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title: "Vol 1 0"
book: "EDUCC 113Methods and Techniques of Educational Research"
category: "EDUCC"
publisher: "Ratan Prakashan Mandir Pvt. Ltd."
type: "Educational Material"
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According to Latest Syllabus
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RATAN
TEXT BOOK
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
Vol-1
M.A.Education (Sem-IV)
Dr. Mohini Agrawal
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Preamble to the Constitution of India
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, Having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
and to secure to all its citizens :
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual
and the unity and integrity of the Nation;
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
SUCCESS
Success is not permanent and failure is not final. Never stop working after success and, never stop trying after failure.
A.P.J. ABDUL KALAM
UNIT-1
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH-I
Structure

1.1    Introduction

1.2   Learning Objectives

1.3    Educational research and Methodology of Educational Research
Self- check Exercise-1

1.4   Descriptive Research
Self- check Exercise-2

1.5   Survey Study Method
Self- check Exercise-3

1.6   Summary

1.7   Glossary

1.8    Answers to self- check Exercise

1.9   References / Suggested Readings

1.10  Terminal Questions

1.1   INTRODUCTION
The descriptive research method has undoubtedly been the most popular and the most widely used research method in education. It helps to explain educational phenomena in terms of the conditions or relationships that exist, opinions that are held by the students, teachers, parents and experts, processes that are going on, effects that are evident, or trends that are developing.The primary goal is to provide a detailed account of the situation or subject under investigation. This type of research is often used when the researcher wants to gain a better understanding of the existing conditions, relationships, or patterns in a given context. Because of the apparent ease and directness of this method, a researcher can gather information in terms of an individual's opinion about some issue, by a simple questionnaire. At times, the descriptive survey is the only means through which opinions, attitudes, suggestions for the improvement of educational practices and instruction, and other data can be obtained.

1.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After carefully reading this Lesson you will be able to meet the following objectives:

•     Meaning and importance of descriptive research

•     Explain the nature of Descriptive research.

•     Steps in Descriptive Research

•     Discuss the various types of Descriptive Research.

•     Discuss the nature, types and purpose of Survey Studies.

1.3    EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND METHODOLOGY OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
Educational research refers to a variety of methods, in which individuals evaluate different aspects of education including: "student learning, teaching methods, teacher training, and classroom dynamics".
Educational researchers have come to the consensus that educational research must be conducted in a rigorous and systematic way, although what this implies is often debated. There are a variety of disciplines which are each present to some degree in educational research. These include psychology, sociology, anthropology, and philosophy The overlap in disciplines creates a broad range from which methodology can be drawn. The findings of educational research also need to be interpreted within the context in which they were discovered as they may not be applicable at every time or place.
Characteristics
Gary Anderson outlined ten aspects of educational research:

•     Educational research attempts to solve a problem.

•     Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or
using existing data for a new purpose.

•     Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence

•     Research demands accurate observation and description.

•     Research generally employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous
analysis.

•     Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories
that will help in understanding, prediction and/or control.

•     Research requires  expertise-familiarity with  the field; competence in
methodology;      technical skill in collecting and analyzing the data.

•     Research attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and
takes great pains to validate the procedures employed.

•      Research is a deliberate and unhurried activity that is directional but often refines
the problem or questions as the research progresses.

•     Research is carefully recorded and reported to other persons interested in the
problem.
Approaches:
There are two main approaches to educational research. The first is a basic approach. This approach is also referred to as an academic research approach. The second approach is applied research or a contract research approach. Both of these approaches have different purposes which influence the nature of the respective research.
Basic approach:
Basic, or academic research focuses on the search for truth or the development of educational theory. Researchers with this background "design studies that can test, refine, modify, or develop theories". Generally, these researchers are affiliated with an academic institution and are performing this research as part of their graduate or doctoral work.
Applied approach:
The pursuit of information that can be directly applied to practice is aptly known as applied or contractual research. Researchers in this field are trying to find solutions to existing educational problems. The approach is much more utilitarian as it strives to find information that will directly influence practice. Applied researchers are commissioned by a sponsor and are responsible for addressing the needs presented by
this employer. The goal of this research is "to determine the applicability of educational theory and principles by testing hypotheses within specific settings"
Comparison of basic and applied research:
The following are several defining characteristics that were written by Gary Anderson to compare basic (academic) and applied (contract) research.
|  | Basic (Academic) Research | Applied (Contract) Research |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Is sponsored by an agency committed to the general advancement of knowledge | Is sponsored by an agency with a vested interest in the results. |
| 2 | Results are the property of society and the research community. | Results become the property of the sponsor. |
| 3 | Studies rely on the established reputations of the researchers and are totally under their control. | Studies follow explicit terms of reference developed by the sponsor to serve the sponsor's needs. |
| 4 | Budget allocations are generally based Ion global proposals and accounting is left to the researchers. | Budget accountability is directly related to the sponsor and relates to agreed terms of reference, time frames and methodologies. |
| 5 | The conduct of research is based on 'good faith' between funder and researcher. | The work is contractual between sponsor and researcher. |
| 6 | The research produces findings and conclusions, but rarely recommendations except those related to further research needs. | The research includes applied recommendations for action. |
| 7 | Academic research tends to extend an identifiable scholarly discipline. | By its nature, contract research tends to be interdisciplinary. |
| 8 | Academic research is typically focused on a single set of testable hypotheses. | Contract research frequently analyzes the consequences of alternative policy options. |
| 9 | Decision-rules relate to theoretically- based tests of statistical significance. | Decision-rules      relate      to predetermined conventions and |


|  |  | agreements between the sponsor and the researcher. |
|---|---|---|
| 10 | Research reports are targeted to other specialized researchers in the same field. | Research reports are intended to be read and understood by lay persons. |


METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH
The basis for educational research is the scientific method. The scientific method uses directed questions and manipulation of variables to systematically find information about the teaching and learning process. In this scenario, questions are answered by the analysis of data that is collected specifically for the purpose of answering these questions Hypotheses are written and subsequently proved or disproved by data which leads to the creation of new hypotheses. The two main types of data that are used under this method are qualitative and quantitative
Qualitative research:
Qualitative research uses data that is descriptive in nature. Tools that educational researchers use in collecting qualitative data include observations, conducting interviews, conducting document analysis, and analyzing participant products such as journals, diaries, images or blogs.
Types of qualitative research:

•    Case study

•     Ethnography

•     Phenomenological Research

•     Narrative Research

•     Historical Research
Quantitative research
Quantitative research uses data that is numerical and is based on the assumption that the numbers will describe a single reality. Statistics are often applied to find relationships between variables.
Types of quantitative research

•     Descriptive research

•     Correlational research
Experimental research
SELF-CHECK EXCERCISE-1
Q1. What is the primary purpose of educational research?

A)    To make a profit

B)    To develop theories and principles

C)    To entertain students

D)    To ensure students pass exams
Q2. What is the purpose of a literature review in educational research?

A)    To collect primary data

B)    To analyze statistical data

C)    To summarize existing research on a topic

D)    To design an experiment

1.4 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Meaning and Importance of Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is a type of research design that focuses on describing and documenting the characteristics, behaviors, or conditions of a particular phenomenon without manipulating it. The primary purpose is to provide a detailed and accurate account of what exists, offering a snapshot of the subject under investigation. Unlike experimental research, descriptive research does not involve changing variables or establishing cause-and-effect relationships. Instead, it seeks to answer the question "what is?"
Importance of Descriptive Research:
The importance of descriptive research lies in its ability to provide a foundational understanding of a phenomenon, offering valuable insights and serving as a crucial step in the research process. Here are key reasons why descriptive research is important: Initial Exploration:
It serves as a starting point for researchers to explore a topic, identify key aspects, and formulate research questions.
Understanding Phenomena:
Descriptive studies help researchers gain a clear understanding of a subject by documenting its characteristics, behaviors, or conditions.
Problem Identification:
Identifies problems or issues that may require further investigation, guiding researchers toward specific areas of interest.
Baseline Information:
Establishes baseline information for a phenomenon, allowing researchers to track changes or trends over time.
Hypothesis Formulation:
Findings inspire the formulation of hypotheses for subsequent studies, providing a basis for more targeted research.
Decision Making
Assists decision-making processes in school, organizations, or policymaking by providing relevant data.
Policy Development:
Contributes data in social sciences for informed policy development based on societal trends, demographics, and behaviours.
Validation of Previous Research:
Validates or challenges findings from earlier research, enhancing the overall reliability of knowledge in a particular field.
Effective Communication:
Results are presented in a clear and accessible manner, facilitating the communication of information to a broad audience.
Ethical Research Approach:
Considered ethical, particularly in situations where experimental manipulation might be impractical or unethical, allowing study in a natural state.
Real-World Context:
Research conducted in natural settings provides a realistic view of the subject, enhancing the external validity of the findings.
Flexibility in Design:
Offers flexibility in choosing data collection methods, allowing adaptation to the specific research context.
In essence, descriptive research plays a crucial role in the research process by offering a foundational understanding of a subject, guiding subsequent research endeavours, and contributing valuable information for decision-making and policy development.
NATURE OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
The nature of descriptive research can be understood through key points:
Observation and Description:
Descriptive research focuses on observing and accurately describing a phenomenon without changing or manipulating it.
No Manipulation of Variables:
Unlike experimental research, there is no intentional alteration of variables. Descriptive studies aim to capture the natural state of the subject.
Real-World Context:
Research is often conducted in natural settings, providing a realistic view of the subject in its everyday environment.
Objective and Unbiased:
The researcher aims to present an objective and unbiased account of the subject, minimizing personal opinions or interpretations.
Quantitative and Qualitative Data:
Both numeric data (quantitative) and non-numeric data (qualitative) are used to provide a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon.
Exploratory Nature:
Descriptive research serves as an initial exploration of a topic, laying the groundwork for more detailed investigations.
Answering "What Is?":
The primary question addressed is "What is happening?" or "What are the characteristics?" rather than exploring cause-and-effect relationships.
Documenting Facts:
It involves systematically documenting facts, details, and features of the subject under study.
Facilitates Further Research:
Descriptive research often leads to the formulation of hypotheses and guides subsequent research phases by identifying areas for more in-depth study.
Flexible Research Design:
Researchers have flexibility in choosing data collection methods, including surveys, observations, case studies, and content analysis.
Problem Identification:
Helps in identifying problems or areas that may require further investigation, contributing to the research process.
Baseline Information:
Establishes baseline information for a phenomenon, enabling the tracking of changes or developments over time.
Communication of Findings:
Results are communicated in a clear and straightforward manner, making it accessible to a broad audience.
Ethical Considerations:
Descriptive research is often considered ethically sound, particularly in situations where experimental manipulation might be impractical or unethical.
In summary, descriptive research is about keen observation, presenting facts objectively, and providing a foundation for deeper exploration in research. It captures the "what is" of a subject in a straightforward and accessible manner.
STEPS OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Descriptive research involves systematically observing, recording, and analysing characteristics of a phenomenon without manipulating variables. Here are the general steps typically involved in conducting descriptive research:

1.    Identify the Research Problem:
Clearly articulate the specific aspect or characteristics of the phenomenon you want to study. Define the scope and purpose of your research.

2.    Review of Existing Literature:
Conduct a literature review to understand what is already known about the topic. Identify gaps in knowledge that your descriptive research aims to fill.

3.    Formulate Hypotheses and Objectives:
While descriptive research is primarily focused on describing, rather than explaining, phenomena, you may still develop hypotheses if they help guide your observations or data collection.

4.    Choose the Appropriate Methodology for Research:
Select the appropriate research design, sampling technique, tools and data collection method based on your research and objectives. Common designs include observational studies, case studies, surveys, content analysis, and others.

5.    Collect Data:
Implement your data collection plan. Once data is collected, organize it in a meaningful way. This may involve creating tables, charts, or graphs to summarize and present the information.

6.    Perform Descriptive Analysis:
Analyse the data descriptively. This could include calculating measures of central tendency (e.g., mean, median, mode), measures of variability (e.g., range, standard deviation), and other relevant statistical summaries. Interpret the results And Draw necessary Conclusions.
These steps provide a structured approach to conducting descriptive research.
Types of DescriptiveResearch

•    Survey Study Method

•     Correlational Study Method

•    Case Study Method
SELF-CHECK EXCERCISE-2
Q.1. What is the primary goal of descriptive research?

a.    To establish cause-and-effect relationships

b.    To explore the underlying reasons for a phenomenon

c.    To describe and summarize characteristics of a population or phenomenon

d.    To test hypotheses through experimental manipulation
Q.2. Which of the following is a common method used in descriptive research?

a.    Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs)

b.    Case studies

c.    Experiments

d.    None of the above
Q 3. What is the main limitation of descriptive research?

a.    Lack of generalizability

b.    Difficulty in establishing causation

c.    Inability to collect quantitative data

d.    Dependence on subjective interpretations

1.5 SURVEY STUDY METHOD
A survey is a method of collecting data in a consistent way. Survey research is useful for documenting existing community conditions, characteristics of a population, and community opinion. In this chapter, you will find an outline of the steps needed to conduct surveys using both the questionnaire and interview methods. Details on preparing questionnaires and interview schedules are presented, along with a Comparison of both methods for different community-based situations. Survey data is not only useful for immediate community development purposes, but it can also serve the future of a community efforts by providing the baseline data needed later to demonstrate progress. Surveys are one of the most common forms of research to reach native communities, to the point that the common community reaction is "Not another survey!" Such a reaction is usually due to the hundreds of surveys conducted by academic researchers and federal agencies, where the results rarely came back to the community directly. In these times of change, many community groups are conducting their own surveys and participating in the definition of the questions asked by the surveys of other researchers. This type of cooperative survey effort can be a strong tool for community development.
More specifically, surveys can be useful for:

