi digital tools, such as the computer notepads and e-readers that some schools are adopting for instructional use. 2.    Minimizing the need for eyes at the back of the head Teachers often jokingly say that it takes a few years to develop "eyes" at the back of their heads so they can detect misbehavior when facing away from students. SMART Boards change classroom management by minimizing the amount of time teachers need to turn their back to the class to write on dry-erase whiteboards or chalkboards. By connecting a computer to a SMART Board, a teacher can stand face forward and attract student attention to a particular topic by sharing PowerPoint presentations, software lessons or interactive websites with the entire class at one sitting. This occurs before students begin small group or independent work on the same topic. 3.    Providing academic & digital learning During SMART Board lessons, teachers may also help students gain digital and presentation skills by taking turns manipulating the equipment. Think of this practice as the Digital Age equivalent of going up to the blackboard to solve a problem. SMART Board uses in the classroom may include teaching various lessons. Examples include: •     Fourth grade fractions made more comprehensible by viewing the movement of virtual tools, such as pictures of cubes, pie graphs and other objects. •     Civil War history for middle school students, who enrich textbook learning by taking a fictional tour of the Underground Railroad in which the class makes choices and sees where those decisions lead. •      Virtual dissection of a frog in high school biology. 4.    Building motion into kindergarten lessons Young children have short attention spans and respond better to instruction if it includes movement and hands-on action, such as getting up to answer a question or demonstrating how to use a tool. As one kid-favorite song says, they "like to move it, move it." The Australian journal Teaching Science notes that kindergarten students enjoy touching SMART Boards to answer questions and participate in lessons. They also respond well to the colorful graphics that are much easier for a large group to view on a large screen. Using electronic pens to circle items or moving virtual objects with their fingers, kindergarten students can sort items on a SMART Board to show what they know about a particular subject. For example, they might be asked to separate objects that need electricity from those that don't. 5.     Smart class room learning help to increase the learning abilities. 6.    Smart class may use as a experimental learning tool to teaching students. 7.    The curriculum should be framed keeping in view the application of smart classes of teaching. 8.    This strategy helps the learner to move at his own pace as it helps the learners to provide individual instruction. 9.    Although students generally work together in small groups in hands on science classes, there are times when all class discussions are valuable. Experimentation, summarizing comparing, observation and interpreting often involve the whole class. Teachers can use both small group and whole class approaches to teaching science, and discuss when each may be appropriate. Self Check exercise-2 Q-1: Discuss the term Smart classroom in science. Q-2 Which of the following is an example of assistive technology to aid hearing? a)    Braille system b)    Walking stick c)    Sound amplifier d)    Eyeglasses 10.4    Summary: Different functional and practical activities and tasks are used in its teaching learning. The use of science laboratories and practical tasks and certainly useful in the of physical sciences, but the extensive objectives of teaching of life sciences cannot be obtained only by them It is necessary to assimilate the knowledge and skill of life sciences in the practical 19fe and to create interest and favorable attitude towards its studies. The audio-visual aids help the teacher to win the interest and attention of the pupils. They motivate the students to physical and mental activity. The role science teacher is very important here. The success of failure of the programme depends upon his enthusiasm, resourcefulness and ingenuity. He is the pivot of all activities. It is also the responsibility of the physical science teacher to encourage the students to take part in science fairs at district, state or national level. It very important to include field trips in the curriculum of physical sciences. 10.5    Answers to Self-Check Exercise:Self-Check Exercis-1 Ans-1: Teaching aids are those tools and devices by the use of which communication of ideas between persons and groups in various teaching-training situations is helped. Teaching aids should be used to supplement the process of teaching Most of teaching aids are sensory aids and their function is to make teaching correct, effective and interesting. Self-Check Exercis-2 Ans-1: Smart classrooms are the amalgamation of technology used at the teacher's desk and in front of the classroom, technology in the hands of the student and a physical environment that allows the successful use of that technology. Ans-2: Sound amplifier 10.6    Glossary: Inductive: It is a method of drawing conclusions by going from the specific to the general. Rainforests: These are the forests characterized by a closed and continuous tree canopy, moisture-dependent vegetation etc. Monotony: The state of being always the same 10.7    References and suggested readings: •     School Science (Quarterly), NCERT, New Delhi. •     Baez, Albert B. Innovations in Science Education - World Wide. Paris: The Unesco Press, 1976. •     Kuhn, David J. "Science Education in a Changing Society". Science Education, 56(3), 1972. •     Misra, K.S. Perspectives of Science Education. Agra: Arya Book Depot, 1997. 1.8 Terminal Questions: 1.    What are the objectives of teaching aids? Discuss the role of science teacher in organizing teaching aids. 2.    What are importances of smart classroom in science? 82