•     Determining the characteristics of a population or a community

•     Defining existing conditions in a community or region

•     Documenting community opinion

•    Comparing groups of communities
All of the above purposes for conducting surveys can be directly applied to the development and management of community resources. More specifically, a survey is a method of collecting data in a consistent, or systematic, way This usually involves constructing a set of questions that are either asked by means of a questionnaire or through an interview.
TYPES OF SURVEYS
There are several different approaches to conducting a survey. One very common approach is the cross-sectional survey, where a set of information is collected for a sample at one point in time. Data may be collected from a sample of the population or from the entire population or community. When the data can be collected from an entire population, as may be the case in the small community or tribe, then the survey is sometimes called a census. When the data are analyzed from a cross-sectional survey, the results can vary from tabulations of answers on single questions to a more complex analysis exploring the relationships between variables. Even though the data are collected at one point in time with the cross- sectional survey there are methods of comparing items or looking for change. For example, the questions asked may be timeordered, referring to events in the past, present, or the future. The responses on such questions can provide a basis for looking at change, but with the disadvantage that the person answering the questions may distort impressions of an event over time.
The longitudinal survey provides another means of looking at changes over time. With this type of survey, the data are actually collected at different points in time. This can be accomplished by either sampling from a population at different points in time, or by following-up on a group of individuals at different points in time. The main problem seen with follow-up on a group of individuals is loss of participants (also known as drop-out or attrition). With the small community, it may be possible to follow-up with nearly the entire population and tracking those who may have moved through the community network
An example of a longitudinal survey would be a study of native language use within the community, where questions on language use are asked five years apart to see if there had been any change in the amount of language use. Such a study might
look at reasons for decreased or increased language use and relate these changes to cultural change. The data obtained from such a study could be useful in documenting the structure of a bilingual education program.
Several distinctions are sometimes made within the longitudinal survey design. With the trend study, a general population is sampled at more than one point over time. While the same individuals are not surveyed each time, the assumption is made that each sample represents the same population. During the cohort study, a specific population is followed over a period of time. For example, high school graduates at different years might be surveyed to note changes in this group over the years. For a panel study, a specific sample of individuals is followed at different points in time. Attrition tends to affect this last type of longitudinal study
Although many researchers are in favor of the more complex survey design, it cannot be overemphasized that even the most descriptive tabulations of simple responses on culturally appropriate questions are more valuable than complex, statistically sophisticated analyses on questions that may be inappropriate to the community. A basic, descriptive design is also often a good first step toward finding direction for a more complex design later on. The most important factors in choosing a design are the needs and the resources of the community.
Steps For Conducting A Survey:
The following steps are intended as a general outline of the methods generally used in conducting a survey. Consideration of these steps is useful in completing the survey design before the actual research begins.
Step 1: Defining the purpose of the survey is an important first step in developing the research design. The more tightly focused the study, the more useful the results are likely to be for community development. One common mistake made in a community survey is to collect a wide range of data that does not relate to a specific purpose. This is different from conducting a multi-purpose survey, where several different goals are decided upon and the questions are designed to address the different goals. Since the time involved with conducting a survey is usually extensive, it may be more economical to the community to design a multipurpose survey that could be used for planning and development efforts in several areas For example, a survey to determine existing health
levels might be directed at development of a health care delivery system and an alcohol treatment centre as well. Deciding the general purpose of the study is usually a step that enables a group to begin focusing the project. Then, determining the goals and objectives of the project further focuses the purpose of the study to the point that the methodology can be developed Goals are long-term general outcomes; whereas, objectives are short-term, and more specific. For example, in the language survey sample carried throughout this chapter, the goal of the survey would be: "To examine the extent to which use of the native language is maintained in the community Specific objectives would be:
"To determine language use of adult community members,"
"To determine present language use of children in the community."
"To determine the first language -acquired by children in the home," and
"To determine the domains of interaction where native language is used in the community."
The results of such a survey might be used to develop adult language classes or bilingual education programs. Other educational programs might be developed with the use of such data, for maintenance of the native language is often used as an indicator of retention of traditional culture. Objectives can also reflect relationships between variables.
Step 2: Locating previously conducted surveys on similar topics is a step that enables the researcher to discover examples of different types of survey designs and instruments to collect data Research results are often published through some of the library and data base sources listed in the chapter on LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SERVICES Materials that were prepared in conjunction with a survey project, such as training manuals or complete instruments can often be obtained by writing to the author Other types of studies conducted with the survey population can also yield valuable information for the project.
Step 3: Deciding on the type of survey design that will best accomplish the goals and objectives of the project is a very critical step in the survey process. One common mistake made in research efforts is to begin designing an instrument to collect data before the overall research design is planned. The appropriate survey design will vary
according to the goals of the project, the time limits that may exist, and the resources available to the project. For example, if documentation is needed on the socioeconomic conditions of an area for the purpose of immediate development work, then a crosssectional survey might provide the best design. Or, if existing conditions in two communities (perhaps two Indian communities or an Indian and a non-Indian community) are to be compared at the present time, again the cross-sectional approach can be considered. If the purpose of the project is to see if change is occurring over time, then the longitudinal method would be the more appropriate design. For example, if a community is implementing an economic development project, a survey effort might be useful in documenting socio-economic conditions at the start of the project and then at a later date to see if improvement has occurred. Evaluation projects often use the longitudinal survey approach.
One of the practical decisions of choice relates to the resources available. Longitudinal studies require continuity of staff and funds over time. Turnover of personnel and loss of interest in the study are some of the more frequent reasons why longitudinal efforts fail to reach completion. Often a two-year or a three-year funding commitment can be gained for the study in advance, if the research design is developed before the start of the project. Follow-up on individuals takes a great deal of attention, rapport, and the development of a good tracking system. Yet, the strength that many project gain from demonstrating change over time is a very valuable development asset. In addition to documenting the effectiveness of new techniques, the ability of showing change over time increases accountability to the community.
Step 4: Selecting the sampling methods to be used relates to the type of survey design and to the population included in the study. The first step in choosing the sampling method is to define clearly the population to be reached. Is the population included in the study a community, a tribe, or a whole region? The resources available, in terms of both personnel and funding are important considerations. It may be more useful in documenting socio-economic conditions to have a completed survey of a well-sampled community, rather than a less-thorough survey of the larger population or tribe. If differences between communities (for example, economic, environmental, bands or other groupings) are not great, the study of one community can provide an example and
often serves as a starting place or a pilot study for expanding the study to other communities.
Common mistakes in survey sampling are:

1)    Not narrowing down or focusing the sampling enough to accomplish the
objectives of the study.

2)    Focusing on a well-defined sample, but choosing a sample of individuals that
cannot provide the Information needed for the survey, and

3)    Selecting the sample by convenience (persons most readily available), rather
than selecting a random or a representative sample.
Sampling becomes much more of a challenge in rural communities, where the conventional sampling techniques developed for urban areas often do not apply. One successful technique for the small community is exhaustive sampling, or including all of the households in the community. When an exhaustive sample is possible, the use of descriptive statistics is simplified.
The cross-sectional survey often uses subsamples within the larger sample for comparison purposes. Care should be taken that each of these subsamples are representative of the total population. And for statistical purposes, each of the subsamples should include a substantial number of people.
In sampling for the longitudinal survey, the total number in the initial sample should take into account the drop-out, or loss of participants that is bound to occur over time. Although there are no set rules for the adequate sample size, one rule of thumb often used is that the total sample size would comprise 10 % of the total population. In determining the sample size and procedures, when an exhaustive sample is not possible, it is wise to consult a statistician.
Step 5: Deciding on a method of collecting the data is an important step in designing the survey. The more common methods of data collection are the questionnaire and interview schedule, although this type of data is sometimes supplemented by organizational records, census data, and the data from previously conducted surveys. A questionnaire is a set of questions that are answered directly on paper by the respondent, while an interview schedule is a set of questions that are asked to the respondent by an interview. These questions can be listed with highly structured
responses (closed form), or may be open ended (open form), allowing for additional comments. In choosing between the questionnaire and the interview methods, some of the factors to consider concerning appropriateness for community use are, whether a mailed questionnaire would be returned, literacy levels of respondents, language dominance of respondents, and the advantage of the more personal interview contact. If the target group of respondents is school administrators, the questionnaire method might be appropriate, whereas, for a rural community survey, the interview method is more likely to succeed. When the research design is prepared, generally a preliminary instrument for data collection is prepared with the understanding that the final instrument would be developed at the start of the project. Time for development and pretesting of the instrument, as well as staff training to use the instrument, needs to be allowed in the project timetable. These tasks can take several weeks. Research projects usually develop a new instrument to test a new idea; however, the many instruments now in existence can serve as a starting place for ideas. During the literature search for related work, references to instruments from previous studies can be located.
Step 6: Conducting a pretest with the questionnaire or interview schedule is a step to minimize problems before the actual data collection begins. One of the first ways to check over the instrument is to read it yourself to see if there are any uncertain or vague questions. Then, after this preliminary check, a pretest or trial run of the data collection method should be conducted. For the pretest, a sample of individuals similar to those planned for the survey sample is chosen. Generally, about ten to twenty respondents are asked to participate in the pretest. The pretest provides an opportunity to see if the data collection methods are culturally appropriate, easily understood, or complete. The questionnaire or interview schedule is generally revised, or rewritten, if the pretest indicates that changes are needed. Certain federal offices require approval of the data collection instrument before use, so funded projects might be wise to check into the current policies.
Step 7: Collecting the data involves effective use of the instruments developed for data collection. Techniques that might be incorporated into the research design for the community-based effort are often less formal and more culturally sensitive than in many academic projects. A letter of introduction, sometimes called a transmittal letter, is an
important aid in gaining cooperation for the questionnaire. A good explanation of the purpose of the project (and why the respondent is important to the project) is one of the more important factors in obtaining a high response rate. Likewise, the introduction provided by the interviewer is a very critical point in gaining cooperation for the interview. Giving back to the community while collecting the data is one of the most effective ways of reciprocating during a study. Although an explanation of the benefits expected to come to the community from the study is one form of sharing, the offering of information or services at the time of the data collection is a more immediate demonstration of the thoughtfulness put into the project. For example, information booklets on available services can be produced very inexpensively and given to families at the time of the interview or mailed with the questionnaire. Such a booklet can also contain an explanation of the purpose of the survey and the plans for applying the survey results to develop further resources. Another means of giving to community members in exchange for their time is to provide transportation to a needed service. Particularly if two interviewers are working together, the interview may be conducted on the way to the destination. For example, in conducting a survey of existing health conditions, an offer of transportation to obtain health services might be appropriate. Two pitfalls to watch for in this type of exchange are:

1)    Skewing the sample by gaining cooperation from a population segment that is more apt to seek out a particular type of service, or

2)    Becoming involved as a transportation provider to the extent that the survey effort becomes neglected.
When there are available funds for the project, it may be possible to pay the respondent for the time taken during the interview. The introduction of money into the exchange may be less culturally appropriate than other forms of sharing, and may make the respondent feel as though all questions must be answered. Time given by community members is a valuable contribution, and the extent to which this is recognized by the researcher, the better the project is likely to be accepted in the community.
Maintaining confidentiality of the data, the identity of the respondent unknown, is an ethical consideration in the data collection process. If safeguards are taken to protect the identity of the respondent, it will often put him at ease to explain these either on the
letter accompanying the questionnaire or during the interview. The most common form of protecting the respondent's identity is through the use of a respondent number. That is, a master list is kept of respondent's names, addresses, and assigned numbers by the research project staff. Only the respondent number appears on the data record sheets and the master list is then kept in a locked or confidential place. For a returned questionnaire, the name of the respondent is usually identified to enable a follow-up in the case of non-responses. The respondent number can be used in recording the data, though, to provide confidentiality when the data are processed and the results reported. The anonymous questionnaire, where the respondent does not reveal his identity, may be necessary for collecting very sensitive types of data, however, the follow-up is difficult, if not impossible when this technique is used. A system for maintaining confidentiality is particularly important for the interview method, where the interviewer is visible in the community. Explaining the system by which the data will be kept confidential often helps to gain the trust of the respondent
The collection of data is one of the most time consuming and expensive parts of the survey project. In addition to plans for the actual data collection methods, the research design must adequately provide for staff time and funds to complete the project. The questionnaire method requires funds for questionnaire duplication, preparation of the letter of introduction, postage and envelopes for both the initial contact and return of the completed instrument, duplication and postage for follow-up on non-responses, payment to participants involved in the pretest, materials given to respondents, as well as funds for the data analysis. The interview method requires funds for duplication of the instrument, payment of the pretest participants, salary for the interviewers (initial contacts and follow-up), transportation for the interviewers, and materials given to respondents, in addition to the costs of the data analysis. The amount of time required for each interview can be estimated from the pretest interviews, and transportation time can be calculated according to the average distance to be travelled. A timetable for the research design is a good planning measure and later provides a valuable guide for staff members to follow during the project.
Completion of the data collection plan is critical to the survey effort, for failure to complete any segment of the plan due to a shortage of time or funds would severely
affect the sampling for the project. Adequate attention to this task in the research design cannot be overemphasized.
Step 8: Follow-up is an important step to plan for in the survey process, for a certain number of respondents frequently do not mail back questionnaires or cooperate on the Interview at the first try. With the questionnaire method and initial response rate of less than 50 percent may indicate problems with the questionnaire or the method of communicating with the respondent. In some survey efforts, a, completely new approach needs to be tried if the response rate is extremely low. In most surveys, however, a follow-up letter with another copy of the questionnaire and a self-addressed, stamped envelope will increase the return rate.
Follow-up with the interview approach can become more complex, for there are several different reasons that can be the cause of the non-interview:

1)    In one type of situation, there is no one at home at the residence. Contacting the respondent in advance by telephone or by mail to arrange a time for the interview decreases the likelihood of this situation. Call-backs increase the response rate when the interviewer finds no one at home.

2)    A related situation occurs when the respondent is not at home. This may happen when the chosen respondent is to be the head of the household or an adult. Arrangements may be made with other members of the family for a return visit.

3)    Another non-interview situation occurs when the respondent is not available. If the person is busy or ill, but willing to cooperate, then arrangements can usually be made for a later date.

4)    An outright refusal on the part of the respondent can be for several different reasons, yet the end result is the same. Since refusals introduce bias into the survey effort, interviewer training to deal with those hesitant to cooperate is important.
Whether using the questionnaire or the interview method, a record keeping system for follow-up is important to include in the research design. Follow-up is an expensive step in the survey process, and funds are usually budgeted for this additional effort. Beyond a good follow-up effort, the researcher needs to accept the fact that, for a variety of reasons, some people will not respond. Remember that people have the right to refuse the respond, and don't take such refusals personally.
Step 9: An outline of how the analysis of the data will be conducted is an important part of the research design. This step is interrelated with the design of the data collection instruments, for the data must be collected according to a certain format (such as numerical or descriptive) to allow for certain types of summaries. One of the more common mistakes in survey research occurs when the data collection instruments are designed without giving thought to the techniques that would be used to summarize or tabulate the data. Well-coordinated data collection and analysis plans allow for the maximum use of the data. For example, whether data are collected in a numerical, grouped, or ranked format, they will allow for different statistical analysis. Many uses of the data may be lost if the data are collected and then a statistician is approached later to help with analysis.
Step 10: Reporting or sharing the results of the survey is a vital step in returning the efforts to the community.
These are a few of the items that help complete the survey report-

•     Purpose of the study

•     Review of previous studies or surveys

•     Survey method (population, sampling method, sample size, data collection
method, method of data analysis, attrition rate, examples of questionnaires or interview schedules used)

•     Analysis of data (presentation of data, interpretations)

•     Conclusions (overview of the study, results, recommendations)
To enable the reader of the report to use the study results effectively, the data should be presented in a clear manner. This is most commonly done in the form of tables where the responses to questions are summarized. Whenever a table is included, a clear presentation includes mention of the purpose of including the data and the interpretation of the data. One common mistake that loses the reader is cluttering the report with too much data, or with data that is not interpreted in relation to the findings. Again, we emphasize that writing a clear report may make the difference between the study that is useful to a community and the study result that sits on a shelf.
More Common Mistakes Made During Survey Research
These are a few of the mistakes more frequently made in community-based survey efforts:

•     Specific goals and objectives are not defined for the project, reducing the
effectiveness of the data-gathering

•    Comparisons between groups are overlooked

•     Sampling is not representative

•     The sample group does not have the information needed for the study

•     Questionnaire method is used in a community where attitudes are not receptive
to the less personal method and the return rate is low

•     The questionnaire method is used where the literacy level of the community
members is low, thus preventing completion of the form in a large number of cases

•     The questionnaire is too long, causing the respondent to become impatient

•     The questionnaire is worded in a vague or unclear manner, causing
interpretations among respondents

•     Questionnaire contains researcher bias

•     Either questionnaire or interview schedule is not pretested to discover problems

•     Coding format is not developed before the data collection, for purposes of
summarizing the data numerically

•     Interview format is not structured enough to allow for the collection of the same
kinds of data for each case included in the sample Interviewer is not effective due to association with certain factions in the community

•      Interviewer is not trained in interview skills

•     Interviewer shows bias during the interview, swaying the responses

•     Follow-up not conducted on no-responses, for either questionnaire or interview
method

•     Confidentiality is not kept on respondent data

•     Checks not conducted to test the reliability of data

•     Survey report contains too much jargon, or technical words, for community use
Adequate planning of the survey design can help the research staff in avoiding these possible problem areas.
SELF-CHECK EXCERCISE-3
Q.1 What is a common advantage of using surveys in educational research?

A)    They allow for in-depth exploration of complex phenomena.

B)    They can collect data from a large number of respondents quickly and efficiently.

C)    They are more reliable than experimental methods.

D)    They do not require a large sample size.
Q.2 Which of the following is a common type of survey question format?

A)    Open-ended questions

B)    Dichotomous questions

C)    Likert scale questions

D)    All of the above
Q.3 What is one of the main challenges of using surveys in research?

A)    Surveys are expensive to administer.

B)    Surveys provide qualitative data that is hard to analyze.

C)    Surveys may suffer from low response rates and potential biases.

D)    Surveys are time-consuming to conduct.

1.6    SUMMARY
The descriptive investigations are of immense value in solving the problems about children, school organization, supervision and administration, curriculum, teaching methods and evaluation. There are a number of questions that arise concerning these aspects of education. For example, one may want to know how many of the teachers in a district possess a bachelor's Degree in Education. How do these figures compare with the tendency throughout the state? How many minutes per week are normally devoted to the teaching of English spelling? What proportion of the total state budget is reasonable to set aside for adult education? What kind of curriculum do people really want their children to have at the secondary school stage? At what age and grade level do pupils leave school? What happens to students after they leave school? And so on. Such Information is useful to teachers and administrators in understanding the existing educational problems and also in suggesting ways of meeting them. The descriptive type of research is useful in the development of data-
gathering instruments and tools like tests, checklists, schedules, questionnaires and rating scales. It also provides the background ideas and data from which many more refined or controlled studies of causal relations are made.

1.7    GLOSSARY

1.    Educational Research
Educational research is the systematic investigation aimed at developing new knowledge and improving educational practices, policies, and outcomes.

2.    Descriptive Research
Descriptive research systematically describes a population, situation, or phenomenon by providing an accurate account of characteristics, frequencies, and trends.

3.S urvey Study Method
The survey study method involves collecting data from respondents through questionnaires or interviews to gain insights on various topics.

1.8    ANSWERS TO SELF- CHECK EXERCISES
EXERCISE-1
Answer 1. B) To develop theories and principles
Answer 2. C) To summarize existing research on a topic
EXERCISE-2
Answer 1. c. To describe and summarize characteristics of a population or phenomenon
Answer 2.   b. Case studies
Answer 3.   a. Lack of generalizability
EXERCISE-3
Answer 1. B) They can collect data from a large number of respondents quickly and efficiently.
Answer 2. D) All of the above
Answer 3. C) Surveys may suffer from low response rates and potential biases.

1.9    REFERENCES / SUGGESTED READINGS

•    Best, J.W and J.V.Kahn, Research in Education (7th Ed.) New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt Ltd.1998

•    Sanswal, N.D. (2020). Research Methodology and Applied Statistics. (1st ed.). Shipra Publications.

•     Kaul, L. (2009). Methodology of Educational Research. (4th ed.). Vikas Publishing
House Private Limited.

1.10    TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q1:   Describe the nature of descriptive research.
Q2:   Discuss the nature and types of survey research.
Q3:   Explain the steps that the researcher may adopt in conducting the descriptive
type of research.
UNIT- 2DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH-II
Structure

2.1    Introduction

2.2    Learning Objectives

2.3   Correlational Study
Self- check Exercise-1

2.4    Case Study Method
Self- check Exercise-2

2.5  Summary

2.6   Glossary

2.7    Answers to self- check Exercise

2.8   References / Suggested Readings

2.9   Terminal Questions

2.1   INTRODUCTION
Correlational studies and case study methods are two distinct but valuable research approaches used to explore and understand various phenomena.Correlational studies focus on examining the relationships between two or more variables to determine if they are associated. This method uses statistical techniques to measure the strength and direction of relationships, helping researchers identify patterns and predict potential interactions among variables. While correlational studies can highlight significant connections, they do not establish causation, meaning they cannot determine whether one variable causes changes in another.
On the other hand, the case study method involves an in-depth, detailed examination of a single subject, group, or event. This approach allows researchers to explore complex issues within real-life contexts, providing a comprehensive understanding of the subject under investigation. Case studies are particularly useful for studying unique or rare phenomena, generating rich qualitative data, and offering insights into the intricate dynamics of specific cases. By focusing on a single case or a small number of cases, researchers can delve deeply into the contextual factors and unique aspects that may
influence outcomes.Together, these methods offer complementary strengths: correlational studies provide a broad overview of relationships between variables, while case studies offer detailed and context-specific insights. Using both approaches can enhance the robustness and depth of research findings, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomena being studied.

2.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this Unit, the Learners will be able to;

•      Understand relationships between variables using statistical techniques without
inferring causation

•      Interpret relationships between variables using statistical techniques

•      Develop skills to conduct in-depth investigations of specific subjects or events to
gain comprehensive insights.

2.3    CORRELATION STUDY METHOD
Correlation means association more precisely it is a measure of the extent to which two variables are related. If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with an increase in the other then this is known as a positive correlation. An example would be height and weight. Taller people tend to be heavier. If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with a decrease in the other then this is known as a negative correlation. An example would be height above sea level and temperature. As you climb the mountain (increase in height) it gets colder (decrease in temperature). When there is no relationship between two variables this is known as a zero correlation. For example, there is no relationship between the amount of tea drunk and level of intelligence.
A correlation can be expressed visually. This is done by drawing a scatter diagram - that is one can plot the figures for one variable against the figures for the other on a graph.



The points lie close to a straight line, which has a positive gradient.
This shows that as one variable increases the other increases.


The points lie close to a straight line, which has a negative gradient.
This shows that as one variable increases, the other decreases.


There is no pattern to the point.
This shows that there is no connection between the two variables.

When you draw a scatter diagram it doesn't matter which variable goes on the x-axis and which goes on the y-axis. Remember, in correlations we are always dealing with paired scores, so the values of the 2 variables taken together will be used to make the diagram. Decide which variable goes on each axis and then simply put a cross at the point where the 2 values coincide.
Strictly speaking correlation is not a research method but a way of analyzing data gathered by means. This might be useful, for example, if we wanted to know if there were an association between watching violence on TV. and a tendency towards violent behaviour in adolescence. Another area where correlation is widely used is in the study of intelligence where research has been carried out to test the strength of the association between the I.Q. levels of identical and non-identical twins.
Some uses of correlations:
Prediction
If there is a relationship between two variables, we can make predictions about one from another.
Validity
Concurrent validity between a new measure and an established measure)
Reliability
Test-retest reliability (are measures consistent).
Inter-rater reliability (are observers consistent).
Theory verification
Predictive validity.
Correlation Coefficients
Instead of drawing a scattergram a correlation can be expressed numerically as a coefficient, ranging from -1 to +1. When working with continuous variables, the correlation coefficient to use is Pearson's r.
The correlation coefficient (r) indicates the extent to which the pairs of numbers for these two variables lie on a straight line. Values over zero indicate a positive correlation, while values under zero indicate a negative correlation.
Strong
«0 6
■ -OA
Strength of correlation
-0.9
-0.7
Weak
-0.1
+0.1
+0.9
+0.8
+0.3
-0.2
Differences between experiments and correlations
An experiment isolates and manipulates the independent variable to observe its effect on the dependent variable, and controls the environment in order that extraneous variables may be eliminated. Experiments establish cause and effect.
A correlation identifies variables and looks for a relationship between them.
An experiment tests the effect that an independent variable has upon a dependent variable but a correlation looks for a relationship between two variables.
This means that the experiment can predict cause and effect (causation) but a correlation can only predict a relationship, as another extraneous variable may be involved that it not known about.
Strengths of correlations

1.     Correlation allows the researcher to investigate naturally occurring variables that
maybe unethical or impractical to test experimentally. For example, it would be unethical to conduct an experiment on whether smoking causes lung cancer.

2.     Correlation allows the researcher to clearly and easily see if there is a
relationship between variables. This can then be displayed in a graphical form.
Limitations of correlations

1.     Correlation is not and cannot be taken to imply causation. Even if there is a very
strong association between two variables, we cannot assume that one causes the other. For example, suppose we found a positive correlation between watching violence on TV and violent behavior in adolescence. It could be that the cause of both these is a third (extraneous) variable say for example, growing up in a violent home - and that both the watching of T.V. and the violent behavior are the outcome of this.

2.    Correlation does not allow us to go beyond the data that is given. For example,
suppose it was found that there was an association between time spent on homework (1/2 hour to 3 hours) and number of passes (1 to 6). It would not be legitimate to infer from this that spending 6 hours on homework would be likely to generate 12 passes.
SELF- CHECK EXERCISE-1
Q.1 What is the primary purpose of a correlational study?

A)    Establishing causation between variables

B)    Describing a single case in detail

C)    Examining the relationship between variables

D)    Conducting experiments
Q.2 Which of the following statements is true about correlational studies?

A)    They can determine cause and effect

B)    They are primarily qualitative

C)    They use statistical techniques to measure associations

D)    They only focus on a single subject or event

2.4 CASE STUDY METHOD
Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community Typically, data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews) The research may also continue for an extended period of time, so processes and developments can be studied as they happen.
The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, Le. the patient's personal history).
The case study method often involves simply observing what happens to, or reconstructing 'the case history' of a single participant or group of individuals (such as a school class or a specific social group), i.e. the idiographic approach. Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants with the aim of 'averaging'.
The case study is not itself a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies. Amongst the sources of data the psychologist is likely to turn to when carrying out a case study are observations of a person's daily routine, unstructured interviews with the participant herself (and with people who know her), diaries, personal notes (e.g. letters, photographs, notes) or official document (e.g. case notes, clinical notes, appraisal reports). Most of this information is likely to be qualitative (i.e. verbal description rather than measurement) but the psychologist might collect numerical data as well.
The data collected can be analyzed using different theories (e.g. grounded theory, interpretative phenomenological analysis, text interpretation, e.g. thematic coding) etc. All the approaches mentioned here use preconceived categories in the analysis and they are ideographic in their approach, i.e., they focus on the individual case without reference to a comparison group.
Case studies are widely used in psychology and amongst the best known were the ones carried out by Sigmund Freud. He conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.
Freud's most famous case studies include Little Hans (1909a) and The Rat Man (1909b). Even today case histories are one of the main methods of investigation in abnormal psychology and psychiatry. For students of these disciplines, they can give a vivid insight into what those who suffer from mental illness often have to endure.
Case studies are often conducted in clinical medicine and involve collecting and reporting descriptive information about a particular person or specific environment, such as a school in psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual. The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual's past (i.e. retrospective), as well as to significant events which are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.
In order to produce a fairly detailed and comprehensive profile of the person, the psychologist may use various types of accessible data, such as medical records, employer's reports, school reports or psychological test results. The interview is also an extremely effective procedure obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person's friends, parents, employer, work mates and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.
This makes clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist, therapist or psychiatrist, i.e. someone with a professional qualification. There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (ie. abnormal) behaviour or atypical development.
The procedure used in a case study means that the researcher provides a description of the behaviour. This comes from interviews and other sources, such as observation. The also detail of events from his or her point of view. The researcher then writes up the information from both sources above as the case study, and interprets the information.
Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always make clear which information is factual description and which is an inference or the opinion of the researcher.
Steps in case study
Case study research is a qualitative method that involves a detailed, in-depth examination of a specific subject, event, or phenomenon within its real-life context. Here are the key steps typically involved in conducting a case study:

1.    Selecting the Case: The first step is to select a case that is relevant to the research objectives. Cases can range from individuals to groups, organizations, events, or even communities. The selection should be guided by the research questions and the need to gain a deeper understanding of the subject under investigation.

2.    Defining the Research Questions: Clear and specific research questions or objectives should be defined to guide the case study. These questions help focus the study and ensure that relevant data is collected to address specific aspects of the case.

3.    Collecting Data: Data collection in case study research is comprehensive and multifaceted. Researchers typically use multiple methods such as interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts related to the case. Each method provides different perspectives and insights into the case, contributing to a rich and nuanced understanding.

4.    Analyzing the Data: Once data is collected, it is systematically analyzed to identify patterns, themes, and relationships relevant to the research questions. Analysis in case study research often involves coding qualitative data, comparing and contrasting information across different sources, and developing theoretical frameworks or models that explain the findings.

5.    Interpreting the Findings: Data interpretation involves making sense of the analyzed data in relation to the research questions. Researchers critically examine the findings to draw conclusions and generate insights that contribute to theoretical understanding or practical applications within the field of study.

6.    Writing the Case Study Report: The case study report is structured to present a coherent narrative of the research process and findings. It typically includes an introduction that sets the context and outlines the research questions, a literature review
to position the study within existing knowledge, a detailed description of methods used for data collection and analysis, findings presented with supporting evidence, and conclusions that summarize key insights and their implications.

7.    Drawing Generalizations (if applicable): Depending on the scope and purpose of the case study, researchers may discuss broader implications or generalizations that can be drawn from the findings. While case studies are often context-specific and do not aim for generalizability in the traditional sense, they can provide insights and theoretical frameworks that are applicable to similar contexts or settings.

8.    Ensuring Validity and Reliability: Validity and reliability in case study research are ensured through rigorous methods in data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Researchers use techniques such as triangulation (using multiple data sources or methods) and member checking (seeking feedback from participants) to enhance the credibility and trustworthiness of the findings.

9.    Peer Review and Revision: Before finalizing the case study report, researchers may seek feedback from peers, advisors, or experts in the field. Peer review helps validate the findings and ensures that the report is clear, accurate, and contributes effectively to the body of knowledge in the research area.

10.    Disseminating Findings: Finally, researchers disseminate case study findings through academic publications, conference presentations, or other relevant channels. Dissemination of findings contributes to scholarly discourse and may inform practice, policy-making, or further research within the field.
By following these steps, case study research provides a rigorous and systematic approach to investigating complex phenomena within their natural settings, offering valuable insights and contributing to advancements in knowledge and understanding.
STRENGTHS OF CASE STUDIES

•    Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.

•    Provides insight for further research.

•    Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.
Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behaviour that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways. Research that only looks into the measurable aspects of human behaviour is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension to experience which is so important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.
Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating the ones and can help show how different aspects of a person's life are related to each other. The method is therefore important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e. humanistic psychologists).
LIMITATIONS OF CASE STUDIES

•     Can't generalize the results to the wider population.

•     Researchers' own subjective feeling may influence the case study (researcher
bias).

•      Difficult to replicate.

•    Time consuming.
Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group we can never be sure whether the conclusions drawn from this particular case apply elsewhere. The results of the study are not generalizable because we can never know whether the case we have investigated is representative of the wider body of "similar" instances
Because they are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e. descriptive) data a lot depends on the interpretation the psychologist places on the information she has acquired. This means that there is a lot of scope for observer bias and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.
SELF- CHECK EXERCISE-2
Q.1 What is a key characteristic of the case study method?

A)    It uses large samples to generalize findings

B)    It involves in-depth, detailed examination of a specific case

C)    It primarily focuses on quantitative data

D)    It establishes causal relationships
Q.2 In which scenario is the case study method most useful?

A)    When studying the relationship between two variables

B)    When needing to generalize findings to a larger population

C)    When exploring complex issues within a real-life context

D)    When conducting a survey on a large group of people

2.5    SUMMARY
In summary, correlational studies focus on examining relationships between variables using statistical measures, without implying causation. They are valuable for identifying patterns and predicting associations in research.
On the other hand, the case study method involves a detailed investigation of a specific subject, event, or phenomenon within its real-life context. It provides comprehensive insights through qualitative data collection and analysis, offering in-depth understanding of complex issues.
Both methods contribute uniquely to research: correlational studies provide broad insights into relationships, while case studies offer detailed examinations of specific cases. Together, they enrich our understanding of diverse phenomena and contribute to advancements in knowledge and practice within their respective fields of study.

2.6    GLOSSARY

1.    Correlation: A statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two or more variables fluctuate together. It does not imply causation but helps in understanding relationships.

2.    Case Study: An in-depth, detailed examination of a specific subject, event, or phenomenon within its real-life context.

2.7    ANSWERS TO SELF- CHECK EXERCISE
Exercise-1
Answer 1. C) examining the relationship between variables
Answer2. C) they use statistical techniques to measure associations
Exercise-2
Answer 1. B) it involves in-depth, detailed examination of a specific case
Answer 2. C) when exploring complex issues within a real-life context

2.8    REFERENCES / SUGGESTED READINGS

•    Best, J.W and J.V.Kahn, Research in Education (7th Ed.) New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt Ltd.1998

•    Sanswal, N.D. (2020). Research Methodology and Applied Statistics. (1st ed.). Shipra Publications.

•     Kaul, L. (2009). Methodology of Educational Research. (4th ed.). Vikas Publishing
House Private Limited.

2.9    TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q1. What does a correlation coefficient (such as Pearson's r) measure in a correlational study? Provide an example.
Q2. Briefly explain why correlational studies cannot establish causation between variables.
Q3. Describe the steps involved in conducting a case study. Discuss the importance of selecting an appropriate case.
UNIT- 3
HISTORICAL RESEARCH-I
Structure

3.1    Introduction

3.2    Learning Objectives

3.3   Meaning, Nature and importance of Historical Research
Self- check Exercise-1

3.4    Steps in Historical Research
Self- check Exercise-2

3.5  Summary

3.6   Glossary

3.7    Answers to self- check Exercise

3.8   References / Suggested Readings

3.9   Terminal Questions

3.1   INTRODUCTION:
History usually refers simply to an account of the past of human societies. It is the study of what "can be known... (to the historian). through the surviving record." Gottschalk referred to this as 'history as a record'. He further stated that "The process of critically examining and analysing the records and survivals of the past is... called historical method. The imaginative reconstruction of the past from the data derived by that process is called historiography (the writing of history)".

3.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:

•     Define the meaning of historical research, its purpose and characteristics, scope
and approaches to the study of history

•      Explain the steps of historical research.

•     State the Weaknesses to be avoided in Historical Research.

3.3    MEANING, NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Historical research has been defined as the systematic and objective location, evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions about past events. It involves a critical inquiry of a previous age with the aim of reconstructing a faithful representation of the past. In historical research, the investigator studies documents and other sources that contain facts concerning the research theme with the objective of achieving a better understanding of present policies, practices, problems and institutions. An attempt is made to examine past events or combinations of events and establish facts in order to arrive at conclusions concerning past events or predict future events. Historical research is a type of analytical research. Its common methodological characteristics include (i) identifying a research topic that addresses past events, (ii) review of primary and secondary data, (ii) systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related to past occurrences with the help of techniques of criticism for historical searches and evaluation of the information and (iv) synthesis and explanation of findings in order to test hypotheses concerning causes, effects or trends of these events that may help to explain present events and anticipate future events. Historical studies attempt to provide information and understanding of past historical, legal and policy events. The historical method consists of the techniques and guidelines by which historians use historical sources and other evidence to research and then write history.
Scope of Historical Research in education:

1.     General educational history of specific periods such as (a) ancient India, (b) A
during British rule, (c) Independent India etc.

2.     History of specific levels of education (a) primary education, (b) secondary
education, (c) tertiary education etc. in India.

3.     History of specific types of education such as (a) adult education, (b) distance
education, (c) disadvantaged education, (d) women's education in India.

4.     Historical study of specific educational institutions such as (1) University of
Mumbai, (ii) Aligarh Muslim University and so on.

5.     History of the role of the teacher in ancient India.

6.     History of specific components of education such as (a) curriculum, (b)
textbooks,   (c) teaching-learning methods, (d) aims and objectives of education, (e)
teacher-     student relationships, (f) evaluation process and so on.

7.     History of national education policies in India.

8.     History of admission processes in professional/technical courses (medicine,
engineering, management) in India.

9.     History of teacher education.

10.    Historical biographies of major contributors to education such as Mahatma Gandhi, Maharshi Karve, Maharshi Phule, Shri Aurobindo, Gurudev Tagore and so on.

11.    History of educational administration.

12.    History of public financing of education.

13.    History of educational legislation in India

14.    History of educational planning.

15.    History of contemporary problems in India.

16.    Historical study of the relationship between politics and education in India.

17.    Historical study of the impact of the British rule in India.

18.    Comparative history of education in India and some other country/countries.

19.    Historical study of the system of state-sponsored inspection in India.

20.   Historical study of education in specific Indian states such as Maharashtra, Tamil
Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan etc.
In other words, historical research in education may be concerned with an individual, a group, an idea a movement or an institution. If a historical study focuses on an entire country/society/system, i.e., if it is broad in scope, it is said to be a macro-level historical research. On the other hand, if its focus is narrow and includes a selective set of people or events of interest, it is said to be a micro-level historical research.
Approaches to the study of history:
According to Monaghan and Hartman, there are four major approaches to the study of the past:
Qualitative Approach:
This is what most laypersons think of as history the search for a story inferred from a range of written or printed evidence. The resultant history is organized chronologically and presented as a factual tale: a tale of a person who created reading textbooks, such as a biography of William Holmes McGuffey (Sullivan, 1994) or the Lindley Murray family (Monaghan, 1998) in the Western context. The sources of qualitative history range from manuscripts such as account books, school records, marginalia, letters, diaries and memoirs to imprints such as textbooks, children's books, journals, and other books of the period under consideration.
Quantitative Approach:
Here, rather than relying on "history by quotation," as the former approach has been negatively called, researchers intentionally look for evidence that lends itself to being counted and that is therefore presumed to have superior validity and generalisability. Researchers have sought to estimate the popularity of a particular textbook by tabulating the numbers printed, based on copyright records. The assumption is that broader questions such as the relationship between education and the political system in India or between textbooks and their influence on children can thus be addressed more authoritatively.
Content Analysis:
Here the text itself is the focus of examination. This approach uses published works as its data (in the case of the history of textbooks, these might be readers or examples of the changing contents of school textbooks in successive editions) and subjects them to a careful analysis that usually includes both quantitative and qualitative aspects. Content analysis has been particularly useful in Investigating constructs such as race, caste, etc.
Oral History:
Qualitative, quantitative, and content approaches use written or printed text as their database. In contrast, the fourth approach, oral history, turns to living memory. For instance, oral historians interested in women's education could ask their respondents about their early experiences and efforts in women's education.
These four approaches are not, of course, mutually exclusive. Indeed, historians avail themselves of as many of these as their question, topic, and time period permit. This
integration is possible because the nature of historical research cuts across a variety of approaches, all of which commence with the recognition of a topic and the framing of a question In other words, a historical study may be quantitative in nature, qualitative in nature or a combination of the approaches. Its purpose can be mainly descriptive, aiming to understand some specific development in a particular period of time in a particular culture; or it could be explanatory, trying to test and accept / reject widely held assumptions
A historical investigation is conducted with objectivity and the desire to minimize bias, distortion and prejudice. Thus, it is similar to descriptive method of research in this aspect. Besides, it aims at describing all aspects of the particular situation under study (or all that is accessible) in its search for the truth. Thus, it is holistic, comprehensive in nature and is similar to the interpretive approach.
Though it is not empirical in nature (it does not collect data through direct observation or experimentation), it does make use of reports (all the available written and/or oral material), and it definitely qualifies to be a scientific activity: This is because it requires scholarship to conduct a systematic and objective study and evaluation and synthesis of evidence so as to arrive at conclusions. In other words, historical research is scientific in nature.
Moreover, any competent researcher in other types of empirical studies reviews the related literature so as to find out prior research and theoretical work done on a particular topic. This requires studying journals, books, encyclopaedias, unpublished theses and so on. This is followed by an interpretation of their significance.
These steps are common to empirical research and historical research i.e., to some extent, every researcher makes use of the historical method in his/her research However, it should be mentioned here that historical researchers in education "discovers already existing data from a wide range of historical sources such as documents, relics autobiographies, diaries or photographs. On the other hand, in other types of educational studies, the researcher "creates data through observations, measurement through tests and experimentation. To this extent, historical research differs from descriptive and experimental research.
The purpose of Historical Research:
Conducting historical research in education can serve several purposes as follows:

1.     It enables educationists to find out solutions to contemporary problems which
have their roots in the past i.e., it serves the purpose of bringing about reforms in education. The work of a historical researcher sometimes sensitizes educators to unjust or misguided practices in the past which may have unknowingly continued into the present and require reform. A historical researcher studies the past with a detached perspective and without any ego involvement with the past practices. Hence it could be easier for educationists to identify misguided practices thus enabling them to bring about reforms.

2.     It throws light on present trends and can help in predicting future trends. If we
understand how an educationist or a group of educationists acted in the past, we can predict how they will act in future. Similarly, studying the past enables a researcher to understand the factors/causes affecting present trends, in order to make such future predictions reliable and trustworthy, the historical researcher needs to identify and clearly describe in which ways the past differs from the present context and how the present social, economic and political situations and policies could have an impact on the present and the future.

3.     It enables a researcher to re-evaluate data in relation to selected hypotheses,
theories and generalizations that are presently held about the past.

4.     It emphasizes and analyzes the relative importance and the effect of the various
interactions in the prevailing cultures.

5.     It enables us to understand how and why educational theories and practices
developed.
Characteristics/Importance of Historical Research
These are as follows:

1.     It is not a mere accumulation of facts and data or even a portrayal of past events.

2.     It is a flowing, vibrant report of past events that involves analysis and explanation
of these occurrences with the objective of recapturing the nuances, personalities and ideas that influenced these events.

3.     Conducting historical research involves the process of collecting and reading the
research material collected and writing the manuscript from the data collected. The
researcher often goes back and forth between collecting, reading, and writing. i.e., the process of data collection and analysis are done simultaneously and are not two distinct phases of research.

4.     It deals with the discovery of data that already exists and does not involve the
creation of data using structured tools.

5.      It is analytical in that it uses logical induction.

6.     It has a variety of foci such as issues, events, movements and concepts.

7.     It records and evaluates the accomplishments of individuals, agencies or
institutions.
SELF- CHECK EXERCISE-1
Q1. Which of the following is NOT typically considered a primary source in historical research?

a)    Letters and diaries

b)    Photographs and artifacts

c)    Official records

d)    Academic books and articles
Q2. In historical research, what is the purpose of establishing a chronological framework?

a)    To identify biases in primary sources

b)    To understand the sequence and cause-and-effect relationships of events

c)    To gather multiple viewpoints on a topic

d)    To categorize sources into primary and secondary

3.4 STEPS IN HISTORICAL RESEARCH:
The essential steps involved in conducting historical research are as follows:

A.    Identify a topic/subject and define the problems/questions to be investigated

B.    Search for sources of data
C.    Evaluate the historical sources.

D.    Analyze, synthesize and summarize interpreting the data/information.

E.    Write the research report.
Since most historical studies are largely qualitative in nature, the search for sources of data, evaluating, analyzing, synthesizing and summarizing information and interpreting the findings may not always be discreet, separate sequential steps ie the sequence of steps in historical research is flexible. Let us now look at each of these steps in detail.

A.    Identify a Topic and Define the Problem
According to Borg, "In historical research, it is especially important that the student carefully defines his problem and appraises its appropriateness before committing himself too fully. Many problems are not adaptable to historical research methods and cannot be adequately treated using this approach. Other problems have little or no chance of producing significant results either because of the lack of pertinent data or because the problem is a trivial one.
Beach has classified the problems that prompt historical inquiry into five types:

1.    Current social issues are the most popular source of historical problems in education e.g., Rural education, adult and continuing education, positive discrimination in education etc.

2.    Histories of specific individuals, histories of specific educational institutions and histories of educational movements. These studies are often conducted with "the simple desire to acquire knowledge about previously unexamined phenomena".

3.    A historical study of interpreting ideas or events that previously had seemed unrelated. For example, the history of educational financing and the history of the aims of education in India may be unrelated. But a person reviewing these two researches separately may detect some relationship between the two histories and design a study to understand this relationship.

4.    A historical study aimed at synthesizing old data or merges them with new historical facts discovered by the researcher.

5.    A historical inquiry involving reinterpretation of past events that have been studied by other historical researchers. This is known as revisionist history. On the other hand, in order to identify a significant research problem, Gottschalk recommends that four questions should be asked:

(i)    Where do the events take place?

(ii)    Who are the persons involved?

(iii)    When do the events occur?

(iv)    What kinds of human activity are involved?
The scope of the study can be determined on the basis of the extent of emphasis placed on the four questions identified by Gottschalk ie. the geographical area included, the number of persons involved, the time span included and the number and kinds of human activities involved often, the exact scope and delimitation of a study is decided by a researcher only after the relevant material has been obtained. The selection of a topic in historical research depends on several personal factors of the researcher such as his/her motivation, Interest, historical knowledge curiosity ability to interpret historical facts and so on. If the problem selected involves understanding an event, an institution, a person, or a past period, more clearly, it should be taken up for research.
The topic selected should be defined in terms of the types of written materials and other resources available to you. This should be followed by formulating a specific and testable hypothesis or a series of research questions if required. This will provide a clear focus and direction to data collection, analysis and interpretation i.e. it provides a structure to the study.
According to Borg, without hypotheses, historical research often becomes little more than an aimless gathering of facts.

B.    Search for Sources of Data
Historical research is not empirical in that it does not include direct observation of events or persons. Here, the researcher interprets past events on the basis of traces they have left. He uses the evidence of past acts and thoughts. Thus, he/she does not use his/her own observation but on other people's observations. The researcher's job here is to test the truthfulness of the reports of other people's observations. These observations are obtained from several sources of historical data. Let us now try to discuss various sources of historical data.
Sources of Historical Data
These sources are broadly classified into two types:

( a) Primary Sources: Gottschalk defines a primary data source as "the testimony of any eye witness, or of a witness by any other of the senses, or of a mechanical device like the Dictaphone - that is, of one who was present at the events of which he tells. A
primary source must thus have been produced by a contemporary of the events it narrates. In other words, primary sources are tangible materials that provide a description of a historical event and were produced shortly after the event happened. They have a direct physical relationship to the event being studied. Examples of primary sources include new paper reports, letters, public documents, court decisions, personal diaries, autobiographies, artefacts and eyewitness's verbal accounts. These primary sources of data can be divided into two broad categories as follows:

(i)    The remains or relics of a given historical period. These could include photographs, coins, skeletons, fossils, tools, weapons, utensils, furniture, buildings and pieces of art and culture. Though these were not originally meant for transmitting information to future generations they could prove very useful sources in providing reliable and sound evidence about the past. Most of these relics provide non-verbal information.

(ii)    Those objects that have a direct physical relationship with the events being reconstructed. This includes documents such as laws, files, letters, manuscripts, government resolutions, charters, memoranda, wills, newspapers, magazines, journals, films, government or other official publications, maps, charts, log-books, catalogues, research reports, the record of minutes of meetings, recording, inscriptions, transcriptions and so on.

( b) Secondary Sources: A secondary source is one in which the eyewitness or the participant i.e., the person describing the event was not actually present but obtained his/her descriptions or narrations from another person or source. This other person may or may not be a primary source. Secondary sources, thus, do not have a direct physical relationship with the event being studied. They include data that are not original. Examples of secondary sources include textbooks, biographies, encyclopaedias, reference books, replicas of art objects and paintings and so on. It is possible that secondary sources contain errors due to the passing of information from one source to another. These errors could get multiplied when the information passes through many sources thereby resulting in an error of great magnitude in the final data. Thus, wherever possible, the researcher should try to use primary sources of data. However, that does not reduce the value of secondary sources.
In conclusion, the various sources of historical information both primary and secondary can be summarized as follows:
It must be mentioned here that the branch of historical research using all or some types of oral records is known as oral history. It should also be mentioned here that some objects can be classified as documents or relics depending on the how they are used in a historical study. For example, in a research study on how a historical figure (a politician, a freedom fighter or a social reformer) is presented in textbooks of different periods, the textbook will be classified as a document as the emphasis here is on analysing its content matter given in a verbal form. On the other hand, in a research study on printing methods in the past, the textbook can be used as a relic as the focus here is not on analysing its contents but on its physical, outward characteristics or features.
Sources of Historical Information

•     Documents Quantitative Oral Records Relics (written/printed) Records (Spoken
words) (Physical or Visual objects)

•     diaries-School budgets - Ballads - School Buildings

•     memoirs Student attendance - Tales - School Furniture

•     notebooks records - Saga - Textbooks

•     yearbooks Staff attendance - Oral interviews - Pictures

•     memos records of eyewitnesses - Drawings

•     logbooks - Student's marks and participants - Architectural

•     laws-School results Plans

•     Court testimony - Financial statements - Instructional

•     Committee reports - Census records Aids

•    Government
Searching for Historical Data
The procedure of searching for historical data should be systematic and pre-planned the researcher should know what information he needs so as to identify important sources of data and provide a direction to his search for relevant data Using his knowledge, imagination and resourcefulness, he needs to explore the kinds of data required, persons involved, institutions involved. This will help him to identify the kinds of records
he requires and whom he should interview. Since historical research is mainly qualitative in nature all the primary and secondary sources cannot be identified in advance. It is possible that as one collects some data, analyses and interprets it, the need for further pertinent data may arise depending on the interpretive framework. This will enable him to identify other primary or secondary sources of data.
The search for sources of data begins with wide reading of preliminary sources including published bibliographies, biographies, atlas, specialized chronologies, dictionaries of quotations and terms. Good university and college libraries tend to have a great deal of such preliminary materials This will enable a researcher to identify valuable secondary sources on the topic being studied such books on history relating to one's topic. For extensive materials on a subject, the researcher may need to go to a large research library or a library with extensive holdings on a specific subject. Such secondary materials could include other historian's conclusions and interpretations, historical information, references to other secondary and primary sources. The historical researcher needs to evaluate the secondary sources for their validity and authenticity. Now the researcher should turn his attention to the primary sources. These are usually available in the institution or the archives especially if the source concerns data pertaining to distant past or data pertaining to events in which the chief witnesses are either dead or inaccessible. In case of data concerning the recent past, the researcher can contact witnesses or participants themselves in order to interview them and/or study the documents possessed by them. However, it is not possible for a historical researcher to examine all the material available. Selecting the best sources of data is important in a historical study. In a historical study the complete "population" of available data can never be obtained or known.
Hence the sample of materials examined must always be a purposive one. What it represents and what it fails to represent should be considered. The researcher needs to identify and use a sample that should be representative enough for wider generalization.

C.    Evaluation of the Historical Sources
The data of historical sources is subject to two types of evaluation. These two types are (i) external evaluation or criticism and (ii) internal evaluation or criticism. Let us now look at these in detail.

(i ) External Criticism of Data:
This is sometimes also known as lower criticism of data. External criticism regards the issue of authenticity of the data from the psychological attitude of the researcher in that it is primarily concerned with the question, is the source of data genuine? External criticism seeks to determine whether the document or the artefact that the researcher is studying is genuinely valid primary data. It is possible to get counterfeit documents or artefacts. External criticism of the sources of data is of paramount importance in establishing the credibility of the research. Although, theoretically, the main purpose of external criticism is the establishment of historical truth, in reality, its actual operation is chiefly restricted to the negative role i.e. to identify and expose forgeries, frauds, hoaxes desertions and counterfeits. In order to identify such forgeries, the researcher needs to look at problems pertaining to plagiarism, alterations of documents, insertions, deletions or unintentional omissions. This will reveal whether the historical source of data is authentic or not. Establishing the authenticity of documents may involve carbon dating handwriting analysis, identification of ink and paper, vocabulary usage, signatures, script, spelling, names of places writing style and other considerations. In other words, it examines the document and its external features rather than the statements it contains. It tries to determine whether (a) the information it contains was available at the time the document was written. (b) This information is consistent with what is known about the author or the period from another source?
In other words, external criticism is aimed at answering questions about the nature of the historical source such as who wrote it? Where? When? Under which circumstances? Is it original? Is it genuine? And so on.

ii)    Internal Criticism of Data:
Having established the authenticity of the source of historical data, the researcher now focuses his/her attention on the accuracy and worth of the data contained in the document. Internal criticism is concerned with the meaning of the written material. It is also known as higher criticism of data. It deals with answering questions such as what
does it mean? What was the author attempting to say? What thought was the author trying to convey? Is it possible that people would act in the way described in the document? Is it possible that the events described occurred so quickly? What inferences or interpretations could be extracted from these words? Do the financial data/figures mentioned in the document seem reasonable for that period in the past? What does the decision of a court mean? What do the words of the decision convey regarding the intent and the will of the count? Is there any (unintended) misinformation given in the document? Is there any evidence of deception? And so, on here, the researcher needs to be very cautious so that he does not reject a statement only because the event described in the document appears to be improbable.
In addition to answering these questions, internal criticism should also include establishing the credibility of the author of the document. According to Travers, the following questions could be answered so as to establish the author's credibility: Was he a trained or untrained observer of the event? ie. How competent was he? What was his relationship to the event? To what extent was he under pressure, from fear or vanity resulting in distortion or omission of facts? What was the intent of the writer of the document? To what extent was he an expert at recording the particular event? Were the habits of the author such that they might interfere with the accuracy of recording? Was he too antagonistic or too sympathetic to give a true picture? How long after the event did, he record his testimony? Was he able to remember accurately? Is he in agreement with other independent witnesses? These questions need to be answered for two reasons:

i)    Perceptions are individualized and selective Even if eyewitnesses are competent and truthful, they could still record different descriptions of the events they witnessed or experienced.

ii)    Research studies in Psychology indicate that eyewitnesses can be very unreliable, especially if they are emotionally aroused or under stress at the time of the event. (e.g., at the time of the demolition of Babri Masjid or at the time of Gujarat riots in 2002.
This brings us to the question of bias especially when life histories or communal situations are being studied. According to Plummer, there are three possible sources of bias as follows:
Source One: The Life History Informant
Is misinformation (unintended) given?
Has there been evasion?
Is there evidence of direct lying and deception?
Is a 'front' being presented?
What may the informant 'take for granted' and hence not reveal?
How far is the informant 'pleasing you'?
How much has been forgotten?
How much may be self-deception?
Source Two: The Social Scientist Research
Could any of the following be shaping the outcome?

(a)    Attitudes of researcher: age, gender, class, race etc.

(b)    Demeanour of researcher: dress, speech, body language etc.

(c)    Personality of researcher: anxiety, need for approval, hostility, warmth etc.

(d)    Attitudes researcher: religion, politics, tolerance, general assumptions

(e)    Scientific role of researcher: theory held etc. (researcher expectancy)
Source Three: The Interaction
The joint act needs to be examined. Is bias coming from?

(a)    The physical setting-'social' space

(b)    The prior interaction?

(c)   Non-verbal communication?

(d)   Vocal behaviour?
Often, internal and external criticism are interdependent and complementary processes. The internal and external criticism of data requires a high level of scholarship.

D.    Analysis, Synthesis, Summarizing and Interpretation of Data:
We have seen how data can be located and evaluated. Let us now look at how to collect and control the data so that the greatest return from the innumerable hours spent in archives, document rooms and libraries can be reaped. The researcher should not
only learn how to take notes but also learn how to organize the various notes, note cards, bibliography cards and memoranda so as to derive useful and meaningful facts for interpretation. Hence before beginning historical research, the researcher should have a specific and systematic plan for the acquisition, organization, storage and retrieval of the data. Following are some suggestions that may help you in systematizing your research efforts.

(i)    Note cards and Bibliography Cards:
It would be convenient for you to prepare bibliography cards of size 3×5 inches for taking down bibliographical notes. A bibliography card is valuable not only for gathering and recording of information but also for locating it again at a future date, if necessary, without going back to the library again and again. Such a card contains the essential information concerning a bibliographical source. Keep plenty of such cards with you when you go to the library so that you can report very valuable references encountered unexpectedly. You can also note down the document's relation to your research. A sample of a bibliographic reference card could be as follows:
Serial No. __________ Author(s) : ____________
Title of the Document: _________________________
Name of the Journal: __________________________
Vol. ________ No. ______ Month ________ Year ______ Page No.(s) _______
Place of publication, Name of Publisher, Edition, Year, Page (in case of a book:
Library where information is obtained: ___________________________
Call No. _______________________
Source of bibliographic information: _____________________________
How is it related to the research topic: ___________________________
Additional Comments, if any: __________________________________
You can ideally have two copies of such a bibliographic card. One copy can be arranged according to the authors' names alphabetically whereas the other copy can be arranged as per serial number of the card. On the other hand, a note card can be of size 4×6 or 5x7 inches for substantive notes. It is advisable to place only one item of information on each card. Each card can be given a code so as to indicate the place /
question/theme/period/person to which the note relates. These cards then can be arranged as per the question, theme, period, place or person under study so as to make analysis easier In other words, note cards can be kept in multiple copies (e.g. in triplicate or quadruplicate) depending on the ultimate analysis of the data. Given here is a sample note card. In this card, one can mention the bibliography card no which can be referred to for further information it required. The reverse of the card can be used if the space is found to be insufficient for necessary information.

(ii)    Summary of Quantitative Data:
Usually, historical studies are chiefly qualitative in nature since the data obtained includes verbal and/or symbolic material from an institution, society or culture's past. However, when the study involves quantitative data pertaining to past events, you need to think carefully about the relevance of the data to your research. This is because recording and analysis of quantitative data is time-consuming and sometimes expensive. Examples of quantitative data in historical research include records of students' and teachers' attendance rates, examination results, finances etc.
Main Heading: ______________________________________________ Sub-Heading: _______________________________________________ Card No. _________ Source __________: Author : ________________
Year: _________ pp._________ Title :_______ Bibliography card No. ____________
Information such as budgets, income and expenditure statements, salaries, fees and so on. Content analysis is one of the methods involving quantitative data. The basic goal of content analysis is to take a verbal, non-quantitative document and transform it into quantitative data.

(iii)    Interpretation of Historical Data:
Once the researcher establishes the validity and authenticity of data, interpretation of the facts in the light of the topic of research is necessary. This step requires caution, imagination, ingenuity, insight and scholarliness. The scientific status of his study depends on these characteristics. The researcher needs to be aware of his/her biases, values, prejudices and interests as these could influence the analysis and interpretation of the data as well as the perceptions of the researcher. He needs to make sense of the multitude of data gathered which generally involves a synthesis of data in relation to a
hypothesis question or theory rather than mere accumulation or summarization. In doing so, he/she should avoid biases and unduly projecting his / her own personality onto the data. The data should be fitted into a logically parsimonious structure. The researcher should be clear about the interpretative framework so as to become sensitive towards bias in other historical researchers' interpretations who have conducted research on the same or similar topics.
In historical research, 'causes' are in the form of antecedents or precipitating factors. They are not 'causes' in the strictly scientific sense. Such antecedents are always complex and hence the researcher should avoid oversimplification while interpreting them.
Past events are mainly in the form of human behaviour. Therefore 'causes' in historical research could be interpreted in terms of the motives of the participants involved. The researcher needs to identify the motives of the people involved in the event under study while interpreting the data. These motives may be multiple in natures and interact with each other. This makes interpretation of the data a difficult task. For example, a new government decides to change the prevalent textbooks. The motives here could be many such as its political ideology does not match the prevalent textbooks, it had a personal grudge against the authors of the prevalent textbooks or the ministers concerned wanted to derive personal glory out of his actions. These reasons may influence each other making the task of interpretation of data difficult.
Historical researchers can make use of concepts from other social and behavioural science disciplines in analyzingand interpreting data. Some examples of such concepts may be bureaucracy, role, institution (from sociology), leadership, institutional effectiveness (From management), culture (from anthropology), motive, personality attitude etc. (from psychology) and so on. The researcher also can make use of the concepts of historical time and historical space white interpreting the data.
The concept of historical time makes use of a chronology of events. ie the researcher needs to identify the chain of events (chronology) of substantive history and then try to understand the meaning of these events, the relationship among the events and the relationship of the events to the research topic. The researcher is studying more than
one of the chronological data within the same time frame may gain increased insight into multiple events and their causes.
The concept of historical space deals with 'where' the event originated, spread or culminated. This could provide a different insight into the meaning of the data. The historical researcher can also use analogy as a source of hypothesis or as a frame of reference for interpretation i.e. He/she can draw parallels between one historical event and other events. Here, one has to be aware of similarities, differences as well as exceptions while comparing two historical events, otherwise, such an extrapolation will be unreliable Also, it is risky to interpret an event by comparing another event in another culture at another time.
iv) Making Inferences and Generalizations in Historical Research:
In order to identify and explain the cause of a historical event, the researcher must be aware of his/her assumptions which are then used in ascribing causation to subsequent events. Some examples of such assumptions could include (i) history repeats or (ii) historical events are unique. The researcher must make clear whether his/her analysis is based on the former assumption or the latter.
Some examples of 'causes of historical events identified in prior researches include (1) strong ideology (e.g. Maharshi Karve's ideology of women's education) (ii) actions of certain key persons (e.g. Mohamed Ali Jinnah's actions for India's partition), (iii) Advances in Science in technology (e.g. use of computers in education), (iv) economic/ geographical/psychological /sociological factors or a combination of all these (e.g. privatization of education) etc.
The historian's objective is not only to establish facts but also to determine trends in the data and causes of events leading to generalizations i.e. he/she needs to synthesize and interpret and not merely summarize the data. These data, as in other types of researches, are obtained not from the entire population of persons, settings, events or objects pertaining to the topic, but from a small sample. Moreover, this sample is selected from the remains of the past. It cannot be selected from the entire population of documents or relics that existed during the period under study. Such remains may not be representative. This necessitates a very careful and cautious approach in locating consistency in different documents and relics while making generalizations. Also, the
researcher should not rely on only one document pertaining to an individual from the past while making a generalization as it will not be known whether the individual held a particular opinion about an educational issue consistently or had changed it over a period of time. If he had changed his opinion, the researcher must find out when and how it was changed, under what conditions and what the consequences were. This makes it imperative that the researcher uses as many primary and secondary sources as possible on a topic. If the evidence is limited, he needs restrict the generalizability of his interpretations to that extent.

E.    Writing the Research Report:
This task involves the highest level of scholarship. In historical research, data collection is flexible. Besides, due to the relative lack of conclusive evidence on which valid generalizations can be established, the writing of historical research has to be a little freer so as to allow subjective interpretation of the data. (This by no means implies distortion of truth). Thus, reports of historical research have no standard formats. The presentation of data analysis, interpretations and findings depends on the nature of the problem. There are several broad ways of reporting historical investigation as follows: i)     The researcher can report the historical facts as answers to different research
questions. Answers to each question could be reported in a separate chapter.

ii)     He/she can present the facts in chronological order with each chapter pertaining
to a specific historical period chronologically.

iii)    The report can also be written in a thematic manner where each chapter deals with a specific theme/topic.

iv)    Chapters could also deal with each state of India or each district of an Indian state separately.

v)     The chapter could also pertain to specific historical persons separately.

vi)    The researcher can also combine two or more of these approaches while writing the research report.
In addition, the report should contain a chapter each on the introduction, methodology, review of related literature, findings, the researcher's interpretations and reflections on the interpretative process.
Problems and Weaknesses to be avoided in Historical Research:
Some of the weaknesses, problems and mistakes that need to be avoided in historical research are as follows:

1.    The problem of research should not be too broad.

2.     It should be selected after ensuring that sources of data are existent, accessible
and in a language known to the researcher.

3.     Excessive use of easy-to-find secondary sources of data should be avoided.
Though locating primary sources of data time time-consuming and requires effort, they are usually more trustworthy.

4.     Adequate internal and external criticism of sources of historical data is essential
for establishing the authenticity and validity of the data. It is also necessary to ascertain whether statements concerning evidence by one participant have influenced the opinions of other historians.
SELF- CHECK EXERCISE-2
Q.1 In historical research, __________ sources include original documents and
artifacts created at the time under study.
Q.2   __________ involves understanding the broader social, political, economic, and
cultural contexts in which historical events occurred.

3.5    SUMMARY
Historical research involves a systematic investigation into past events, individuals, societies, and cultures to uncover, analyze, and interpret evidence, thus providing a deeper understanding of how and why things happened. The process begins with identifying a research question or topic, followed by an extensive review of both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources include original documents, artifacts, letters, diaries, photographs, and official records created at the time under study, while secondary sources encompass later interpretations or analyses, such as books and articles. Historians then use various research methods, such as archival research, oral history interviews, and content analysis, to gather relevant evidence. Establishing a chronological framework is crucial, as it helps in placing events in their proper order to understand cause and effect relationships. Contextualization involves
understanding the broader social, political, economic, and cultural contexts in which events occurred, which aids in interpreting their significance and impact. Critical analysis of sources for bias, reliability, and perspective is essential, requiring historians to assess the credibility of evidence and consider multiple viewpoints to construct a balanced and accurate account. After gathering and analyzing evidence, historians interpret their findings to construct narratives or explanations about past events, often synthesizing information from various sources. The final step in historical research is presenting the findings through books, articles, reports, lectures, or digital media, effectively communicating the results to educate others and contribute to the collective knowledge of history. This meticulous process not only illuminates how societies and cultures have evolved but also offers valuable insights into current issues by highlighting patterns, consequences, and lessons from the past.

3.6    GLOSSARY
Historical Research: Historical research involves a systematic investigation into past events to understand and contextualize the present and forecast future trends.

3.7    ANSWERS TO SELF- CHECK EXERCISE
EXERCISE-1
Answer 1.   d) Academic books and articles
Answer 2.   b) To understand the sequence and cause-and-effect relationships of
events
EXERCISE-2
Answer 1.   Primary
Answer 2.   Contextualization

3.8    REFERENCES / SUGGESTED READINGS

•    Best, J.W and J.V.Kahn, Research in Education (7th Ed.) New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt Ltd.1998

•    Sanswal, N.D. (2020). Research Methodology and Applied Statistics. (1st ed.). Shipra Publications.

•     Kaul, L. (2009). Methodology of Educational Research. (4th ed.). Vikas Publishing
House Private Limited.

3.9    TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q.1 what is historical research? Describe the steps involved in conducting historical research.
Q.2.What care will you take in making inferences and generalizations in historical research?
Q.3. How will you organize writing the research report?
Q.4.What care will you take to avoid weaknesses in conducting historical research?
Q.5. State the criteria of evaluating historical research.
UNIT- 4
HISTORICAL RESEARCH-II
Structure

4.1    Introduction

4.2    Learning Objectives

4.3   Primary and Secondary Sources of Data
Self- check Exercise-1

4.4    External and internal criticism of data
Self- check Exercise-2

4.5  Summary

4.6   Glossary

4.7    Answers to self- check Exercise

4.8   References / Suggested Readings

4.9   Terminal Questions

4.1   INTRODUCTION:
History usually refers simply to an account of the past of human societies. It is the study of what "can be known... (to the historian). through the surviving record." Gottschalk referred to this as 'history as a record'. He further stated that "The process of critically examining and analysing the records and survivals of the past is... called historical method. The imaginative reconstruction of the past from the data derived by that process is called historiography (the writing of history)".
In academic and scholarly research, data is typically categorized into primary and secondary sources. Primary sources provide direct evidence or original data obtained from firsthand observation or experimentation, offering unfiltered insights into specific phenomena. Examples include surveys, interviews, fieldwork observations, and experimental results. Secondary sources, in contrast, compile, analyze, or interpret information derived from primary sources. These may include textbooks, review articles, meta-analyses, and statistical databases, offering synthesized perspectives and interpretations based on existing data.
Criticism in research involves evaluating the quality, reliability, and relevance of both primary and secondary sources. External criticism focuses on verifying the authenticity and trustworthiness of sources used, ensuring they meet scholarly standards and ethical guidelines. It examines factors such as the credibility of authors, the accuracy of data collection methods, and the reliability of data sources. Internal criticism, on the other hand, scrutinizes the logical coherence and consistency of arguments presented within a study. It assesses whether conclusions drawn from the data are logically sound, supported by sufficient evidence, and free from biases or logical fallacies.These concepts are fundamental in ensuring rigor and credibility in research, guiding researchers in the selection, evaluation, and synthesis of data to support their scholarly inquiries.

4.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit you will be able to

•     Understand the distinction between primary and secondary sources in historical
research.

•      Develop skills in identifying and evaluating the credibility and bias of historical
sources.

•      Gain the ability to critically analyze and interpret evidence from both primary and
secondary sources.

•      Learn to contextualize historical events by integrating various sources and
perspectives.

4.3    PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES OF DATA
Sources of Historical Data
These sources are broadly classified into two types:

(a)    Primary Sources: Gottschalk defines a primary data source as "the testimony of any eye witness, or of a witness by any other of the senses, or of a mechanical device like the Dictaphone - that is, of one who was present at the events of which he tells. A primary source must thus have been produced by a contemporary of the events it narrates. In other words, primary sources are tangible materials that provide a
description of a historical event and were produced shortly after the event happened. They have a direct physical relationship to the event being studied. Examples of primary sources include new paper reports, letters, public documents, court decisions, personal diaries, autobiographies, artefacts and eyewitness's verbal accounts. These primary sources of data can be divided into two broad categories as follows:

(i)    The remains or relics of a given historical period. These could include photographs, coins, skeletons, fossils, tools, weapons, utensils, furniture, buildings and pieces of art and culture. Though these were not originally meant for transmitting information to future generations they could prove very useful sources in providing reliable and sound evidence about the past. Most of these relics provide non-verbal information.

(ii)    Those objects that have a direct physical relationship with the events being reconstructed. This includes documents such as laws, files, letters, manuscripts, government resolutions, charters, memoranda, wills, newspapers, magazines, journals, films, government or other official publications, maps, charts, log-books, catalogues, research reports, the record of minutes of meetings, recording, inscriptions, transcriptions and so on.

(b)    Secondary Sources: A secondary source is one in which the eyewitness or the participant i.e., the person describing the event was not actually present but obtained his/her descriptions or narrations from another person or source. This other person may or may not be a primary source. Secondary sources, thus, do not have a direct physical relationship with the event being studied. They include data that are not original. Examples of secondary sources include textbooks, biographies, encyclopaedias, reference books, replicas of art objects and paintings and so on. It is possible that secondary sources contain errors due to the passing of information from one source to another. These errors could get multiplied when the information passes through many sources thereby resulting in an error of great magnitude in the final data. Thus, wherever possible, the researcher should try to use primary sources of data. However, that does not reduce the value of secondary sources.
In conclusion, the various sources of historical information both primary and secondary can be summarized as follows:
It must be mentioned here that the branch of historical research using all or some types of oral records is known as oral history. It should also be mentioned here that some objects can be classified as documents or relics depending on the how they are used in a historical study. For example, in a research study on how a historical figure (a politician, a freedom fighter or a social reformer) is presented in textbooks of different periods, the textbook will be classified as a document as the emphasis here is on analysing its content matter given in a verbal form. On the other hand, in a research study on printing methods in the past, the textbook can be used as a relic as the focus here is not on analysing its contents but on its physical, outward characteristics or features.
Sources of Historical Information

•     Documents Quantitative Oral Records Relics (written/printed) Records (Spoken
words) (Physical or Visual objects)

•     diaries-School budgets - Ballads - School Buildings

•     memoirs Student attendance - Tales - School Furniture

•     notebooks records - Saga - Textbooks

•     yearbooks Staff attendance - Oral interviews - Pictures

•     memos records of eyewitnesses - Drawings

•     logbooks - Student's marks and participants - Architectural

•     laws-School results Plans

•     Court testimony - Financial statements - Instructional

•     Committee reports - Census records Aids

•    Government
Searching for Historical Data
The procedure of searching for historical data should be systematic and pre-planned the researcher should know what information he needs so as to identify important sources of data and provide a direction to his search for relevant data Using his knowledge, imagination and resourcefulness, he needs to explore the kinds of data required, persons involved, institutions involved. This will help him to identify the kinds of records he requires and whom he should interview. Since historical research is mainly qualitative in nature all the primary and secondary sources cannot be identified in
advance. It is possible that as one collects some data, analyses and interprets it, the need for further pertinent data may arise depending on the interpretive framework. This will enable him to identify other primary or secondary sources of data.
The search for sources of data begins with wide reading of preliminary sources including published bibliographies, biographies, atlas, specialized chronologies, dictionaries of quotations and terms. Good university and college libraries tend to have a great deal of such preliminary materials This will enable a researcher to identify valuable secondary sources on the topic being studied such books on history relating to one's topic. For extensive materials on a subject, the researcher may need to go to a large research library or a library with extensive holdings on a specific subject. Such secondary materials could include other historian's conclusions and interpretations, historical information, references to other secondary and primary sources. The historical researcher needs to evaluate the secondary sources for their validity and authenticity. Now the researcher should turn his attention to the primary sources. These are usually available in the institution or the archives especially if the source concerns data pertaining to distant past or data pertaining to events in which the chief witnesses are either dead or inaccessible. In case of data concerning the recent past, the researcher can contact witnesses or participants themselves in order to interview them and/or study the documents possessed by them. However, it is not possible for a historical researcher to examine all the material available. Selecting the best sources of data is important in a historical study. In a historical study the complete "population" of available data can never be obtained or known.
Hence the sample of materials examined must always be a purposive one. What it represents and what it fails to represent should be considered. The researcher needs to identify and use a sample that should be representative enough for wider generalization.

C.    Evaluation of the Historical Sources
The data of historical sources is subject to two types of evaluation. These two types are (i) external evaluation or criticism and (ii) internal evaluation or criticism. Let us now look at these in detail.

(i ) External Criticism of Data:
This is sometimes also known as lower criticism of data. External criticism regards the issue of authenticity of the data from the psychological attitude of the researcher in that it is primarily concerned with the question, is the source of data genuine? External criticism seeks to determine whether the document or the artefact that the researcher is studying is genuinely valid primary data. It is possible to get counterfeit documents or artefacts. External criticism of the sources of data is of paramount importance in establishing the credibility of the research. Although, theoretically, the main purpose of external criticism is the establishment of historical truth, in reality, its actual operation is chiefly restricted to the negative role i.e. to identify and expose forgeries, frauds, hoaxes desertions and counterfeits. In order to identify such forgeries, the researcher needs to look at problems pertaining to plagiarism, alterations of documents, insertions, deletions or unintentional omissions. This will reveal whether the historical source of data is authentic or not. Establishing the authenticity of documents may involve carbon dating handwriting analysis, identification of ink and paper, vocabulary usage, signatures, script, spelling, names of places writing style and other considerations. In other words, it examines the document and its external features rather than the statements it contains. It tries to determine whether (a) the information it contains was available at the time the document was written. (b) This information is consistent with what is known about the author or the period from another source?
In other words, external criticism is aimed at answering questions about the nature of the historical source such as who wrote it? Where? When? Under which circumstances? Is it original? Is it genuine? And so on.

ii)    Internal Criticism of Data:
Having established the authenticity of the source of historical data, the researcher now focuses his/her attention on the accuracy and worth of the data contained in the document. Internal criticism is concerned with the meaning of the written material. It is also known as higher criticism of data. It deals with answering questions such as what does it mean? What was the author attempting to say? What thought was the author trying to convey? Is it possible that people would act in the way described in the document? Is it possible that the events described occurred so quickly? What inferences or interpretations could be extracted from these words? Do the financial
data/figures mentioned in the document seem reasonable for that period in the past? What does the decision of a court mean? What do the words of the decision convey regarding the intent and the will of the count? Is there any (unintended) misinformation given in the document? Is there any evidence of deception? And so, on here, the researcher needs to be very cautious so that he does not reject a statement only because the event described in the document appears to be improbable.
In addition to answering these questions, internal criticism should also include establishing the credibility of the author of the document. According to Travers, the following questions could be answered so as to establish the author's credibility: Was he a trained or untrained observer of the event? ie. How competent was he? What was his relationship to the event? To what extent was he under pressure, from fear or vanity resulting in distortion or omission of facts? What was the intent of the writer of the document? To what extent was he an expert at recording the particular event? Were the habits of the author such that they might interfere with the accuracy of recording? Was he too antagonistic or too sympathetic to give a true picture? How long after the event did, he record his testimony? Was he able to remember accurately? Is he in agreement with other independent witnesses? These questions need to be answered for two reasons:

i)    Perceptions are individualized and selective Even if eyewitnesses are competent and truthful, they could still record different descriptions of the events they witnessed or experienced.

ii)    Research studies in Psychology indicate that eyewitnesses can be very unreliable, especially if they are emotionally aroused or under stress at the time of the event. (e.g., at the time of the demolition of Babri Masjid or at the time of Gujarat riots in 2002.
This brings us to the question of bias especially when life histories or communal situations are being studied. According to Plummer, there are three possible sources of bias as follows:
Source One: The Life History Informant
Is misinformation (unintended) given?
Has there been evasion?
Is there evidence of direct lying and deception?
Is a 'front' being presented?
What may the informant 'take for granted' and hence not reveal?
How far is the informant 'pleasing you'?
How much has been forgotten?
How much may be self-deception?
Source Two: The Social Scientist Research
Could any of the following be shaping the outcome?

(a)    Attitudes of researcher: age, gender, class, race etc.

(b)    Demeanour of researcher: dress, speech, body language etc.

(c)    Personality of researcher: anxiety, need for approval, hostility, warmth etc.

(d)    Attitudes researcher: religion, politics, tolerance, general assumptions

(e)    Scientific role of researcher: theory held etc. (researcher expectancy)
Source Three: The Interaction
The joint act needs to be examined. Is bias coming from?

(a)    The physical setting-'social' space

(b)    The prior interaction?

(c)   Non-verbal communication?

(d)   Vocal behaviour?
Often, internal and external criticism are interdependent and complementary processes. The internal and external criticism of data requires a high level of scholarship.

D.    Analysis, Synthesis, Summarizing and Interpretation of Data:
We have seen how data can be located and evaluated. Let us now look at how to collect and control the data so that the greatest return from the innumerable hours spent in archives, document rooms and libraries can be reaped. The researcher should not onlylearn how to take notes but also learn how to organize the various notes, note cards, bibliography cards and memoranda so as to derive useful and meaningful facts for interpretation. Hence before beginning historical research, the researcher should have a specific and systematic plan for the acquisition, organization, storage and retrieval of the data. Following are some suggestions that may help you in systematizing your research efforts.

(i)    Note cards and Bibliography Cards:
It would be convenient for you to prepare bibliography cards of size 3×5 inches for taking down bibliographical notes. A bibliography card is valuable not only for gathering and recording of information but also for locating it again at a future date, if necessary, without going back to the library again and again. Such a card contains the essential information concerning a bibliographical source. Keep plenty of such cards with you when you go to the library so that you can report very valuable references encountered unexpectedly. You can also note down the document's relation to your research. A sample of a bibliographic reference card could be as follows:
Serial No. __________ Author(s) : ____________
Title of the Document: _________________________
Name of the Journal: __________________________
Vol. ________ No. ______ Month ________ Year ______ Page No.(s) _______
Place of publication, Name of Publisher, Edition, Year, Page (in case of a book:
Library where information is obtained: ___________________________
Call No. _______________________
Source of bibliographic information: _____________________________
How is it related to the research topic: ___________________________
Additional Comments, if any: __________________________________
You can ideally have two copies of such a bibliographic card. One copy can be arranged according to the authors' names alphabetically whereas the other copy can be arranged as per serial number of the card. On the other hand, a note card can be of size 4×6 or 5x7 inches for substantive notes. It is advisable to place only one item of information on each card. Each card can be given a code so as to indicate the place / question/theme/period/person to which the note relates. These cards then can be arranged as per the question, theme, period, place or person under study so as to make analysis easier In other words, note cards can be kept in multiple copies (e.g. in triplicate or quadruplicate) depending on the ultimate analysis of the data. Given here is a sample note card. In this card, one can mention the bibliography card no which can be
referred to for further information it required. The reverse of the card can be used if the space is found to be insufficient for necessary information.

(ii)    Summary of Quantitative Data:
Usually, historical studies are chiefly qualitative in nature since the data obtained includes verbal and/or symbolic material from an institution, society or culture's past. However, when the study involves quantitative data pertaining to past events, you need to think carefully about the relevance of the data to your research. This is because recording and analysis of quantitative data is time-consuming and sometimes expensive. Examples of quantitative data in historical research include records of students' and teachers' attendance rates, examination results, finances etc.
Main Heading: ______________________________________________ Sub-Heading: _______________________________________________
Card No. _________ Source __________: Author : ________________
Year: _________ pp._________ Title :_______ Bibliography card No. ____________
Information such as budgets, income and expenditure statements, salaries, fees and so on. Content analysis is one of the methods involving quantitative data. The basic goal of content analysis is to take a verbal, non-quantitative document and transform it into quantitative data.

(iii)    Interpretation of Historical Data:
Once the researcher establishes the validity and authenticity of data, interpretation of the facts in the light of the topic of research is necessary. This step requires caution, imagination, ingenuity, insight and scholarliness. The scientific status of his study depends on these characteristics. The researcher needs to be aware of his/her biases, values, prejudices and interests as these could influence the analysis and interpretation of the data as well as the perceptions of the researcher. He needs to make sense of the multitude of data gathered which generally involves a synthesis of data in relation to a hypothesis question or theory rather than mere accumulation or summarization. In doing so, he/she should avoid biases and unduly projecting his / her own personality onto the data. The data should be fitted into a logically parsimonious structure. The researcher should be clear about the interpretative framework so as to become sensitive towards
bias in other historical researchers' interpretations who have conducted research on the same or similar topics.
In historical research, 'causes' are in the form of antecedents or precipitating factors. They are not 'causes' in the strictly scientific sense. Such antecedents are always complex and hence the researcher should avoid oversimplification while interpreting them.
Past events are mainly in the form of human behaviour. Therefore 'causes' in historical research could be interpreted in terms of the motives of the participants involved. The researcher needs to identify the motives of the people involved in the event under study while interpreting the data. These motives may be multiple in natures and interact with each other. This makes interpretation of the data a difficult task. For example, a new government decides to change the prevalent textbooks. The motives here could be many such as its political ideology does not match the prevalent textbooks, it had a personal grudge against the authors of the prevalent textbooks or the ministers concerned wanted to derive personal glory out of his actions. These reasons may influence each other making the task of interpretation of data difficult.
Historical researchers can make use of concepts from other social and behavioural science disciplines in analyzingand interpreting data. Some examples of such concepts may be bureaucracy, role, institution (from sociology), leadership, institutional effectiveness (From management), culture (from anthropology), motive, personality attitude etc. (from psychology) and so on. The researcher also can make use of the concepts of historical time and historical space white interpreting the data.
The concept of historical time makes use of a chronology of events. ie the researcher needs to identify the chain of events (chronology) of substantive history and then try to understand the meaning of these events, the relationship among the events and the relationship of the events to the research topic. The researcher is studying more than one of the chronological data within the same time frame may gain increased insight into multiple events and their causes.
The concept of historical space deals with 'where' the event originated, spread or culminated. This could provide a different insight into the meaning of the data. The historical researcher can also use analogy as a source of hypothesis or as a frame of
reference for interpretation i.e. He/she can draw parallels between one historical event and other events. Here, one has to be aware of similarities, differences as well as exceptions while comparing two historical events, otherwise, such an extrapolation will be unreliable Also, it is risky to interpret an event by comparing another event in another culture at another time.
iv) Making Inferences and Generalizations in Historical Research:
In order to identify and explain the cause of a historical event, the researcher must be aware of his/her assumptions which are then used in ascribing causation to subsequent events. Some examples of such assumptions could include (i) history repeats or (ii) historical events are unique. The researcher must make clear whether his/her analysis is based on the former assumption or the latter.
Some examples of 'causes of historical events identified in prior researches include (1) strong ideology (e.g. Maharshi Karve's ideology of women's education) (ii) actions of certain key persons (e.g. Mohamed Ali Jinnah's actions for India's partition), (iii) Advances in Science in technology (e.g. use of computers in education), (iv) economic/ geographical/psychological /sociological factors or a combination of all these (e.g. privatization of education) etc.
The historian's objective is not only to establish facts but also to determine trends in the data and causes of events leading to generalizations i.e. he/she needs to synthesize and interpret and not merely summarize the data. These data, as in other types of researches, are obtained not from the entire population of persons, settings, events or objects pertaining to the topic, but from a small sample. Moreover, this sample is selected from the remains of the past. It cannot be selected from the entire population of documents or relics that existed during the period under study. Such remains may not be representative. This necessitates a very careful and cautious approach in locating consistency in different documents and relics while making generalizations. Also, the researcher should not rely on only one document pertaining to an individual from the past while making a generalization as it will not be known whether the individual held a particular opinion about an educational issue consistently or had changed it over a period of time. If he had changed his opinion, the researcher must find out when and how it was changed, under what conditions and what the consequences were. This
makes it imperative that the researcher uses as many primary and secondary sources as possible on a topic. If the evidence is limited, he needs restrict the generalizability of his interpretations to that extent.

E.    Writing the Research Report:
This task involves the highest level of scholarship. In historical research, data collection is flexible. Besides, due to the relative lack of conclusive evidence on which valid generalizations can be established, the writing of historical research has to be a little freer so as to allow subjective interpretation of the data. (This by no means implies distortion of truth). Thus, reports of historical research have no standard formats. The presentation of data analysis, interpretations and findings depends on the nature of the problem. There are several broad ways of reporting historical investigation as follows: i)     The researcher can report the historical facts as answers to different research
questions. Answers to each question could be reported in a separate chapter.

ii)     He/she can present the facts in chronological order with each chapter pertaining
to a specific historical period chronologically.

iii)    The report can also be written in a thematic manner where each chapter deals with a specific theme/topic.

iv)    Chapters could also deal with each state of India or each district of an Indian state separately.

v)     The chapter could also pertain to specific historical persons separately.

vi)    The researcher can also combine two or more of these approaches while writing the research report.
In addition, the report should contain a chapter each on the introduction, methodology, review of related literature, findings, the researcher's interpretations and reflections on the interpretative process.
SELF- CHECK EXERCISE-1
Q.1. What is the primary purpose of a literature review in historical research?

a)    To provide a summary of the main events in history.

b)    To evaluate and analyze existing scholarly works on a specific historical topic.

c)    To present personal opinions and perspectives on historical events.

d)    To create fictional narratives based on historical events.
Q.2. What does the term "primary source" refer to in historical research?

a)    Secondary interpretations of historical events.

b)    original documents or artifacts created during the time under study.

c)    Historical novels written by contemporary authors.

d)    Modern commentaries on past events.

4.4 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL CRITICISM OF DATA Historical Criticism:
As workers in the field of research gather much of their data and information from records and documents, dissertations must be carefully evaluated so as to attest their worth for the purposes of the particular study Evaluation of historical data and information is often referred to as historical criticism and the reliable data yielded by the process are known as historical evidence. Historical evidence is derived from historical data through the process of criticism, which is of two types-external and internal. This has been discussed earlier also. There are some more clues here:
External Criticism
External criticism is concerned with establishing the authenticity or genuineness of data It is also called lower criticism. It is aimed at the document itself rather than the Interpretation or meaning of it in relation to the study. The tasks of establishing the age or authorship of a document may involve tests of factors such as signatures, handwriting, scripts, type, style, spelling and place names. According to Mouly, "the purpose of external criticism is not so much negative (the detection of fraud) as it is the establishment of historical truth.
As with external criticism, several questions need to be asked in attempting to evaluate the accuracy of a document and the truthfulness of its author.
With regard to the author of the document: -

•     Was the author present at the event he or she is describing? In other words, is
the document a primary or a secondary source?

•     Was the author a participant in or an observer of the event?

•     Was the author competent to describe the event?

•     Was the author emotionally involved in the event?

•     Did the author have any vested interest in the outcomes of the event?
With regard to the contents of the document: -

•     Do the contents make sense?

•     Could the event described have occurred at that time?

•    Would people have behaved as described?

•     Does the language of the document suggest a bias of any sort?

•     Do other versions of the event exist? Do they present a different description or
interpretation of what happened?
Internal Criticism:
Internal criticism which is also known as higher criticism is concerned with the validity. credibility, or worth of the content of the document. Both the accuracy of the information contained in a document and the truthfulness of the author need to be evaluated.
Internal criticism has to do with what the document says. Besides the textual criticism, it also involves such factors as competence, good faith, bias and general reputation of the author. It is positive in nature when the researcher seeks to discover the literal and the real meaning of the text. It is negative when the researcher tries to seek every possible reason for disbelieving the statement made, questioning critically the competence, truthfulness or accuracy and honesty of the author. Both positive and negative criticisms are essential in historical research but the researcher should not go so far as to be cynical and hypercritical.
Travers has listed those characteristics commonly considered in making evaluations of writers.

•     Were they trained or untrained observers of the events? What were their
relationships to the events?

•     To what extent were they under pressure, from fear or vanity, to distort or omit
facts?

•     What were the intentions of the writers of the documents?

•     To what extent were they experts at recording those particular events?

•     Were they too antagonistic or too sympathetic to give true pictures? How long
after the event did, they record their testimonies?

•    And were they able to remember accurately?

•     Finally, are they in agreement with other independent witnesses?
HOW EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL CRITICISM IS PERFORMED
External Criticism:
External criticism focuses on evaluating the authenticity, reliability, and relevance of sources used in a research study. It ensures that the information and data drawn from external sources are credible and appropriate for supporting the study's objectives. Here’s how external criticism is performed:

1.     Source Evaluation: Researchers critically assess the credibility and authority of
external sources referenced in the study. They consider factors such as the reputation and expertise of authors or organizations producing the sources, the publication or dissemination channels (e.g., peer-reviewed journals, reputable databases), and the peer-review process if applicable. Evaluating source credibility helps ensure that the information used is reliable and trustworthy.

2.     Reliability of Data: External criticism involves verifying the reliability and
accuracy of the data sources used in the research. Researchers examine the methods and procedures used to collect data by external sources, assessing their validity and potential for bias. They scrutinize whether the data sources are transparent about their methodologies, sample sizes, data collection instruments, and any limitations or biases inherent in the data. Reliable data sources contribute to the robustness and validity of the study's findings.

3.    Relevance to Research Objectives: Assessing the relevance of external
sources involves determining whether the information provided directly addresses the research questions and objectives. Researchers evaluate whether the data and insights gained from external sources contribute meaningfully to the study's theoretical framework, empirical analysis, or overall argumentation. Relevance ensures that the study's conclusions are well-supported by pertinent external evidence and information.

4.     Ethical Considerations: Ethical considerations are crucial in external criticism,
ensuring that the use of external sources adheres to ethical guidelines for research
integrity. Researchers verify the accuracy of citations and references, ensuring proper attribution of ideas and data to their original sources. They uphold principles of academic honesty and integrity, avoiding plagiarism and respecting copyright and intellectual property rights. Ethical sourcing of information strengthens the scholarly integrity of the study and upholds ethical standards in academic research.
Internal Criticism:
Internal criticism involves the rigorous evaluation of the logical coherence and consistency of arguments within a research study. It focuses on ensuring that the conclusions drawn from the data are valid, well-supported, and free from bias. Here’s how it is performed:

1.    Logical Coherence: Researchers critically examine the flow of arguments and conclusions within the study. They assess whether there is a clear and logical progression from the research questions to the data collection methods, analysis, and finally, the conclusions drawn. This evaluation ensures that each step in the research process logically connects to the next, supporting the overall validity of the findings.

2.    Consistency: Internal criticism involves checking for consistency in the interpretation and presentation of data throughout the study. Researchers look for congruence between different parts of the research, such as the alignment between data collected, analysis conducted, and interpretations made. Inconsistencies or contradictions can undermine the credibility of the study's conclusions and suggest areas where further refinement or clarification may be necessary.

3.    Avoidance of Bias: Bias can significantly impact the objectivity and reliability of research findings. Internal criticism requires researchers to identify and mitigate potential biases that could influence the interpretation of data. This includes recognizing personal biases, methodological biases (such as sampling bias or measurement bias), and biases related to theoretical perspectives or assumptions. Addressing biases helps ensure that the conclusions drawn are based on objective analysis rather than subjective influences.

4.    Use of Valid Methods: Evaluation of the methods used for data collection and analysis is integral to internal criticism. Researchers assess whether the chosen methods are appropriate for addressing the research questions and objectives. They
scrutinize the reliability and validity of data collection techniques, the rigor of statistical or qualitative analysis methods, and the appropriateness of theoretical frameworks applied. Valid methods contribute to the robustness of the study's findings and enhance confidence in the conclusions drawn.
Performing thorough internal and external criticism is essential for ensuring the validity, reliability, and integrity of research studies. By rigorously evaluating the logical coherence of arguments and the credibility of external sources, researchers enhance the quality and impact of their research findings, contributing to advancements in knowledge and scholarship within their respective fields.
SELF- CHECK EXERCISE-2
Q.1. What is the primary focus of internal criticism in historical research?

a)    Examining the influence of external factors on historical events.

b)    Assessing the authenticity and reliability of the historical sources themselves.

c)    Analyzing the broader societal context of a specific historical period.

d)    Exploring the impact of personal biases on historical interpretations.
Q.2. Which of the following best describes the objective of external criticism in historical research?

a)    Evaluating the internal consistency of historical documents.

b)    Investigating the external influences on historical events and interpretations.

c)    Examining the personal motivations of historical figures.

d)    Analyzing the chronological order of events in history.

4.5    SUMMARY
Historical research involves a systematic investigation into past events to understand and contextualize the present and forecast future trends. This type of research focuses on reconstructing and critically analyzing historical events, individuals, or phenomena through the examination of various sources of evidence, including documents, archives, artifacts, and oral histories. The primary objective is to provide an accurate and comprehensive account of what transpired, uncover the reasons behind these events, and assess their impact over time.
In the field of education, historical research is particularly valuable as it helps in understanding past educational practices, policies, and outcomes. By analyzing historical data, researchers can identify patterns and trends that inform current educational theories and practices, guiding future directions and improvements. For instance, historical research can reveal how educational reforms were implemented and their effects on different populations, offering lessons that are relevant today.
This research process relies on rigorous methodologies to ensure the reliability and validity of findings. Researchers must critically evaluate the credibility and relevance of their sources, interpret the evidence accurately, and synthesize their findings into a coherent narrative or argument. Ultimately, historical research contributes significantly to our understanding of the past, providing a foundation for informed decision-making in the present and future.

4.6    GLOSSARY

1.    Primary Source: Original materials created at the time of an event, such as letters, diaries, photographs, and artifacts, offering firsthand evidence.

2.    Secondary Source: Later interpretations or analyses of historical events, such as books, articles, and documentaries, providing context and commentary on primary sources.

4.7    ANSWERS TO SELF- CHECK EXERCISE
EXERCISE-1
Answer 1. b) To evaluate and analyze existing scholarly works on a specific historical topic.
Answer.2 b) original documents or artifacts created during the time under study. EXERCISE-2
Answer 1. b) Assessing the authenticity and reliability of the historical sources
themselves.
Answer  2. b) Investigating  the external influences on  historical events and
interpretations.

4.8    REFERENCES / SUGGESTED READINGS

•    Best, J.W and J.V.Kahn, Research in Education (7th Ed.) New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt Ltd.1998

•    Sanswal, N.D. (2020). Research Methodology and Applied Statistics. (1st ed.). Shipra Publications.

•     Kaul, L. (2009). Methodology of Educational Research. (4th ed.). Vikas Publishing
House Private Limited.

4.9    TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q1    Explain the following

(a)    Characteristics of historical research in education.

(b)    Purposes of historical research.

(a)    Give examples of research topics in historical research

(b)    Explain the approaches to historical research.
Q2. Explain how will you identify a research topic for studying the history of education.
Q.3. State the criteria for evaluating historical research.
Q.4 What are the different sources of historical data? How will you evaluate these sources?
UNIT-5EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH-I
Structure

5.1    Introduction

5.2   Learning Objectives

5.3   Meaning & importance of Experimental Research
Self- check Exercise-1

5.4   Steps involved in Experimental Research
Self- check Exercise-2

5.5  Summary

5.6   Glossary

5.7   Answers to self- check Exercise

5.8   References / Suggested Readings

5.9   Terminal Questions

5.1    INTRODUCTION:
Experimental research describes the process that a researcher undergoes of controlling certain variables and manipulating others to observe if the results of the experiment reflect that the manipulations directly caused the particular outcome. This type of research differs from a descriptive study, and another one of its important aspects is the use of random assignment.

5.2    LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After carefully reading this Lesson you will be able to meet the following objectives:

•     Describe the nature of Experimental Research.

•      Explain the essential Characteristics of Experimental Research.

•     Describe the value of Experimental Research in Education.

•     Define an Experimental Design.

•      Describe the extraneous variables which affect significantly the internal validity of
the design.

5.3    MEANING & IMPORTANCE OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Historical Overview and 21ST-Century Trends:
Applying experimental research methods to questions about human behavior is recognized as one of the greatest scientific advances of the 20th century. Between 1975 and 2005, in particular, experimental research methodology has enabled an explosion of educationally relevant findings on how to design effective instruction in subject areas such as reading, writing, mathematics, and science.
In spite of these advances, Peggy Hsieh and colleagues (2005) found that the percentage of articles based on randomized experiments declined from 40 percent in 1983 to 26 percent in 2004 in primary educational psychology journals and from 33 percent in 1983 to 4 percent in 2004 in primary educational research journals. The authors conclude that “the use of experimental methodology in educational research appears to be on the decline”. They characterize the decline as “unfortunate” especially in light of growing concerns about “the untrustworthiness of educational research findings”. In a slightly earlier report to the National Research Council, Shavelson and Towne also noted the consensus view that the “reputation of educational research is quite poor”. The decline in training in experimental research methods in schools of education can be seen as an example of the deskilling of educational researchers, marginalizing one of the most powerful and productive research methodologies and ultimately marginalizing educational researchers as well.
Early 21st-century trends in experimental research include the use of effect size, metaanalysis, randomized field trials, and net impact.
The Use of Effect Size. Effect size is a measure of the strength of an effect in an experiment. Jacob Cohen (1988) suggested a simple measure of effect size—referred to as Cohen's d—in which the mean of the control group is subtracted from the mean of the treatment group and this difference is divided by the pooled standard deviation of the groups. According to Cohen, effect sizes can be classified as small (d = .2), medium (d =.5) and large (d = .8). Use of effect size allows educational policy makers to determine if an instructional treatment causes a statistically significant effect and if it has a practical effect. Hsieh et al. reported an increase in studies reporting effect size in educational psychology journals between 1995 and 2005, starting with 4 percent in
1995 to 61 percent in 2004, whereas the rate remained steady at about 25 percent from 1995 to 2004 for a primary educational research journal (2005).
The Use of Meta-analysis. The effect size measure allows for a particular instructional effect to be compared across experiments using a common metric, yielding a new kind of literature synthesis called meta-analysis. In meta-analysis, researchers tally the effect sizes of the same comparison across many different experiments, yielding an average effect size. For example, Gene Glass and Mary Smith (1978) reported a pioneering meta-analysis of research on class size revealing small positive effects of smaller class size. In the early 2000s meta-analysis is commonly used to review and summarize experimental research.
The Use of Randomized Trials. Randomized field trials (RFT), randomized clinical trials (RCT) and randomized trials (RT) refer to a particularly rigorous form of experimental research in which students (or other entities) are randomly assigned to treatments within an authentic field setting. Gary Burtless states that “a randomized field trial … is simply a controlled experiment that takes place outside a laboratory setting”. Although randomized trials have been used in medical research and research on public policy, they are rarely used in educational research. However, there are some notable exceptions such as a study of effects of class size conducted in Tennessee, reported by Jeremy Finn and Charles Achilles. As part of the study, 11,600 students in 79 schools across the state were assigned along with their teachers to small classes (13–17 students), regular classes (22–26 students), or regular classes with full-time teacher aides. Students stayed in the program from kindergarten through third grade, and then all were returned to regular classes. Importantly, the study showed that students in the small classes outperformed those in the regular classes, with or without aides, and the effects were greatest for minorities. Frederick Mosteller called the Tennessee class size study “one of the most important educational investigations ever carried out”. In the foreword to Evidence Matters by Fredrick Mosteller and Robert Boruch, the authors observe, “When properly conducted, randomized field trials—often called the gold standard in research involving human subjects—allow for fairly precise estimates of programmatic effects”. Using an appropriate unit of measure (for example, individual
students, classrooms, or schools) is an important consideration in research using randomized field trials.
Net Impact. Judith Gueron distinguishes between an intervention's outcomes (e.g., the percentage of students graduating from a school or passing a certification test) and its net impact (e.g., the percentage who graduate or who pass a certification test who would not have without the intervention). Gueron argues that “administrators often know and tout their program's outcomes, but they rarely know the program's net impacts”. When administrators focus on the question, “Is the new intervention effective?” they focus only on outcomes. When they focus on the question, “Does the new intervention have more impact than the current practice?” they focus on net impact. In order to determine an intervention's net impact, experimental researchers compare the outcomes with current practice (e.g., current instructional method) to the outcomes with the new intervention (e.g., the new instructional method). In short, Gueron argues that the question “Compared to what?” is an important and profound issue in experimental research.
In their analysis of educational research methodologies, Shavelson and Towne note: “decisions about education are sometimes instituted with no scientific basis at all, but rather are derived from ideology or deeply held beliefs”. In contrast, experimental research methodology has the potential to be a tool for promoting effective change in education in which decisions about instructional interventions are guided by scientific evidence and grounded in research-based theory. In the preface to Gary Phye, Daniel Robinson, and Joel Levin's Empirical Methods for Evaluating Educational Interventions, Gary Phye observed: “we are on the cusp of a reaffirmation that experimental research strategies provide the strongest evidence” for testing the effects of educational interventions. Finally, Robert Boruch quotes Walter Lippman who, in the 1930s, said: “Unless we are honestly experimental, we will leave the great questions of society and its improvement to the ignorant opponents of change on the one hand, and the ignorant advocates of change on the other”. In short, the experimental research methodology that fueled an explosion of scientific research about humans in the 1900s remains a powerful and indispensable tool for educational researchers in the new millennium.
Experimental Research Defined:
Experimental research is based on a methodology that meets three criteria:

(a)    random assignment—the subjects (or other entities) are randomly assigned to treatment groups,

(b)    experimental control—all features of the treatments are identical except for the independent variable (i.e., the feature being tested), and

(c)    appropriate measures—the dependent measures are appropriate for testing the research hypothesis.
For example, in the class size example, random assignment involves finding a group of students and randomly choosing some to be in small classes (i.e, consisting of 15 students) and some to be in large classes (i.e., consisting of 30 students). The researcher cannot use pre-existing small or large classes because doing so would violate the criterion of random assignment. The problem with violating random assignment is that the groups may systemically differ; for example, students in the smaller classes may be at more wealthy schools that also have more resources, better teachers, and better-prepared students. This violation of the random assignment criterion, sometimes called self-selection, is a serious methodological flaw in experimental research.
In the class size example, the criterion of experimental control is reflected in having the classes equivalent on all relevant features except class size. That is, large and small classes should have teachers who are equivalent in teaching skill, students who are equivalent in academic ability, and classrooms that are physically equivalent; they should also have equivalence in support services, length of school day, percentages based on gender, English language proficiency, ethnicity, and so on. If the groups differ on an important variable other than class size, determining whether differences in test performance can be attributed to class size will be difficult. This violation of the experimental control criterion, called confounding, is a serious methodological flaw in experimental research.
Finally, in the class size example, the dependent measure should test the research hypothesis that class size affects academic learning, so an appropriate measure would be to give an achievement test covering the curriculum at the start and end of the year. The appropriate measures criterion would be violated if the dependent measure were a
survey asking students how well they enjoyed school this year or an ungraded portfolio of their artwork over the year. When a test does not measure what is intended, the test lacks validity; invalid tests represent a serious methodological flaw in experimental research.
Importance of Experimental Research:
An experimental research is a procedure carried out to support, refute, or validate a hypothesis. Experiments provide insight into cause and effect by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated. Experiments vary greatly in goal and scale, but always rely on repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results. There also exists natural experimental studies.
A child may carry out basic experiments to understand gravity, while teams of scientists may take years of systematic investigation to advance their understanding of a phenomenon. Experiments and other types of hands-on activities are very important to student learning in the science classroom. Experiments can raise test scores and help a student become more engaged and interested in the material they are learning, especially when used over time. Experiments can vary from personal and informal natural comparisons (e.g. tasting a range of chocolates to find a favorite), to highly controlled (e.g. tests requiring complex apparatus overseen by many scientists that hope to discover information about subatomic particles). Uses of experiments vary considerably between the natural and human sciences.
Experiments typically include controls, which are designed to minimize the effects of variables other than the single independent variable. This increases the reliability of the results, often through a comparison between control measurements and the other measurements. Scientific controls are a part of the scientific method. Ideally, all variables in an experiment are controlled (accounted for by the control measurements) and none are uncontrolled. In such an experiment, if all controls work as expected, it is possible to conclude that the experiment works as intended, and that results are due to the effect of the tested variable.
SELF- CHECK EXERCISE-1
Q1. Which of the following best describes a dependent variable?

a)    A variable that is manipulated by the researcher

b)    A variable that remains constant throughout the experiment

c)    A variable that is measured to assess the effect of the manipulation

d)    A variable that serves as a control
Q2. In an experiment studying the effect of sleep on cognitive performance, the amount of sleep participants get is the __________.

a)    Dependent variable

b)    Independent variable

c)    Control variable

d)    Extraneous variable

5.4 STEPS INVOLVED IN EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH:
When you are involved in conducting a research project, you generally go through the steps described below, either formally or informally. Some of these are directly involved in designing the experiment to test the hypotheses required by the project.
The following steps are generally used in conducting a research project.

1.    Review pertinent literature to learn what has been done in the field and to become familiar enough with the field to allow you to discuss it with others. The best ideas often cross disciplines and species, so a broad approach is important. For example, recent research in controlling odors in swine waste has exciting implications for fly and nematode control.

2.    Define your objectives and the hypotheses that you are going to test. You can't be vague. You must be specific. A good hypothesis is:

a.    Clear enough to be tested

b.    Adequate to explain the phenomenon

c.    Good enough to permit further prediction

d.    As simple as possible

3.    Specify the population on which research is to be conducted. For example, specify whether you are going to determine the P requirements of papaya on the Kauai Branch Station or the P requirements of papaya throughout the State, or the P requirements of
papaya in sand or solution culture. The types of experiments required to solve these problems vary greatly in scope and complexity and also in resource requirements.

4.    Evaluate the feasibility of testing the hypothesis. One should be relatively certain that an experiment can be set up to adequately test the hypotheses with the available resources. Therefore, a list should be made of the costs, materials, personnel, equipment, etc., to be sure that adequate resources are available to carry out the research. If not, modifications will have to be made to design the research to fit the available resources.

5.    Select Research Procedure:

a.    Selection of treatment design is very crucial and can make the difference between success and failure in achieving the objectives. Should seek help of a statistical resource person (statistician) or of others more experienced in the field. Statistical help should be sought when planning an experiment rather than afterward when a statistician is expected to extract meaningful conclusions from a poorly designed experiment. An example of a poor selection of treatments is the experiment which demonstrated that each of three treatments, Scotch and water, Gin and water, and Bourbon and water taken orally in sufficient quantities, produce some degree of intoxication. Will this experiment provide information on which ingredient or mixture causes intoxication? Why? How can this experiment be improved? An example related to agriculture is an experiment with 2 treatments, Ammonium Sulfate and Calcium Nitrate, selected to determine whether or not maize responds to N fertilizer on a Typic Paleudult soil. Will this experiment provide the desired information? What is lacking? What sources of confusion are included in the treatments?

b.    Selection of the sampling or experimental design and number of replicates. This is the major topic of this course so this will not be discussed further other than to comment that in general one should choose the simplest design that will provide the precision you require.

c.    Selection of measurements to be taken. With the computer it is now possible to analyze large quantities of data and thus the researcher can gain considerably more information about the crop, etc. than just the effects of the imposed variables on yield. For example, with corn, are you going to measure just the yield of grain, or of ears, or of
grain plus stover? What about days to tasseling and silking? Height of ears, kernel depth, kernel weight, etc. What about nutrient levels at tasseling, or weather conditions, especially if there are similar experiments at other locations having different climates? With animal experiments, you can measure just the increase in weight or also total food intake, components of blood, food digestibility etc.

d.    Selection of the unit of observation, i.e., the individual plant, one row, or a whole plot, etc? One animal or a group of animals?

e.    Control of border effects or effects of adjacent units on each other or "competition". Proper use of border rows or plants and randomization of treatments to the experimental units helps minimize border effects. Proper randomization of treatments to the experimental unit is also required by statistical theory so be sure this is properly done.

f.    Probable results: Make an outline of pertinent summary tables and probable results. Using information gained in the literature review write out the results you expect. Essentially perform the experiment in theory and predict the results expected.

6.    Make an outline of statistical analyses to be performed. Before you plant the first pot or plot or feed the first animal, you should have set up an outline of the statistical analysis of your experiment to determine whether or not you are able to test the factors you wish with the precision you desire. One of the best ways to do this is to write out the analysis of variance table (source of variation and df) and determine the appropriate error terms for testing the effects of interest. A cardinal rule is to be sure you can analyze the experiment yourself and will not require a statistician to do it for you--he might not be there when you need him. Another danger in this age of the computer and statistical programs, is to believe that you can just run the data through the statistical program and the data will be analyzed for you. While this is true to a certain extent, you must remember that the computer is a perfect idiot and does only what you tell it to do. Therefore, if you do not know what to tell the computer to do and/or of you don't know what the computer is doing, you may end up with a lot of useless output-garbage!! Also, there is the little matter of interpreting all the computer output that you can get in a very short time. This is your responsibility and you had better know what it is all about.

7.    Selection of suitable measuring instruments and control of bias in data collection: Measuring instruments should be sufficiently accurate for the precision required. Don't want a gram balance (scale) to weigh watermelons or sugarcane.
Experimental procedure should be free of personal bias, i.e., if treatment effects must be graded (subjective evaluation) such as in herbicide, or disease control experiments, the treatments should be randomized and the grader should not know what treatment he is grading until after he has graded it. Have two people do the data collection, one grade and the other record.

8.    Install experiment: Care should be taken in measuring treatment materials (fertilizers, herbicides, or other chemicals, food rations, etc.) and the application of treatments to the experimental units. Errors here can have disastrous effects on the experimental results. In field experiments, you should personally check the bags of fertilizer or seed of varieties which should be placed on each plot, to be certain that the correct fertilizers or variety will be applied to the correct plot before any fertilizer is applied or any seed planted. Once fertilizer is applied to a plot, it generally cannot be removed easily. With laboratory experiments or preparation of various rations for feeding trials, check calculations and reagents or ingredients, etc., and set up a system of formulating the treatments to minimize the possibility of errors.

9.    Collect Data: Careful measurements should be made with the appropriate instruments. It is better to collect too much data than not enough. Data should also be recorded properly in a permanent notebook. In many studies data collection can be quite rapid and before you know it you have data scattered in 6 notebooks, 3 folders, and 2 packs of paper towels!! When it is time to analyze the data, it is a formidable task, especially if someone has used the paper towels to dry their hands. Thus a little thought early in the experiment will save a lot of time and grief later. Avoid recording data on loose sheets at all costs as this is one good way to prolong your stay here by having to repeat experiments because the data were lost. Avoid fatigue in collecting data as errors increase as one gets tired. Also avoid recopying data as this is a major source of errors in experimental work. If data must be recopied, check figures against the originals immediately. It is better to have two people do the checking, one read the original data and the other read the copied data. When one person is making measurements and
another recording, have the person recording repeat the value being recorded. This will minimize errors.

10.    Make a complete analysis of the data: Be sure to have a plan of analysis, e.g., which analysis and in what order will they be done? Interpret the results in the light of the experimental conditions and hypotheses tested. Statistics do not prove anything and there is always the possibility that your conclusions may be wrong. One must consider the consequences of drawing an incorrect conclusion and modify the interpretation accordingly. Do not jump to a conclusion just because an effect is significant. This is especially so if the conclusion doesn't agree with previously established facts. The experimental data should be checked very carefully if this occurs, as the results must make sense!

10.    Finally, prepare a complete, correct, and readable report of the experiment. This may be a report to the farmer or researcher or an extension publication. There is no such thing as a negative result. If the null hypothesis is not rejected, it is positive evidence that there may be no real difference among the treatments tested. In summary, you should remember the 3 R's of experimentation:

1.    Replicate: This provides a measure of variation (an error term) which is used in evaluating the effects observed in the experiment. This is the only way that the validity of your conclusions from the experiment can be measured.

2.    Randomize: Statistical theory requires the assignment of treatments to the experimental units in a purely random manner. This prevents bias.

3.    Request Help: Ask for help when in doubt about how to design, execute or analyze your experiment. Not everyone is a statistician, but should know the important principles of scientific experimentation. Be on guard against common pitfalls and ask for help when you need it. Do this when planning an experiment, not after it is completed.
SELF- CHECK EXERCISE-2
Q1. What is the primary goal of controlling extraneous variables in an experiment?

a)    To increase the external validity of the study

b)    To ensure the independent variable is the only factor affecting the dependent variable

c)    To simplify the experimental procedure

d)    To provide more data for statistical analysis
Q2. Which element of experimental research involves systematically manipulating one or more variables?

a)    Hypothesis formulation

b)    Control groups

c)    Experimental design

d)    Data analysis
Q3.  An experiment investigating the effect of a new drug on blood pressure
includes a placebo group. The placebo group is an example of a __________.

a)    Dependent variable

b)    Experimental group

c)    Independent variable

d)    Control group

5.5    SUMMARY
Experimental research is a systematic method used to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables. Key elements include the independent variable, which is manipulated by the researcher, and the dependent variable, which is measured to observe the effects of this manipulation. The experimental group receives the treatment or manipulation, while the control group does not, serving as a baseline for comparison. Random assignment is crucial to ensure that participants are evenly distributed across groups, minimizing bias. Controlling extraneous variables is essential to ensure that any observed effects are due to the manipulation of the independent variable. By adhering to these principles, experimental research can produce reliable and valid results, contributing valuable insights to scientific knowledge.

5.6    GLOSSARY

1.    Dependent Variable: The variable that is measured to assess the effect of the
independent variable.

2.    Experimental Group: The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or
manipulation of the independent variable.

3.    Independent Variable: The variable that is manipulated by the researcher to
observe its effect on the dependent variable.

4.    Control Group: The group in an experiment that does not receive the
experimental treatment and serves as a baseline for comparison.

5.7    ANSWERS TO SELF- CHECK EXERCISEEXERCISE-1
Answer 1. c) A variable that is measured to assess the effect of the manipulation
Answer 2. b) Independent variable
EXERCISE-2
Answer1. b) To ensure the independent variable is the only factor affecting the dependent variable
Answer2. c) Experimental design
Answer3. d) Control group

5.8    REFERENCES / SUGGESTED READINGS

•    Best, J.W and J.V.Kahn, Research in Education (7th Ed.) New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt Ltd.1998

•    Sanswal, N.D. (2020). Research Methodology and Applied Statistics. (1st ed.). Shipra Publications.

•    Kaul, L. (2009). Methodology of Educational Research. (4th ed.). Vikas Publishing House Private Limited

5.9    TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Q.1 Explain the difference between the independent variable and the dependent variable in an experiment. Provide an example to illustrate your explanation.
Q.2 Describe the purpose and importance of a control group in experimental research. How does it help in interpreting the results of an experiment?
Q.3 What is random assignment, and why is it important in experimental research?
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